COMMON HYDROPHYTES AS BIOINDICATORS OF NICKEL,

CHROMIUM AND CADMIUM POLLUTION

R. ZURAYK1∗ , B. SUKKARIYAH1 and R. BAALBAKI2

1 Department of Soils, Irrigation, and Mechanization, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences,
American University of Beirut, Lebanon; 2 Department of Crop Production and Protection, Faculty
of Agricultural and Food Sciences, American University of Beirut, Lebanon
(∗ author for correspondence, e-mail: rzurayk@aub.edu; fax: 961 1 744 460)

(Received 20 August 1999; accepted 18 May 2000)

Abstract. Twelve Mediterranean hydrophyte species collected in Lebanon were evaluated for their
potential as bioindicator species for heavy metal pollution in nutrient cultures enriched with 1 ppm
Cr, Ni and Cd. These were: Nasturtium officinale R.Br, Apium nodiflorum L., Veronica beccabunga
L., Veronica anagallis aquatica L., Veronica lysimachioides L., Veronica anagalloides L., Mentha
longifolia L., Mentha aquatica L., Mentha pulegium L., Potentilla reptans L., Mentha sylvestris
L., and Cardamine uliginosa L.. Large variability in response to exposure to the heavy metals was
observed. Growth rates remained high during the experimental period, indicating that the plants were
little affected by the presence of the metal at the experimental concentration. Metal accumulation and
bioconcentration varied within at least one order of magnitude, and ranged from less than 10 to over
200. Cr was preferentially accumulated in the roots. All species but M. pulegium, P. reptans and V.
anagallis aquatica accumulated and bioconcentrated sufficient Cr to qualify as bioindicator species.
Five of the species that accumulated Cr also accumulated Ni, with the same partitioning into the root.
These were: N. officinale, C. uliginosa sp., M. longifolia, M. aquatica and M. sylvestris, all of which
may also be used as bioindicators of Ni pollution. Only one species, M. aquatica, accumulated Cd
significantly, and may, therefore, be used as a bioindicator for all three metals.

Keywords: bioindicators, Cd, Cr, heavy metals, hydropyhtes, Ni, pollution, water

1. Introduction

Detecting environmental pollution using biological material as indicators is a cheap,

reliable and simple alternative to the conventional sampling methods. A number
of organisms such as mollusks and fish (Porvari, 1995), mosses and periphyton
(Siebert et al., 1996; Whitton and Kelly, 1995) and vascular plants (Mersh and
Johanson, 1993) have been successfully used. The use of rooted plants appears to
be particularly promising as they can accumulate metals from soil, sediments and
water. The plants act as diffuse samplers, accumulating pollutants to a higher con-
centration than their surroundings. Because they absorb minerals continuously over
time, they also integrate pollution peaks, such as wastewater discharges, and can
therefore be used for monitoring surges of heavy metals in water. Recent reports
have demonstrated the success of this approach in monitoring the status of heavy

Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 127: 373–388, 2001.

© 2001 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands.
374 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

