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Toxicity Characteristics of Drilling Mud and Its

Effect on Aquatic Fish Populations

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 Toxicity Characteristics of Drilling Mud and
Its Effect on Aquatic Fish Populations
Avick Sil1; Kanchan Wakadikar2; Sunil Kumar3; S. Satheesh Babu4; S. P. M. Sivagami5;
Shalini Tandon6; Rakesh Kumar7; and Patrick Hettiaratchi8
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Abstract: Toxicity tests are important for assessing the effects of complex chemical mixtures, such as waste drilling mud, on aquatic
ecosystems. When waste drilling mud is released into the marine environment, strong ocean currents perhaps separate the drilling mud
into a solid phase (SP) and a suspended particulate phase (SPP). A comprehensive assessment of drilling mud and base oil was carried
out in the laboratory for acute fish toxicity (freshwater fish, marine fish, and benthic organisms) and biodegradability. The results presented
in this paper indicate that the LC50 96 h for fresh water, marine and benthic organisms was in the order of base oil > SP > SSP. The 28-day
biodegradability of base oil was also more than that of drilling mud. The results also showed that nonaqueous drilling fluids (NADFs) are
readily biodegradable. The Spearmen results clearly showed the effects on fish populations from the discharge of drilling mud into aquatic
systems. The results showed that the use of NADFs instead of water-based fluids (WBFs) would have lesser adverse impact on the envi-
ronment. DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)HZ.2153-5515.0000092. © 2012 American Society of Civil Engineers.
CE Database subject headings: Drilling; Toxicity; Mud; Fish management; Aquatic habitats; Ecosystems.
Author keywords: Drilling fluids; Solid phase; Suspended particulate phase; Base oil; Biodegradability.

1
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Envir-
onmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Mumbai Zonal Labora-
tory, 89/B, Dr. Annie Besant Rd., Worli, Mumbai—400018, Maharashtra,
India.
2
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Envir-
onmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Mumbai Zonal Labora-
tory, 89/B, Dr. Annie Besant Rd., Worli, Mumbai—400018, Maharashtra,
India.
3
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National
Environmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Kolkata Zonal
Laboratory, I-8, Sector “C,” East Kolkata, New Township, EM Bypass,
Kolkata—700 107, West Bengal, India (corresponding author). E-mail:
s_kumar@neeri.res.in; sunil_neeri@yahoo.co.in
4
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Envir-
onmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Mumbai Zonal Labora-
tory, 89/B, Dr. Annie Besant Rd., Worli, Mumbai—400018, Maharashtra,
India.
5
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Envir-
onmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Mumbai Zonal Labora-
tory, 89/B, Dr. Annie Besant Rd., Worli, Mumbai—400018, Maharashtra,
India.
6
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Envir-
onmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Mumbai Zonal Labora-
tory, 89/B, Dr. Annie Besant Rd., Worli, Mumbai—400018, Maharashtra,
India.
7
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), National Envir-
onmental, Engineering Research Institute (NEERI), Mumbai Zonal Labora-
tory, 89/B, Dr. Annie Besant Rd., Worli, Mumbai—400018, Maharashtra,
India.
8 disposal site at Congo, West Africa. Morvan et al. (2004) demon-
Centre for Environmental Engineering Research and Education
(CEERE), Schulich of Engineering, Univ. of Calgary, Calgary, AB T2N
1N4, Canada.
Note. This manuscript was submitted on June 28, 2010; approved on
October 26, 2010; published online on November 22, 2010. Discussion
period open until June 1, 2012; separate discussions must be submitted
for individual papers. This paper is part of the Journal of Hazardous,
Toxic, and Radioactive Waste, Vol. 16, No. 1, January 1, 2012. ©ASCE,
ISSN 2153-5493/2012/1-51–57/$25.00.
Introduction
The scientific assessment of the fate and potential environmental
impacts of drilling mud discharged into the marine environment
can provide the basis for prudent decision making and for minimiz-
ing damage to the environment. A quantitative methodology for
estimating the potential impacts of discharged drilling mud fines
would be of use to offshore petroleum operators, regulators,
government agencies, and the fishing industry (Charles et al.
2006). Currently, there are two primary types of drilling fluids used
by industry, that is, water-based fluids (WBFs) and nonaqueous
drilling fluids (NADFs) (International Association of Oil and Gas
Producers 2003).
The discharge of these potentially toxic chemicals into the envi-
ronment may cause adverse impacts on aquatic biological systems.
The degree of effect depends on the type, dosage, and exposure
duration of chemicals (Ezemonye et al. 2008). The primary sources
of drilling fluid released into the marine environment are accidental
spillage, standing of tankers, and drill-cutting processes. About
3–4 million Mg of oil is disposed of in the sea through human ac-
tivities and tanker accidents (Harayama et al. 1999). These fluids
are chemically toxic or physically harmful to marine’s flora and
fauna (Mojtahid et al. 2006). Various studies indicated that the
growth of flora and fauna was affected by the toxic heavy-metals
contamination in the environment (Khangarot and Das 2009; Paula
et al. 2009; Silva et al. 2009). Mojtahid et al. (2006) demonstrated
that oily drill cutting discharges affected 750 m2 of area from a
strated that the formation of intertidal mudflats was impacted owing
to oil spillages. These discharges also have an adverse impact on
aquatic organisms and wildlife present near the shoreline (McCay
et al. 2004). They can have both short- and long-term adverse im-
pacts. The short-term impacts are on the water column organisms
such as fish and long-term impacts are generally restricted to the
benthic organisms near the discharge point (Boland et al. 2004).

