Contents

1 ACOUSTICS 1
1.1 Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 The Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.3 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Index 10

i
Chapter 1

ACOUSTICS

According to the frequency range, the mechanical waves are classified under infrasonic, audible and ultra-
sonic ranges. Mechanical waves with frequencies less than 20 Hz called infrasonic, occur as seismic waves
in earthquakes. Mechanical waves with frequencies of range 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz called audible frequencies,
which is the typical range of human hearing. Mechanical waves with frequencies higher than 20,000 Hz
called ultrasonics, which are used in signaling, detection of aircraft, submarine, depth of see etc. Sound is a
longitudinal mechanical waves with frequencies about 20 Hz to about 20,000 Hz which is belongs to audible
frequencies. It produces by a vibrating source. However, the branch of Physics and Engineering that deals
with the study of sound waves, is called Acoustics.

1.1 Beats
In this case we examine the superposition of two waves at a given point as a function of the time.
When two sound waves of nearly equal frequency and amplitude, travelling in the same direc-
tion, superimpose to each other, the resultant intensity of sound wave fluctuate by alternate maxima
and minima with respect to time. This phenomenon of periodic rise and fall of sound is called beats.

Analytical treatment
Let us choose two simple sinusoidal waveforms of slightly different angular frequencies ω1 and
ω2 , but for simplicity we take same amplitude of the waveforms. The equation of individual waves
are
y1 (t) = a sin ω1t (1.1)
and
y2 (t) = a sin ω2t (1.2)
According to the principle of superposition

y(t) = y1 (t) + y2 (t) = a sin ω1t + a sin ω2t.

Using trigonometric formula as (sin A + sin B) 1 we have

[ ( ) ] ( )
ω1 − ω2 ω1 + ω2
or y(t) = 2a cos t sin t. (1.3)
2 2

Comparing this equation with any of the Eqs. 1.1 or 1.2 we find the resultant wave is also a simple
1 sin A + sin B = 2 cos A−B A+B
2 sin 2

1
1.1 Beats Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

(a)
y1(t)

(b)
y2(t)

(c)

y(t)

P Q P Q P
Modulated wave
t

Figure 1.1: Figures (a) & (b) indicate two sinusoidal waveforms, (c) indicates the superposition of two
waveforms. Two waves (a) & (b) when superimpose in face gives the large amplitudes like
positions P, and when superimpose out of phase gives the minimum amplitudes like positions
Q.

sinusoidal wave with resultant amplitude

( )
ω1 − ω2
A = 2a cos t, (1.4)
2
which depends upon t. When the frequencies are nearly the same, the amplitude A of the resultant
vibration varies from a minimum to a maximum value with the time passes on about the average
angular frequency
ω1 + ω2
ωav = .
2
Let the amplitude factor varies with an angular frequency
ω1 − ω2
ωamp = ,
2
then the Eq. 1.3 can be written by

y(t) = [2a cos ωamp t] sin ωav t. (1.5)

Figure 1.1c shows the superposition of two waves which is represented by the Eq. 1.3. The overall
amplitude frequency ωamp , which defines an envelope (enclosed by the dashed lines) shown in
Fig. 1.1c within which the more rapid variation occurs. The phenomenon is a form of amplitude
modulation.
Since the intensity depends on the square of the amplitude,

i.e., here the intensity I ≈ A2 ≈ 4a2 cos2 ωamp t

the intensity of the loudness of sound varies producing very sharp and soft alternatively by an equal
interval of time.

Maximum intensity:
When the intensity of the sound will be maximum then it is said to be a beat.

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 2 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.1 Beats Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

Therefore, Imax = 4a2 ,

when cos ωamp t = ±1,
orωamp t = 0, π , 2π , .........,
ω1 − ω2
or t = 0, π , 2π , .........,
2
2π f1 − 2π f2
or t = 0, π , 2π , .........,
2
1 2
or t = 0, , , ......... (1.6)
f1 − f2 f1 − f2
Let the time interval between two consecutive beats is t second. Therefore, we can write
1
t sec. = ,
f1 − f2
1
or f1 − f2 = = fb ,
t sec.
or fb = f1 − f2 , (1.7)
where fb is called the beat frequency. Therefore, the number of beats per second is equal to the
difference of the frequencies of the component waves.
[Note:(a) When a tuning fork is loaded, its frequency decreases. (b) When a tuning fork is filed (smoothen
by a file), its frequency increases.
Consider two tuning forks P of known frequency and Q of unknown frequency with nearly same fre-
quency. They produced the number of beats fb per second. Let the frequency of P be f1 . Therefore, the
frequency of Q will be ( f1 ± fb ). Which will be the correct value of Q, ( f1 + fb ) or ( f1 − fb )? To find it the
tuning fork Q can be loaded with a little wax. When a tuning fork is loaded with wax, its frequency decreases.
If the number of beats per second increases, the original frequency of Q will be ( f1 − fb ). If the number of
beats per second decreases, the original frequency of Q will be ( f1 + fb ).]