metal contamination in rivers and wetlands (Friant, 1979; Greger and Kautsky,
1993; Rai et al., 1996; Shine et al., 1998; Zhulidov, 1996).
Plant species vary in their capacity to remove and accumulate heavy metals.
There are reports indicating that some species may accumulate specific heavy
metals, such as the hydrophytes Salvinia natans for Hg and Spirodela polyrhiza
for Zn (Sen and Mondal, 1987; Sharma and Gaur, 1995). Other species are repor-
ted to be unspecific accumulators of various heavy metals. For instance, coontail
(Ceratophyllum demersum L.) and giant duckweed (Spirodela polyrhiza L.) were
shown to accumulate appreciable amounts of Cu, Cr, Fe, Mn, Cd and Pb (Rai et
al., 1995a).
Brassica juncea, B. rapa and B. napus were found to be similar in their removal
of Cu and Zn, although cumulative uptake of Zn was higher than Cu in all three spe-
cies (Ebbs and Kochian, 1997). Differences also exist among plants as to whether
the removed metal is accumulated in the root or translocated to the shoot. Kumar et
al. (1995) screened 12 plant species (Brassica juncea L., B. nigra L., B. campestris
L., B. napus L., B. oleracea, L. Helianthus annuus L., Nicotiana tabacum L.,
Sorghum bicolor L., Amaranthus hybridus L., A. paniculata L., Zea mays L.) for
lead removal from nutrient solutions. Brassica plants generally removed more Pb
than the other species, with B. juncea being the best remover. Most of the removed
Pb was accumulated in the roots. Further screening with 106 different cultivars of
B. juncea showed great variation in uptake, accumulation and root-shoot transloca-
tion of Pb, indicating a wide genetic variability in the ability to accumulate Pb. In a
similar experiment, Brown et al. (1995) compared the Zn and Cd uptake of Thlaspi
caerulescens (J.&C. Presl), Silene vulgaris L. and Lycopersicon lycopersicum L. T.
caerulescens showed superior accumulation, with significant translocation of both
metals to the shoot.
Hydrophytes (plant species inhabiting the water or the ground surface on the
water vicinity where anaerobic conditions can develop) show similar metal-remo-
ving characteristics to terrestrial plant species. They may, however, be more useful
for monitoring environmental pollution at the interface between aquatic and ter-
restrial ecosystems. The ability of hydrophytes to remove and accumulate trace
metals has been amply demonstrated. Salvinia molesta (Mitch) removed Cr and
Ni more effectively than Spirodela polyrhiza (Schleid) when grown in a solution
culture containing up to 8 ppm Cr and Ni (Srivastav et al., 1994). Another hy-
drophyte, Bacopa monnieri, was found to accumulate Cu preferentially over Cd
in both roots and shoots (Sinha and Chandra, 1990). While Azolla pinnata R.Br.
and Lemna minor L., both floating hydrophytes, removed Pb preferentially from a
Pb/Zn enriched solution, A. pinnata had a higher uptake rate for both Pb and Zn
(Jain et al., 1990). L. minor was also shown to be a good accumulator of Cd, Se and
Cu, a moderate accumulator of Cr and a poor accumulator of Ni and Pb (Zayed et
al., 1998). Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes L.) has been intensively studied as
a bioindicator, and is reported to effectively concentrate a number of contaminants
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 375

within a broad concentration range such as Sr, V, As, Sb, P, B, and I (Abdel-Sabour
et al., 1997), As, Cd, Pb, Cr, and Zn (Shine et al., 1998, Delgado et al., 1993).
It appears, therefore, that the concept of utilizing plants as bioindicators is a
practical possibility for monitoring water and wetland environments. Much of the
current research, however, focuses on using plants from humid or tropical regions,
with very few reports addressing the specific case of xeric or Mediterranean envir-
onments. These environments are characterized by prolonged seasonal droughts,
during which most rivers and wetlands dry-up, thereby prohibiting the use of the
obligate hydrophytes common to more humid environments. There is, therefore, a
need for identifying plants that can be used for bio-monitoring in xeric environ-
ments. Thus, the objectives of this study were:

1. To evaluate the potential of some dominant hydrophytes originating from the

eastern Mediterranean region for accumulation of Cd, Ni and Cr.
2. To select candidate plant species that can be used as bioindicators of Cd, Ni
and Cr pollution.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. H YDROPHYTES COLLECTION

Twelve hydrophytes were collected from the wild from two different locations in
the Bekaa valley, in Lebanon, on the Eastern Mediterranean (35◦ 470 E, 34◦ 380 N):
the Aamiq wetlands and the banks of the river Assi (the Orontes).The plants were
selected on the basis of their relative abundance in the location, their presence in
different sites, and their relatively large size (biomass).
The twelve identified plant species were Nasturtium officinale R.Br, Apium
nodiflorum L., Veronica beccabunga L., Veronica anagallis-aquatica L., Veron-
ica lysimachioides L., Veronica anagalloides L., Mentha longifolia L., Mentha
aquatica L., Mentha pulegium L., Potentiella reptans L., Mentha sylvestris L.,
and Cardamine uliginosa L. All plants are facultative hydrophytes. Some, like
Nasturtium officinale R.Br. and Apium nodiflurum L. spend most of the year in
a semi-submerged state. These plants are not exclusive to Lebanon, and are widely
distributed in the Eastern Mediterranean (Post, 1932). The weather in the area
ranges from semi-arid to arid. The average annual precipitation in the collection
region ranges between 210 and 613 mm, falling mostly between October and April.
Relative humidity ranges from an average low of 44% in the month of June to an
average high of 74% in January. Temperatures vary from an average low of 5.5 ◦ C
in January to an average high of 24.9 ◦ C in August. Following collection, each
plant specie was maintained separately in halfstrength Hoagland’s solution.
376 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