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J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 2012.16:51-57.

 The toxicity of drilling fluid causes environmental impacts on Table 1. Composition of Drilling Mud
marine communities. Eco-toxicity testing provides indicative infor- Composition g=L
mation on possible effects of toxic chemicals on biota and thus
provides a basis to assess its environmental acceptability. Acute Primary emulsifier 21
eco-toxicity testing is commonly used to predict the toxicity of Secondary emulsifier 11
drilling fluids in the marine environment. Biodegradation is the Viscosifier 16
only approach to remove the spilled oil without any secondary con- Water loss contr. agent 19
tamination. The OECD and ISO tests for biodegradability are used Lime 19
as criteria for determining the environmental acceptability of drill- CaCl2 210
ing fluids (Petroleum Guidelines for Drilling Fluid Management Barite 288
2005).
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The primary purpose of acute toxicity testing with fish species is

to assess the possible risk to similar species in the natural environ-
ment. The secondary purposes for conducting acute toxicity testing
include the determination of possible water quality criteria for regu-
latory purposes and to establish the correlation with acute testing of
other species. In this study, marine species were exposed to a range
of test concentrations representing drilling fluid under laboratory
conditions to determine LC50 of the test substances. Furthermore,
biodegradability studies of drilling mud and base oil were also car-
ried out in this study.
Materials and Methods
Test Organisms
The effect of drilling fluid (both base oil and drilling mud) was
tested on three types of aquatic organism, namely, estuarine fish
(Tilapia mossambica), marine fish (Mugil persia), and sediment
or benthic organism (Boleopthalmus boddarti). Tilapia mossamb-
ica (1–2 cms) and M. persia (1–2 cms) collected from local fish
dealers in Mumbai, India. Boleopthalmus boddarti (2–4 cms)
was collected from the clean mangrove forest of West Coast of
Mumbai. After the fishes bought from the dealer, they were kept
in a rectangular aquarium having dimensions of 50 cm × 40 cm×
20 cm. Seawater, collected from Gorai, Mumbai, was filtered and
used for acclimatizing the fishes. Fishes were released into the rec-
tangular aquarium containing the filtered seawater. Initially (for
1–2 days) the aquarium water was changed by using the suction
method at every 1 h and all the dead fishes were removed manually
at periodic intervals. After initial days, the aquarium water was
changed regularly at an interval of 8 h. This process was carried
out for 14 days and the acclimatized fishes (survived fishes) were
considered for the experiment or testing. The O2 concentration was
maintained as per the protocol of USEPA guidelines-OPPTS
850.1075 (USEPA 1996). Both the fishes (T. mossambica and
M. persia) were acclimatized individually in separate aquariums.
During acclimatization period, they were fed at regular intervals.
The survived fishes were then transferred manually to a separate