Minimum intensity:
After a beat of sound the intensity will be minimum.
Therefore, Imin = 0,

when cos ωamp t = 0,

π 3π
or ωamp t =
, , ..........,
2 2
ω1 − ω2 π 3π
or t= , , ..........,
2 2 2
2π f 1 − 2 π f 2 π 3π
or t= , , ..........,
2 2 2
1 3
or t= , , ........., (1.8)
2( f1 − f2 ) 2( f1 − f2 )
Let the time interval between two consecutive minimum is t second. We can write
1
t sec. = .
f1 − f2
Therefore, the time intervals between two consecutive maxima and minima is the same. In
practice a maximum and then a minimum appear by alternatively.

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 3 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.2 The Doppler Effect Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

1.2 The Doppler Effect

Let us consider a listener and a source of sound is placed at a certain distance. The listener will
heard sound for a certain frequency (pitch). If the source of sound moves towards the listener or
away from the listener, or the listener moves towards the source or away from the source, or both
the source of sound or the listener moves towards or away from each other then the listener will
heard sound with different frequency than that of the stationary condition of source and listener.
This effect first observed by Cristian Johann Doppler and published in 1842. The apparent change
in frequency due to the relative motion between the source of sound and the listener is known as
Doppler effect.

1. Source at rest but observer in moving

Let a source of sound ‘S’ and an observer ‘O’ are placed in (x, y) frame of reference. Consider
some terms as follows

a) Velocity of sound → v

b) Velocity of source → vs

c) Velocity of observer → vo

d) Frequency of sound → f

e) Apparent frequency heard by the observer → f ′

f) Wave length of sound → λ

(i) Source at rest & observer is moving towards the source:

Figure 1.2 shows a source of sound S at rest and an observer O moving towards at a speed vo .
The circles represent wavefronts, spaced one wavelength apart, travelling through the medium. An
observer at rest in the medium would receive vt/λ waves in time t. Because of the motion of

y
λ

"
vo
"
vs=0
x
S
O

Figure 1.2: A stationary source of sound S emits spherical wavefronts, shown one wavelength apart. An
observer O, represented by the ear, moves with speed vo towards the source.

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 4 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.2 The Doppler Effect Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

observer towards the source, the observer receives vot/λ additional waves in this same time t.
The frequency f ′ that is actually heard by the observer is the number of waves received per unit
time, or
vt/λ + vot/λ v + vo v + vo
f′ = = = .
t λ v/ f
That is, ( )
′ v + vo
f =f . (1.9)
v
Therefore, the frequency f ′ heard by the observer is the frequency f heard at rest plus the increase
f (vo /v) arising from the motion of the observer.

(ii) Source at rest & observer is moving away from the source:
When the observer is in motion away from the stationary source, there is a decrease of waves vot/λ
in time t. The frequency f ′ that is actually heard by the observer is the number of waves received
per unit time, or
vt/λ − vot/λ v − vo v − vo
f′ = = = .
t λ v/ f
That is, ( )
′ v − vo
f =f . (1.10)
v
Hence the general relation holding when the source is at rest with respect to the medium but the
observer is moving through it is ( )
′ v ± vo
f =f , (1.11)
v
where the plus sign holds for motion towards the source and minus sign holds for motion away
from the source.

2. Observer at rest but source in moving

(i) Observer at rest & source is moving towards the observer:
Figure 1.3 shows that the source S is in motion to a stationary observer O. The effect is a shorten-
ing of the wavelength, because the source is following after the approaching waves, and the crest
therefore come closer together.
The wavelength of the source be λ = v/ f . Then during each vibration the source travels a
distance vs / f , and each wavelength is shortened by this amount.
Hence the wavelength of the sound arriving at the observer is not λ = v/ f but λ ′ = (v/ f −vs / f ).
The frequency of the sound heard by the observer is increased and it is given by
v v
f′ = ′
= ,
λ (v − vs )/ f
( )
′ v
or f =f . (1.12)
v − vs

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 5 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.3 Examples Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

vo= 0

λ
vs
x
S
O

Figure 1.3: The observer O is at rest, with the source S moving towards the it at speed vs .