2.2. E XPERIMENTAL SET- UP

A continuously aerated container batch system was selected for the experiment.
The setup consisted of three 10-L plastic containers, plastic tubing, and air pumps.
Transplants of similar sizes and weight (13 g±1) from each plant specie were
exposed to individual metal concentrations of 1 mg L−1 of Cr, Ni and Cd in full
strength Hoagland’s nutrient solution. Cr, Ni, and Cd were supplied as K2 Cr2 O7 ,
NiCl2 ·6H2 O, and Cd(NO3 )2 ·4H2 O. The solution was changed every three days.
Three replicate groups of plants in a completely randomized design were monitored
for a period of three weeks. Plant roots were separated daily to prevent interspecies
contamination.

2.3. T ESTS

The criteria used for plant selection included fast growth rate, high biomass ac-
cumulation, and efficiency of trace metal uptake. The growth rate was calculated
as

N − N0
GR (g g−1 day−1 ) =
N0∗ t,

where N is the final fresh weight of the plant, N0 is the initial weight of the plant,
and t is the length of the growing period.
The extent of metal uptake was evaluated by determining the bioconcentration
factor (BCF), which is directly related to an element’s recovery. Recovery is gen-
erally defined as the total amount of a specific element in the plant, calculated
by multiplying the tissue concentration of trace element (mg kg−1 ) by the total
plant biomass (kg plant−1 ). The BCF, often used to assess metal uptake potential,
is defined as the ratio of concentration of the trace element in tissues (mg kg−1 )
to the initial trace element concentration in the feed solution (mg kg−1 ). In this
experiment, the BCF of a certain element is always equal to its tissue concentration
since the initial trace element concentration in the feed solution was 1 mg kg−1 .

2.4. P LANT SAMPLING

Plants were harvested at the end of each culture period. The collected plant samples
were washed with tap water, blotted dry, and weights of roots and shoots were
recorded. The plant materials were then rewashed in two lots of distilled water
followed by thorough rinsing, oven dried at 70 ◦ C for 48 hr, and their dry weight
recorded. Dried plant samples were ground to pass a 20 mesh sieve, and the ground
tissues were placed in clean glass bottles and dried for an additional 24 hr at 65 ◦ C
to remove any moisture absorbed during the particle size reduction step. The bottles
were sealed and placed in a cool dry room.
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 377

2.5. D IGESTION

Nitric acid digestion was chosen to wet ash the sample following the procedure of
Zarcinas et al. (1987). Individual plant samples of known weight were transferred
to 100 mL Pyrex beakers. Ten mL of concentrated (70%) nitric acid (Merck reagent
grade) were then added to each beaker. Beakers were then covered with a watch
glass, transferred directly to the thermostatic hot plate, and heated for 45 min at
90 ◦ C. The temperature was then increased to 140 ◦ C and digestion continued
until 1 mL of acid remained. The beakers were then taken away from heat, left
to cool, the solution diluted with 1% nitric acid to a volume of 20 mL, and stored
in conditioned plastic bottles.

2.6. C ONDITIONING

Reagent bottles, volumetric ware (plastic and Pyrex), and digestion beakers were
cleaned before usage by washing with detergent solution, rinsing with flowing tap
water, and again rinsing with distilled water. Afterwards, they were soaked with
1% nitric acid overnight, well rinsed with double distilled water, and oven dried at
60 ◦ C.

2.7. C ALIBRATION

A single calibration curve per element was established with a set of standard solu-
tions at nominal concentrations of 0, 5, 20, 50, 100, and 200 µg L−1 . The standards
were prepared by diluting an appropriate volume of 1000 PPM standard stock
solution in 1% nitric acid to a final volume of 100 mL. The standards were then
transferred to 50 mL plastic tubes and run on an ICP-MS (Hewlett Packard 4500
series). The linearity of calibration curves were always checked. All curves had
a coefficient of linearity, r, equal to or greater than 0.997. Fresh standards were
prepared any time calibration curves needed to be constructed. Only stock solutions
were stored.