aquarium of dimensions 22:5 cm × 22:5 cm × 15 cm. In this
aquarium, they were observed for 48 h and they were not given
any food. The survived fishes from this observed aquarium were
selected for the actual experiment or testing process. Boleopthal-
mus boddarti were also acclimatized in the similar manner for
14 days and kept under observation for 2 days. The survived or-
ganisms were considered for the experiment or testing purpose.
Analysis of Physiochemical Properties
The samples of seawater and sediment were collected from Gorai,
Mumbai. This site is located at the western outskirt of Mumbai and
it is free from man-made pollutions. Live benthic organisms are
found in the sediments of this location. Hence, seawater and sedi-
ment from this site were collected for the experimental purpose.
The characteristic of diluents water (seawater) was analyzed by us-
ing American Public Health Association method (APHA 1989),
whereas that of the sediment was carried out by using the method
provided in Black et al. (1965).
Test Fluids
Test fluids (both drilling mud and base oil) were procured from the
Division of Refining and Marketing of E.N.I SpA, Andheri,
Mumbai. The drilling mud was composed of 42% base oil and
58% other components (Table 1). This drilling mud was prepared
with NADF technology. Traditionally oil-based fluids (OBFs) were
used for drilling activities. They provided the best performance in
terms of drilling activity, but they had poor environmental perfor-
mance in terms of eco-toxicity and hence, WBFs were developed.
Water-based fluids do not provide optimal performance in chal-
lenging conditions. But they have best environmental performance
in terms of their nontoxic nature, and they have also enhanced the
rate of biodegradation as compared to OBFs. Recently, NADFs
have been developed to provide similar drilling performance as that
of OBFs but with improved eco-toxicity and biodegradation char-
acteristics which are similar to WBFs (Australian Guidelines
2005). The physical and chemical characteristics of sediments are
presented in Table 2.
Acute Fish Toxicity Test
The acute fish toxicity test was conducted in accordance with the
USEPA guidelines-OPPTS 850.1075 (USEPA 1996). OSPAR
(2006) provides the methodology for the use of chemicals in the
offshore oil industry. As per USEPA guidelines, the dissolved oxy-
gen should be more than 60%, whereas according to OECD guide-
lines, it must be at least 80%. Hence, the protocol as per USEPA
guideline was used for the assessment of acute fish toxicity for both
freshwater and marine species.
Biodegradability Test
The biodegradability study was conducted as per OECD 306 guide-
lines (OECD 1992). Seawater was strongly aerated for 2 h and
then it was stabilized by incubating at 20
0:2°C for 24 h. After
Table 2. Physicochemical Characteristics of Sediment
Parameters Characteristics
Colour Black
pH 8.1
Organic carbon (%) 5.1
Ammonia as NH3 N (mg=kg) 1,471
Phosphate (mg=kg) 790
Particle size distribution Sand—55%
Silt—35%
Clay—10%
Type of sediment Silty loam

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J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 2012.16:51-57.