(ii) Observer at rest & source is moving away from the observer:
If the source moves away from the observer, the wavelength of the sound arriving at the observer is
not λ = v/ f but a increased value λ ′′ = (v/ f + vs / f ). Hence the observed frequency is given by
v v
f′ = ′′
= ,
λ (v + vs )/ f
( )
′ v
or f =f . (1.13)
v + vs

3. Both observer and source in moving

(i) If the source and observer moving (along the line joining them) in the direction towards
each other:
The frequency heard by the observer is
( )
′ v + vo
f =f . (1.14)
v − vs

(ii) If the source and observer moving (along the line joining them) in the direction away each
other:
The frequency heard by the observer is
( )
′ v − vo
f =f . (1.15)
v + vs

1.3 Examples
Example 1.1: A tuning fork P of frequency 390 Hz produces 7 beats per second is sounded near
another fork Q. When some wax is loaded on Q then the number of beats per second gives 5. Find
the frequency of Q.

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 6 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.3 Examples Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

Solution: Frequency of P is 390 Hz. Beats per second is 7.

Therefore, frequency of the tuning fork Q is to be either (390+7)=397 Hz, or (390-7)=383 Hz.
After loading the tuning fork Q by wax, the beats per second is 5.
Therefore, the frequency of Q after loading be either (390+5)=395 Hz, or (390-5)=385 Hz.
Since after loading a tuning fork its frequency decreases, so before loading the tuning fork Q its
frequency was 397 Hz.
Example 1.2: A tuning fork P produces 4 beats per second with a tuning fork Q of frequency
260. P is filed and then beat occur at shorter intervals. What is its original frequency?
Solution: Frequency of Q is 260. Beats per second 4.
Therefore, frequency of P will either be (260+4)=264 or (260-4)=256. Now suppose the original
frequency of P is 264. When P is filed, its frequency will increase and it will stand with frequency
more than 264. Since fb = f1 ∼ f2 , the resultant beat frequency must increase. It is told that when
P is filed the beats occur at shorter intervals, it means beats per second is increased. Hence we can
say the original frequency of P is 264.
Example 1.3: A note produces 4 beats per second with a tuning fork of frequency 512 and 6
beats per second with a tuning fork of frequency 514. Find the frequency of the note.
Solution: Case 1: The frequency of the tuning fork is 512 and beats per second is 4.
Possible frequencies of the note be either (512+4)=516, or (512-4)=508.
Case 2: The frequency of the tuning fork is 514 and beats per second is 6.
Possible frequencies of the note be either (514+6)=520, or (514-6)=508.
Hence the frequency of the note is 508.
Example 1.4: The siren of a police car emits a pure tone at a frequency of 1125 Hz. Find the
frequency that you would perceive in your car under the following circumstances: (a) your car at
rest, police car moving towards you at 29 m/s; (b) police car at rest, your car moving towards it at
29 m/s; (c) you and the police car moving towards one another at 14.5 m/s; (d) you moving at 9
m/s, police car chasing behind you at 38 m/s.
Solution: (a) Here observer is at rest and source of sound is moving towards the observer, i.e.
v0 = 0 and vs = 29 m/s. Given that f = 1125 Hz. We take speed of sound in air v = 343 m/s.
Here we follow the Eq. 1.12
v 343 m/s
f′ = f = (1125 Hz) = 1229 Hz.
(v − vs ) 343 m/s − 29 m/s
(b) Here the source is rest, i.e. vs = 0 and the observer is moving towards the source, i.e.
v0 = 29 m/s. Given that f = 1125 Hz. We take speed of sound in air v = 343 m/s.
Here we follow the Eq. 1.9
v + vo 343 m/s + 29 m/s
f′ = f = (1125 Hz) = 1220 Hz.
v 343 m/s

(c) Here the source and observer are moving towards one another, i.e. vs = 14.5 m/s and
v0 = 14.5 m/s. Given that f = 1125 Hz. We take speed of sound in air v = 343 m/s.
Here we take the part of Eq. 1.14, as our requirement as
v + vo 343 m/s + 14.5 m/s
f′ = f = (1125 Hz) = 1224 Hz.
v − vs 343 m/s − 14.5 m/s

(d) Here the observer moving away the source with the speed v0 = 9 m/s, but the source is
moving towards the observer. So we can choose the appropriate formula to solve the problem as
v − vo 343 m/s − 9 m/s
f′ = f = (1125 Hz) = 1232 Hz.
v − vs 343 m/s − 38 m/s