2.8. M ETAL DETERMINATION

Exactly one milliliter of sample solution was transferred to a 15 mL plastic cent-

rifuge tube, and 9 mL of 1% nitric acid were then added and thoroughly mixed.
Samples were then aspirated to the ICP for the determination of the heavy metals
in question.
Samples with concentrations above the detection range of the machine were
diluted to fit within the range of the calibration curve. The accuracy of dilution was
checked by diluting known standards.
Stability of response of the machine was checked after each sample by examin-
ing the internal standard which has to be relatively constant throughout the run.
If response deviated from normal, then the sample was run again. The accuracy
378 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

of sample preparation was checked by preparing duplicates of the same sample

origin and run on the ICP. Sample spiking was used to test the accuracy of sample
digestion. Spikes of known concentration were added to samples either before the
digestion steps or to the already digested samples. To check the possibility of con-
tamination resulting from the glassware or the acid, nitric acid samples, without
the addition of any plant material, were digested following the same procedure.

2.9. R EAGENTS AND STANDARDS

Nitric acid (1%) was used for the preparation of samples and standards. It was also
used for all the dilution and conditioning of lab wares. One percent nitric acid was
prepared by making appropriate dilutions of analytical grade 100% reagent pure
nitric acid (Merck reagent grade). All water used was triple distilled. Concentrated
nitric acid used for digestion was 70% w/w (Merck reagent grade). Yttrium and
scantium solutions were used as internal standards.
Standard stock solutions used for the preparation of curves were made of po-
tassium dichromate, nickel nitrate, cadmium metal, and lead nitrate in 1% nitric
acid.

2.10. T HE CULTURE SOLUTION

Individual metal ion stock solutions 1000 mg L−1 of Cr (K2 Cr2 O7 ; 2.828 g L−1 ), Ni
(NiCl2 ·6H2 O; 4.05 g L−1 ), and Cd (Cd(NO3 )2 ·4H2 O; 2.744 g L−1 ) were prepared
using distilled water. Metal enriched culture solutions for the experiments were
made by diluting the appropriate volume of the stock solution into a known volume
of the culture solution. The full strength culture solution contained N:56 mg L−1 ;
P: 15.5 mg L−1 ; K: 58.75 mg L−1 ; Ca: 40 mg L−1 ; Mg: 6 mg L−1 ; S: 8 mg L−1 ; B:
0.27 mg L−1 ; Cl: 1.77 mg L−1 ; Mn: 0.11 mg L−1 ; Cu: 0.032 mg L−1 ; Zn: 0.131 mg
L−1 ; Mo: 0.05 mg L−1 and Fe: 1.12 mg L−1 .

2.11. S TATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Statistical analysis of variance was performed using the MSTATC statistical pack-
age version for Personal Computers. Treatment means were separated using Dun-
can’s Multiple Range Test.

3. Results and Discussion

In order to qualify as a bioindicator species, a plant must be able to: (a) grow
unaffected in the presence of the pollutant, indicated by the plant’s growth rate,
(b) accumulate the pollutant in its tissue, indicated by the pollutant concentration
in plant tissues, and (c) concentrate the pollutant in its tissues to a level significantly
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 379
TABLE I
Growth and biomass accumulation of 12 hydrophytes grown for 21 days in solution
cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Cr

Species Biomass FW1 Root DW2 Shoot DW GR3

(g g−1 d−1 )

A. nodiflorum 56.210 1.327 5.140 0.201d4

C. uliginosa 61.630 1.237 5.760 0.218c
M. aquatica 59.793 1.687 4.996 0.231b
M. longifolia 76.420 2.220 6.207 0.276a
M. pulegium 42.253 1.175 3.823 0.155f
M. sylvestris 62.207 1.753 5.367 0.218c
N. officinale 56.610 1.177 5.303 0.200d
P. reptans 13.453 0.523 1.610 0.063j
V. anagalloides 33.533 0.727 3.457 0.125h
V. anagallis aquatica 32.103 0.753 3.317 0.117i
V. beccabunga 41.660 0.963 3.930 0.153g
V. lysimachioides 45.280 0.973 4.397 0.163e
1 FW = Fresh Weight (g).
2 DW = Dry Weight (g).
3 GR = Growth Rate.
4 Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different
according to Duncan’s Multiple Range Test (p < 0.05).

higher than that of its immediate surroundings. This is indicated by the bioconcen-
tration factor (BCF). The results of this experiment will therefore be presented and
discussed according to these three parameters.

3.1. C HROMIUM

3.1.1. Growth
All species appeared to grow well in the presence of chromium, without visible
signs of toxicity. The growth rates ranged between 0.117 and 0.276 g−1 day−1
except for P. reptans, which had a low growth rate of 0.063 g−1 day−1 (Table I).
These values compare well with those of fast growing plants, such as Spirodela,
for which a growth rate of 0.1–0.35 g−1 day−1 has been reported (Leopold and
Kriedderman, 1975).