 incubation, the dissolved oxygen concentration was determined as
11 mg=L by Azide modification method, and this mineral medium
was used in the experiment. The experiment was conducted using
2 mg=L of test substance (drilling mud and base oil), reference sub-
stance (sodium benzoate) and blank (only mineral medium) in
300 mL biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) bottles and BOD bot-
tles were incubated at 20
0:2°C.
In the case of actual experiment, 1 g of test substance was dis-
solved in 1 L mineral medium. This mineral media was preincu-
bated at 20
0:2°C for 24 h. Owing to the weak solubility, the
test substance was mixed with a surfactant (Tween 80) to dissolve
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it in water. The prepared solution was used as a stock solution. A
total amount of 2 mg=L of test suspension was prepared from the
stock solution. The oxygen consumption was monitored regularly
at 7-day interval for a period of 28 days. The BOD for reference
substance, drilling mud, and base oil was estimated by using the
formula of OECD (1992), which is represented in Eq. (1), whereas
that for percentage biodegradation was obtained using Eq, (2) of
OECD (1992). The chemical oxygen demand (COD) was estimated
by using the open reflux method provided in the APHA method
(5220 D)
BOD ¼ ½ðmgO2 uptake by test substance
 ðmgO2 uptake by controlÞ=mg of test substance ð1Þ
% Biodegradation ¼ ½BOD ðmgO2 =mg test substanceÞ=
COD ðmgO2 =mg test substanceÞ × 100 ð2Þ
Preparation of Test Solution for Acute Fish Toxicity
The acute fish toxicity test was carried out in an aquarium of di-
mensions 22:5 cm × 22:5 cm × 15 cm. To mimic the natural ocean
current condition, the drilling mud was separated into a suspended
particulate phase (SPP) and a solid phase (SP). The drilling mud
was physically separated by mixing it with water in 1∶9 ratio of
drilling mud and seawater and then the slurry was stirred for
30 min with a magnetic stirrer and then allowed to settle for 1 h.
The supernatant SPP was removed by siphoning (Fig. 1) (Shelton
2005).
The supernatant was used as SPP, whereas the remaining portion
was used as SP. Different concentrations of SPP and SP ranging
from 100 to 100;000 mg=L were prepared by using diluents
seawater in the aquarium of 22:5 cm × 22:5 cm × 15 cm dimen-
sions. Each aquarium contained 5 L of test solution of different
Fig. 1. Separation of SPP and SP from drilling mud
JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE © ASCE / JANUARY 2012 / 53
J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 2012.16:51-57.
concentrations and 10 test organisms. These concentrations were
tested with estuarine and marine fish separately. Similarly, different
concentrations of base oil were prepared and tested for acute
fish toxicity. Different concentrations of drilling mud and base
oil (ranging from 100 to 100;000 mg=kg) were prepared with sedi-
ments and then tested with benthic organisms. The acute fish
toxicity with marine and estuarine fish was carried out for 96 h,
whereas that of benthic organisms were carried out for 10 days.
A control containing only seawater with no added chemicals was
maintained for fish and similarly sediments with no added chem-
icals were maintained for benthic organisms.
Data Collection and Analysis
Lethality (number of dead organisms) was recorded daily by visual
observation. The dead organisms were removed from the test
aquarium and 60% oxygen concentration was maintained through-
out the experiment. The percentage mortality in the blank was less
than 10%. The oxygen consumption for biodegradability assay was
carried out at every 7-day interval over a 28-day time period.
The susceptibility of fish benthic organisms to both base oil
and drilling mud was determined by using the probit method for
the analysis of LC50 at 96 h by ToxCalc version 5.0 of USEPA
(Faircloth 2009). This program calculated LC50 values and 95%
confidence limit by the probit method (Faircloth 2009). The Spear-
men correlation was calculated by using SPSS 7.5 (Gauthier 2001).
Results and Discussion
To assess the impact of pollution on a marine ecosystem, it is de-
sirable to apply several critical toxicological tests. In this study, the
acute toxicity of drilling mud and base oil was evaluated by using
the estimated 96 h LC50 values in different concentrations with
freshwater fish, marine fish, and benthic organisms. Hence, the as-
sessment of 96 h LC50 was determined for both SP and SPP. This
drilling mud was prepared with NADF technology which is readily
biodegradable and hence, the biodegradability assay was carried
out to determine their fate.
Estimation of 96 h LC50
There were no deaths in the control experiment. The estimated 96 h
LC50 values for base oil for freshwater fish, marine fish, and
benthic organisms are shown in Fig. 2 and that of drilling mud
(SPP and SP) is depicted in Fig. 3. In drilling mud, 96 h LC50
for fresh water fish (T. mossambica) was 770;000 mg=L for
SPP and 200;000 mg=L for SP. Similarly, 96 h LC50 for marine
 800000
150000 96 h LC50