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 7 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.3 Examples Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

Example 1.5: A person is standing near a railway track and a train moving with a speed
36 km/h is approaching him. The apparent pitch of the whistle as heard by the person is 700
Hz. Calculate the actual frequency of the whistle. The velocity of sound is 350 m/s.
Solution: Here v = 350 m/s, vs = 36 km/h = 10 m/s, f ′ = 700 Hz, f =?
If the observer is at rest and the source moves towards the observer then we have,
v
f′ = f ,
(v − vs )

(v − vs ) (350 m/s − 10 m/s)

or f = f′ = (700 Hz) = 680 Hz.
v 350 m/s
Example 1.6: A person is standing on a platform. A railway engine moving away from the
person with a speed 72 km/h blows a whistle of pitch 740 Hz. Calculate the apparent pitch of the
whistle as heard by the person. The velocity of sound is 350 m/s.
Solution:Here v = 350 m/s, vs = 72 km/h = 20 m/s, f = 740 Hz, f ′ =?
If the source moves away from the stationary observer, the observer heard the frequency is given
by
v 350 m/s
f′ = f = (740 Hz) = 700 Hz.
(v + vs ) (350 m/s + 20 m/s)
Example 1.7: The volume of a TV room in a student-hall is 600 m3 . The walls, floor and
ceiling areas are 220 m3 , 120 m3 and 120 m3 , respectively. The sound absorption coefficients for
walls is 0.03, for floor is 0.06 and for ceiling is 0.80. Calculate average sound absorption coefficient
and the reverberation time.
Solution: The average sound absorption coefficient,

∑ α A αw Aw + α f A f + αc Ac (0.03 × 220 + 0.06 × 120 + 0.80 × 120) m3

α= = = ,
∑A Aw + A f + Ac (220 + 120 + 120) m3

109.8
or α= = 0.2387.
460
The reverberation time is
0.158 V 0.158 × 600
t= = = 0.8634 s.
α ∑A 0.2387 × 460

Example 1.8: An auditorium of volume 3000 m3 has a reverberation time 0.6 s when empty. If
absorption power of each person occupying one seat is 0.6, what will be the reverberation time if
an audience of 400 persons is sitting there.
Solution: The reverberation time in M.K.S. system,
0.158 V
te = .
∑(α A)
0.158 V 0.158 × 3000
∴ The total absorption coefficient when empty, ∑(α A) =
te
=
0.6
= 790.

Total absorption with an audience of 400 persons, Mα = 0.6 × 400 = 240.

Total absorption of the auditorium with an audience of 400 persons,

∑(α A) + Mα = (790 + 240) = 1030.

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 8 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

1.3 Examples Chapter 1. ACOUSTICS

Now the reverberation time of the auditorium with an audience of 400 persons,
0.158 V 0.158 × 3000
ta = = = 0.4602 s.
∑(α A) + Mα 1030

Example 1.9: Find the reverberation time of a room 20 m long, 15 m wide and 3 m high. The
ceiling is acoustic, the walls are plaster, the floor is concrete. Fifty persons are present in the room.
Absorption coefficient for acoustic ceiling = 0.60, plaster = 0.03, concrete = 0.02 and absorption
power per person = 0.6.
Solution: The reverberation time in M.K.S. system for an empty room,
0.158 V
t= .
∑(α A)
The reverberation time of the room with present persons
0.158 V
ta =
∑(α A) + Mα

The volume of the room, V = 20 m × 15 m × 3 m = 900 m3 .

Total absorption without person,

∑(α A) = (αcAc + αwAw + α f A f )

= 0.60(20 m × 15 m) + 0.03[2(20 m × 3 m) + 2(15 m × 3 m)] + 0.02(20 m × 15 m)
= 0.60(300 m2 ) + 0.03(120 m2 + 90 m2 ) + 0.02(300 m2 ) = 180 + 6.3 + 6 = 192.3
Total absorption of 50 person, Mα = 0.6 × 50 = 30
Now we have,
0.158 V 0.158 × 900 0.158 × 900 142.2
ta = = = = = 0.6397 s.
∑(α A) + Mα 192.3 + 30 192.3 + 30 222.3
>≈>≈>≈>≈>≈>≈>≈>

Dr. Md. Kamal-Al-Hassan 9 Dept. of Physics, DUET, Gazipur

Index

Acoustics, 1
Audible range, 1

Beats, 1

Doppler effect, 4

Infrasonic, 1

Ultrasonic, 1

10