3.1.2. Chromium Accumulation

3.1.2.1. Whole Plants. Nine out of the twelve tested species showed significant
chromium accumulation ranging between 22 and 151 mg kg−1 on a whole plant
basis, with bioconcentration factors (BCF) ranging over more than one order of
magnitude (Table II). Analysis of Variance (data not shown) indicated that the
380 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

TABLE II
Bioconcentration factor and accumulation of Cr in 12 hydrophytes grown for 21 days in
solution cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Cr

Species Root BCF1,2 Shoot BCF1,2 Cr Plant BCF1,2

(µg plant−1 )

A. nodiflorum 257de3 27ab 468.6c 74.2d

C. uliginosa 674a 17abc 909.7ab 133.1ab
M. aquatica 242de 21abc 502.0c 76.8d
M. longifolia 455bc 11cd 1076.8a 128.0b
M. pulegium 43f 19abc 52.3d 10.5f
M. sylvestris 162ef 26ab 425.6c 59.6de
N. officinale 762a 15bcd 966.6ab 150.7a
P. reptans 31f 19abc 46.9d 21.9ef
V. anagalloides 389cd 29a 378.7c 24.6ef
V. anagallis aquatica 37f 7cd 49.9d 12.5f
V. beccabunga 599ab 3d 764.2b 120.3b
V. lysimachioides 372cd 28ab 489.1c 90.3c
1 BCF = Bioconcentration Factor. Defined as the ratio of the concentration of the element
in the plant tissues (mg kg−1 ) to the initial concentration of the element in the feed solution
(mg kg−1 ).
2 As the solution concentration is equal to 1; the BCF = Cr accumulation in plants.
3 Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different according
to Duncan’s Multiple range Test (p < 0.05).

difference between species in terms of chromium accumulation accounted for a

significant part (p < 0.01) of total variation. The most efficient accumulators
were N. officinale (150.7 mg kg−1 ), C. uliginosa (133.1 mg kg−1 ), M. longifolia
(128.0 mg kg−1 ), and V. beccabunga (120.3 mg kg−1 ). These values are comparable
with published values for species used in metal uptake studies. Water hyacinth
(E. crassipes L.), a plant commonly used as a metal bioindicator, was reported to
accumulate between 50 and 150 mg kg−1 of Cr (Jana, 1988). Similarly, muskgrass
accumulated 160–870 mg kg−1 (Gang and Chandra, 1990), C. corallina accumu-
lated 299 mg kg−1 , and H. verticillata 228 mg kg−1 after 7 days of exposure (Rai
et al., 1995b). N. officinale, C. uliginosa and V. beccabunga also had the highest
bioconcentration factors (BCF).

3.1.2.2. Partitioning and Root Accumulation. Chromium was mostly accumu-

lated in the roots of all the studied species, but the ratio of root to shoot accumu-
lation varied with the species (Table II). Root accumulation was greater than shoot
accumulation by a factor of 2 in P. reptans, and up to a factor of 50 in N. offi-
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 381

cinale. Highest root accumulation (600–762 mg kg−1 ) was reached for Nasturtium
officinale, C. uliginosa and V. beccabunga.
These values compare well with values reported for Cr accumulation in the
roots of plants recommended for use in the removal of Cr from water. Roots of S.
lacustris L. and B. monnieri L. accumulated 950 and 410 mg kg−1 Cr, respectively,
when grown in solution cultures containing 1 mg. L−1 Cr for 5 days ( Gupta et al.,
1994). Similarly P. stratiotes roots accumulated 800 to 1060 mg kg−1 after 3 and
5 days, respectively (Sen et al., 1987). B. juncea grown in solution culture with
4 mg L−1 Cr accumulated 710 mg kg−1 in its roots and had a root BCF of 179
(Dushenkov et al., 1995).
The low accumulation in shoots observed in all species indicates minimal root-
shoot translocation. This mechanism of partitioning is a common strategy of plants
that concentrate harmful ions in the roots in order to prevent toxicity to the leaves,
sites of photosynthesis and other metabolic activities. A similar mechanism is ex-
hibited by plants in the presence of other phytotoxic ions, such as Na (Steven et al.,
1998).
The preferential accumulation of Cr is in agreement with earlier reports that
showed that chromium is mostly accumulated in roots (Gupta et al., 1994; Rai
et al., 1995b). Sigel (1973) reported that Cr(III) forms a complex with -COOH
groups in the roots preventing its translocation to shoots. This may suggest that
Cr(VI) (the form added to the solution) was reduced to Cr(III) in the roots of plants.
Dushenkov et al. (1995) demonstrated by X-Ray absorbance spectroscopy analysis
that B. juncea roots exposed to Cr(VI) contained mainly Cr(III), indicating that B.
juncea roots effectively reduced chromate.
It may therefore be deduced that among the twelve plant species evaluated, all
but M. pulegium, P. reptans and V. anagallis aquatica may be used as bioindicators
of Cr pollution as both their growth rates and BCF are high, indicating a potential
for removal and accumulation of chromium. The most promising species are N.
officinale, C. uliginosa sp., V. beccabunga, and M. longifolia.