700000
600000
Concentration in mg/L
Concentration in mg/L
100000

500000
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400000
50000

300000
200000
SPP SP
Tilapia mossambica Mugil persia Boleopthalmus (a) Tilapia mossambica
boddarti

30000 32000 34000 36000 38000 40000 42000 44000

Fig. 2. LC50 of base oil for T. mossambica, M. persia, and B. boddarti

96 h LC 50
fish (M. persia) was 42;614:1 mg=L for SPP and 31;107:0 mg=L
for SP. The 10-day LC50 for benthic organisms (B. boddarti) was Concentration in mg/L
128;898:1 mg=kg, whereas for 96 h LC50 for the same organisms
was 243;652:4 mg=kg. Therefore, it is clear that SP is more
harmful to test organisms than SPP. According to characterization,
42% of drilling mud consists of base oil and hence the toxicity
assessment was also carried out for base oil. The results of
base oil for 96 h LC50 were 22;414 mg=L (T. mossambica) and
16;713:1 mg=L (M. persia). The 10-day LC50 for benthic organ-
isms (B. boddarti) was 68;409:4 mg=kg and 96 h LC50 for the same
organisms was 167;340:2 mg=kg. Thus, it can be stated that
M. persia (marine species) was most susceptible to base oil and
drilling mud as compared to other test organisms used in the study.
Long and Holdway (2002) demonstrated that LC50 concentration
with WBF was 0:39 mg=L which was in the toxic range as per the (b) SPP SP
Mugil persia
toxicity rating. Dawson et al. (1975) in their study found that most
of the test chemicals are hazardous to freshwater and salt water
250000

species. Adams et al. (1999) demonstrated that fish could be highly

sensitive to the fuel oil contamination. They also reported that the
toxicity assessment with WBF is also in the toxic range (McCay
225000

et al. 2004). There is also good evidence that offshore discharges

of OBFs by the oil and gas industry have caused reduction in
Concentration in mg/kg

benthic species diversity or other changes in community structure

200000

at distances <1–3 km from drilling locations (Davies et al. 1984;

Gray et al. 1990, 1999; Olsgard and Gray 1995). Thus, this study
175000

indicated that the toxic effect of NADF was much lower than the
other types of drilling fluids.
Octanol-water partition coefficient (log Ko=w) is one of the
150000

most widely used physicochemical parameter in modeling of trans-

port and disposition of organic chemicals (Kong et al. 2007). Quan-
titative structure activity relationships on the basis of octanol-water
125000

partition coefficient (P, usually expressed as log P) are also used in

mathematical model for predicting aquatic toxicity (Ward et al.
2003). Studies have shown that chemicals once discharged into 10 days 4 Days
(c)
sea can disperse according to their properties as well as ocean proc- Boleopthalmus boddarti
esses encountered. Therefore, in this laboratory investigation, two
Fig. 3. (a) LC50 of drilling mud (SPP and SP) for T. mossambica (96 h);
phases of drilling mud, namely, SPP and SP were used. Out of these
(b) LC50 of drilling mud (SPP and SP) for M. persia (96 h); (c) LC50 of
two, SP was more toxic in comparison with SPP. No mortality was
drilling mud (SPP and SP) for B. boddarti (10 days and 96 h)
observed with lower concentrations (100 mg=L for base oil and SP,

54 / JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE © ASCE / JANUARY 2012

J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 2012.16:51-57.