3.2. N ICKEL

3.2.1. Growth
The growth trend of the 12 species in the presence of nickel was similar to that
observed in the presence of chromium. Similarly, high growth rates and biomass
accumulation were observed. P. reptans showed the lowest growth rate and biomass
values (Table III).

3.2.2. Nickel Accumulation

3.2.2.1. Whole Plants. Nickel accumulation in the 12 species was highly vari-
able, and ranged between 4.5 mg kg−1 and 234 mg kg−1 (Table IV). Only two
plants, M. aquatica and M. sylvestris, accumulated nickel in relatively large quant-
ities (234 mg kg−1 and 186 mg kg−1 , same BCF, values not statistically different).
382 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

TABLE III
Growth and biomass accumulation of 12 hydrophytes grown for 21 days in solution
cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Ni

Species Biomass FW1 Root DW2 Shoot DW GR3

(g g−1 d−1 )

A. nodiflorum 50.220 1.339 4.470 0.179cde4

C. uliginosa 61.863 1.150 5.900 0.223bc
M. aquatica 70.193 1.910 5.833 0.258ab
M. longifolia 83.290 2.530 6.637 0.296a
M. pulegium 69.593 1.623 6.173 0.262ab
M. sylvestris 71.563 1.887 5.997 0.256ab
N. officinale 63.017 1.160 5.930 0.228bc
P. reptans 13.824 0.553 1.637 0.064f
V. anagalloides 38.893 1.133 3.513 0.151de
V. anagallis aquatica 38.130 1.107 3.573 0.136e
V. beccabunga 55.537 1.367 4.870 0.205bcd
V. lysimachioides 49.510 1.376 4.467 0.175cde
1 FW = Fresh Weight (g).
2 DW = Dry Weight (g).
3 GR = Growth Rate.
4 Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different
according to Duncan’s Multiple range Test (p < 0.05).

These values are generally comparable with accumulation in other Ni-accumulating

hydrophytes, and indicate tolerance to Ni as levels above 50 mg kg−1 are con-
sidered to be toxic to most plants (NAS, 1975). Jain et al. (1988) reported accumu-
lation of Ni in duckweed reaching 460 mg kg−1 , while Lee et al. (1981) calculated
BCFs of 110 and 150 for bulrush and nutgrass, respectively.

3.2.2.2. Partitioning and Root Accumulation. Ni accumulated mostly in the roots,

reaching levels 2 to 50 times greater than those of shoots. Only M. sylvestris
accumulated significant quantities (131 mg kg−1 ) in the shoots indicating some
translocation. All other shoot accumulation values were lower than 56 mg kg−1 .
This fractionation pattern concurs with earlier reports (Sen et al., 1993), although
the restriction of shoot entry is not observed in all species. Similar differences
between plant species with respect to nickel uptake and root to shoot transport
have been observed. Kramer et al. (1997) found that total Ni was higher in the hy-
peraccumulator Thlaspi goesingense than in the non-accumulator Thlaspi arvense
after 6 days exposure to 0.6 ppm Ni, although shoot Ni accumulation was similar in
both species. When total shoot Ni normalized to root biomass was calculated, this
difference disappeared, indicating that hyperaccumulation was not due to enhanced
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 383
TABLE IV
Bioconcentration factor and accumulation of Ni in 12 hydrophytes grown for 21 days in
solution cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Ni

Species Root BCF1,2 Shoot BCF1,2 Ni Plant BCF1,2

(µg plant−1 )

A. nodiflorum ND3 ND ND ND
C. uliginosa 239b 25b 419.2d 59.9c
M. aquatica 620a 44b 1440.7b 186.0b
M. longifolia 209b4 23b 676.8c 74.0c
M. pulegium 23c ND 37.2e 4.5d
M. sylvestris 564a 131a 1822.0a 234.6a
N. officinale 184b 56b 542.8cd 76.9c
P. reptans 18c 53b 100.4e 44.0c
V. anagalloides ND ND ND ND
V. anagallis aquatica ND ND ND ND
V. beccabunga ND ND ND ND
V. lysimachioides 49c ND 67.7e 11.5d
1 BCF = Bioconcentration Factor: is defined as the ratio of the concentration of the element
in the plant tissues (mg kg−1 ) to the initial concentration of the element in the feed solution
(mg kg−1 ).
2 As the solution concentration is equal to 1; the BCF = Ni accumulation in plants.
3 ND = Non Detectable.
4 Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different according
to Duncan’s Multiple range Test (p < 0.05).

rates of root to shoot Ni transport. Hyperaccumulation was related to the ability to

survive unaffected in high Ni environments and to the ability to mobilize poorly
available soil metals for plant uptake. Cataldo et al. (1978) studied nickel uptake
into intact soybean plants. They found that most of the apoplasmic Ni(II) was
bound ionically to fixed negative charges in the cell wall. Sigel (1973) reported that
Ni(II) possibly forms a protein complex with sulfhydryl groups that are strongly
bonded in roots, decreasing translocation into the shoot system.
It appears, therefore, that N. officinale, C. uliginosa sp., M. longifolia, M. aquat-
ica and M. sylvestris may be used effectively as bioindicator species. Moreover, as
M. sylvestris accumulates Ni in the shoot, it may be used as an indicator specie in
media where root recovery is difficult, such as contaminated soils.
384 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

TABLE V
Growth and biomass accumulation of 12 hydrophytes grown for 21 days in solution
cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Cd

Species Biomass FW1 Root DW2 Shoot DW GR3

(g g−1 d−1 )

A. nodiflorum 53.690 1.220 4.597 0.181f4

C. uliginosa 53.473 1.120 4.933 0.191e
M. aquatica 57.130 1.660 4.827 0.218b
M. longifolia 63.390 1.967 5.313 0.234a
M. pulegium 39.753 1.080 3.467 0.162g
M. sylvestris 56.517 1.590 4.833 0.211c
N. officinale 52.037 1.100 4.750 0.197d
P. reptans 12.113 0.527 1.580 0.055l
V. anagalloides 29.600 0.650 3.143 0.107k
V. anagallis aquatica 29.707 0.740 3.030 0.110j
V. beccabunga 38.363 0.917 3.580 0.143i
V. lysimachioides 42.193 0.940 4.140 0.156h
1 FW = Fresh Weight.
2 DW = Dry Weight.
3 GR = Growth Rate.
4 Means within a column followed by the same letter are not significantly different
according to Duncan’s Multiple range Test (p < 0.05).

3.3. C ADMIUM

3.3.1. Growth
The growth trend of the 12 species in the presence of cadmium was similar to that
observed with nickel and chromium, that is no apparent growth restriction or signs
of injury. As with Cr and Ni, P. reptans achieved limited growth (Table V).

3.3.2. Cadmium Accumulation

3.3.2.1. Whole Plants. Unlike chromium and nickel, only one species accumu-
lated cadmium from the solution. Values for whole plants were all below detection
levels of the instrument (4 ppm) except for M. aquatica and for the slow growing
P. reptans. Although values for Cd accumulation were large in the shoot and roots
of P. reptans (Table VI), its small size and the little available biomass for analysis
complicated the analytical procedures and might have introduced errors in quan-
tifying cadmium content. M. aquatica was able to bioconcentrate Cd significantly
in both its shoots and roots, but the accumulation was generally lower than that
reported by other authors (Table VI). Sinha and Chandra (1990) reported accumu-
lation values of 1192 mg kg−1 in the roots of B. monnieri and 360 mg kg−1 in the
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 385
TABLE VI
Bioconcentration factor and accumulation of Ni in 12 hydrophytes grown for 21 days in
solution cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Cd

Species Root BCF1,2 Shoot BCF1,2 Cd Plant BCF1,2

(µg plant−1 )