 LC50 (BF)
whereas 1;000 mg=L and 1;000 mg=kg for SPP and sediment or-
ganisms respectively). Jaiswar et al. (2006) showed LC50 values of

1
40% with indigenous species of fish from Mahim creek, Mumbai,
India. This high LC50 concentration was owing to contaminated
diluents of Mahim creek. Industrial chemicals were found to be

LC50 (FF)

0:23
more toxic to Tilapia species (Ezemonye et al. 2008). These results

1
also indicated that toxicity assays may also be affected by contam-
inants not included in the chemical analysis and the possible oc-
currence of synergistic or antagonistic interaction between the

LC50 (MF)
constituents present in contaminated water (Viguri et al. 2007).

0.02
0:04
Various studies have shown that heavy metals such as cadmium
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1
(Cd), mercury (Hg), and chromium (Cr) have adverse effects on
the survival of fish (Vinod et al. 2005; Athikesavan et al. 2006;
Hameed and Muthu Kumaravel 2006; Sivakumar et al. 2006).

0:99
Note: Correlation is significant at 0.01 level (2-tailed), Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed) MF-Marine Fish, FF-Freshwater Fish, BF-Benthic Fish.
0.00
0.99
NO3
However, the drilling mud and base oil were free of Cd, Hg, and

1
Cr (MSDS 2009). Thus, the mortality of fish was because of other
secondary substances present in the drilling mud and base oil but

0:86
0.86
0.50
0.87
PO4
not because of heavy metals.

1
Correlation between Physiochemical Parameters and

Salinity
LC50 Toxicity

0:84
0.86

0.87
0.5
1
1
The Spearman correlation matrix between physiochemical param-
eters and toxicity of all fishes showed that there was a negative
correlation between the toxicity of all fishes and the physiochem-

Ca Hardness
ical parameters with LC50 (MF) as r 2 ¼ 0:04 and LC50 (FF) as

0:34
0.76
0.76
0.34
0.93
0.36
r 2 ¼ 0:23 at significant level of P > 0:01 as presented in Table 3.

1
The results clearly show the effects on fish from the discharge of Table 3. Spearman Rank Correlations between Concentrations of Physiochemical Parameters and LC50 Toxicity (n ¼ 5)
drilling fluid into aquatic system. Total Hardness

Biodegradability

0.76

0.86

0.87
0:86
The biodegradability assay helped in assessing the fate of drilling

0.5
1

1
1
mud and base oil in the presence of sea microorganism. The deter-
mination of percentage biodegradation was carried out using the
formula given in Eq. (2). It was observed (Fig. 4) that base oil
is more easily biodegradable than drilling mud because base oil is
Alkalinity

mainly composed of hydrocarbons, whereas drilling mud is com-

0.86
0:76

0:86

0:87
0:5
posed of 42% base oil and remainder secondary components
1
1

1
1
(Table 1). After 28 days, the percentage biodegradation for base
oil was 69.2%, whereas that of drilling mud was 65.0%. The refer-
0.17

0.86
0:86

0:85
ence substance (sodium benzoate) showed biodegradation of
0.5

0.5
0:5

0:5
0:5
DO

92.7% after 28 days. The COD of (before biodegradation) reference

substance, drilling mud (NADF), and base oil was found to be 5.6,
6.0, and 7:6 mg=L respectively.
0:65

0:18
TDS

0.32

0.65
0.98
0.65
0.65
0.19
0.98
0.21
The results indicated that seawater microorganisms are able to
1

degrade the components of drilling mud and base oil. Base oil
showed higher percent of biodegradation as compared to drilling
Temperature

mud. This was because drilling mud contained base oil (42%)
0.18

0.18
0.18
0.65

0.63
0:61
0:94
0:18

0:48

0:75

0:65

and recalcitrant compounds such as emulsifier, barite, calcium

1

chloride, bentonite, etc. The biodegradation process is significantly

influenced by the availability of nutrients and dissolved oxygen
content in water (Jianqiang 1997). Deborah and Heman (2002)
Conductivity

reported that seawater microorganisms could utilize hydrocarbons

as their substrate. Typically, the total oil degrading bacterial pop-
0.86
0:18
0:65

0:76

0:81

0:87
0.5

0:5

ulation in seawater was about 105 cells=mL (Kasai et al. 2000).