A. nodiflorum ND3 ND ND ND
C. uliginosa ND ND ND ND
M. aquatica 214 52 606.2 93.5
M. longifolia ND ND ND ND
M. pulegium ND ND ND ND
M. sylvestris ND ND ND ND
N. officinale ND ND ND ND
P. reptans 1040 217 890.9 422.8
V. anagalloides ND ND ND ND
V. anagallis aquatica ND ND ND ND
V. becabunga ND ND ND ND
V. lysimachioides ND ND ND ND
1 BCF = Bioconcentration Factor: is defined as the ratio of the concentration of the element
in the plant tissues (mg kg−1 ) to the initial concentration of the element in the feed solution
(mg L−1 ).
2 As the solution concentration is equal to 1; the BCF = Cd accumulation in plants.
3 ND = Non Detectable.

shoot, while H. verticillata and C. corallina accumulated 385 and 315 mg kg−1 ,
respectively, in the whole plant tissue (Rai et al., 1995b).

TABLE VII
Correlation coefficients between various metal accumulation
parameters and growth parameters of 12 hydrophytes grown
for 21 days in solution cultures supplemented with 1 ppm Cr
or 1 ppm Ni

Concentration BCF
Cr Ni Cr Ni

Plant fresh weight 0.744a 0.481 0.691a 0.357

Plant dry weight 0.738a 0.506 0.665a 0.385
Growth rate 0.734a 0.472 0.659a 0.351

a Significance at p = 0.01.
386 R. ZURAYK ET AL.

3.4. S YNTHESIS
A comprehensive analysis of the data indicates the following:

i. The growth rates of all species remained high at 1 ppm metal in the nutrient
solution, indicating that this concentration is tolerable by all plants under study,
and that their expressed potential was probably not hindered by injury.
ii. The metal that was most commonly accumulated was Cr (9 species) followed
by Ni (5 species) and then Cd (1 or 2 species). All the species that accumulated
Ni also accumulated Cr, but the opposite was not true. M. aquatica, which
accumulated Cr, Ni and Cd is the most promising as a single indicator of
pollution by the three metal species.
iii. Correlation analysis was performed between various growth and accumula-
tion parameters (Table VII). The results clearly show that Cr accumulation
and bioconcentration can be attributed to the sink effect of the plant as a
whole, as indicated by the highly significant positive correlations between ac-
cumulation parameters and plant growth parameters. On the other hand, Ni
bioaccumulation is apparently dependent on a physiological mechanism as
no correlation could be found between accumulation parameters and growth
parameters. Kramer et al. (1997) reported that very few species occurring on
Ni-rich soils accumulated Ni in large amounts, probably due to an exclusion
mechanism.
iv. None of the species was able to bioconcentrate any of the metals in their above
ground biomass to the levels usually reported for hyperaccumulators. However,
the very large bioconcentration in the roots of some of the species, their aquatic
growth habits and their high growth rates makes them good candidates for use
in the water decontamination process known as rhizofiltration. This potential
will be evaluated in further studies.

4. Conclusion

The use of bioindicator plants for monitoring environmental pollution by Ni, Cr

and Cd may be the only feasible option for resource conservation in water-scarce
and budget-limited countries. We have, based on this study, selected from a pool of
12 common species of hydrophytes adapted to semi-arid environments, those that
can serve as bioindicators for Ni, Cd and Cr pollution. These include Nasturtium
officinale, Mentha longifolia, Mentha aquatica and Mentha sylvestris. M. aquatica
is specially interesting as it may be used for detecting contamination by all three
metals.
The relevance of these findings is enhanced by the fact that these species have
important ethnobotanical uses in Lebanon, including use as food or as medicinal
plants (Philips, 1957). For instance, Nasturtium officinale is harvested and con-
sumed as a salad green. It has also medicinal attributes, and the macerated leaves
 BIOINDICATOR HYDROPHYTES FOR Ni, Cr AND Cd POLLUTION 387

are used as a component for skin lotions. Apium nodiflorum L. Lag. is also harves-
ted. The seeds are used as a carminative, the leaves as a skin lesions dressing and
as a tonic, and the roots are believed to treat rhumatism. The three species of mint
used in this screening are also collected and have tonic and medicinal uses. These
plants have also proven to be efficient accumulators of Cr and Ni without showing
signs of injury or growth limitation. Thus, their harvest from areas which may at
one time have been subjected to heavy metals exposure will pose potential hazard
and must be prohibited, even if the source of pollution has been eliminated.

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