1

1
1

1
1

Bedinger et al. (1981) demonstrated that microbial population from

seawater has degraded oil within 20 days. The oil degrading poten-
0.32

0.17

0.86
0:94

0:86

0:85

tial per milliliter of microbes was 56 μg of hydrocarbon (Kasai et al.

0.5

0.5

0.5
0:5

0:5
0:5
pH
1

2002). Huseyin et al. (2002) reported that the degradation of oil was
more in seawater (92% biodegradation) compared with distilled
water and tap water (both 84% biodegradation) and therefore, they
Total hardness
Conductivity
Temperature

CaHardness

concluded that sea microorganisms are more effective in degrading

LC50 (MF)

LC50 (BF)
LC50 (FF)
Alkalinity

the substrate. The BOD values (after biodegradation) are presented

Salinity

in Table 4. The BOD values of drilling mud and base oil were 3.9
TDS

NO3
PO4
DO
pH

and 5:2 mg=L respectively (28 days). The values are under the

JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE © ASCE / JANUARY 2012 / 55

J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 2012.16:51-57.

 100 Drilling Mud (NADF) Base Oil Reference Substance
90
80
70
% Biodegradability
60
50
40
30
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20
10
0 freshwater fish Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes).” J. Envi-
7 14 21
Days
Fig. 4. Comparison of percentage biodegradation for base oil, drilling
mud, and reference substance after 28 days of experiment
Table 4. BOD Values of Drilling Mud, Base Oil, and Reference Substance
BOD (mg=L)
Days Drilling mud Base oil Reference substance
7 0.95 0.95
14 1.70 2.40
21 2.45 3.75
28 3.90 5.20
permissible limit as per discharge effluent standard laid down by
the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF), Government of
India, New Delhi (<100 mg=L) (MoEF 1993). Base oil was more
toxic (in case of acute fish toxicity test) compared to drilling mud,
but it had greater biodegradable potential than drilling mud. Hence,
it would have less persistence in the environment, thus minimizing
the impact on the environment.
Conclusion and Recommendations
A laboratory study was conducted to determine the lethal concen-
tration for fish of drilling mud and base oil over a 4 day period.
The lethal concentration for sediment organisms was also obtained
for 10 days. A significant difference in mortality was observed be-
tween control and test concentration suggesting that these chemi-
cals are toxic to the aquatic life. Mortality rate increased with
increasing concentration of chemicals.
The study demonstrated the need for specific guidelines for the
management of drilling fluid in India. According to MoEF, LC50
96 h should be greater than 30;000 mg=L for a drilling fluid to be
nontoxic. Hence, a toxicity rating must be prepared for drilling flu-
ids as per Indian conditions. Base oil is one of the major compo-
nents of drilling mud which is found to be more toxic as compared
to drilling mud. Future regulations should require the assessment of
both base oil and drilling mud and it is recommended that a separate
toxicity range should be prepared for base oil.
The biodegradability values of base oil and drilling mud were
more or less similar to each other at the end of 28 days. The per-
centage biodegradation was greater than 60% which meets the cri-
teria laid down in OECD 306 guidelines. This study indicated that
the drilling fluids had less adverse environmental impact and hence
these drilling fluids could be used for drill-cutting operations. The
use of NADFs would have less environmental impact as compared
to traditional types of drilling fluids. This study also showed that
56 / JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS, TOXIC, AND RADIOACTIVE WASTE © ASCE / JANUARY 2012
J. Hazard. Toxic Radioact. Waste 2012.16:51-57.
NADFs are readily biodegradable and thus the use of NADFs
would have lesser adverse impact on the environment.
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