Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
by
Troxell Snyder
Jeffrey Bentley
Martin Giebler
Leon R. Glicksman
Warren M. Rohsenow
Department of Mechanical Engineering, M.I.T.
Ener:;y Laboratory
.Repor. No. MIT-EL 77-002 Volume I January 1977
Heat Traulsfer Laboratory Report No. 83307-99
1
by
Troxell Snyder
Jeffrey Bentley
Martin Giebler
Leon R. Glicksman
Warren M. Rohsenow
Energy Laboratory
In Association With
Sponsored by:
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this years' work has been to test and analyze the new
dry cooling tower surface previously developed. The model heat transfer
test apparatus built last year has been instrumented for temperature,
humidity and flow measurement and performance has been measured under
the validity of that simulation and its use as a design tool. Computer
several locations.
several design problems may be avoided by blowing the cooling air hori-
zontally through the packing section. This crossflow concept was built
from the previous counterflow apparatus and included the design and fabri-
with an average experimental error of 10%. These results were compared to the
ration. In 14 test runs the predicted total heat transfer differed from the
measured total heat transfer by no more than 8% with most runs coming
towers.
4
ACKNOWLEDGEN IENTS
.............................................. 2
LIST OF TABL ES
...... ...... ....... ...... ....... ...... ...... 9
PRINCIPLE 'MBO0LS
SY ................... ................... .......... 10
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
.............................. J')
I'NSTRUMENTATION
MODPL.
................... ............. 15
2.2 Temperatureeasurement
.. ....................... 17
3.1 Computer
Program
.. ............................. 32
TOWERCOMBINIONS .............................. 42
6.4 Results........................................... 95
159
Transfer Coefficients ...............................
7
4-4 Air Mfass Flow Rate vs. Inlet Air Temperature ................ 52
4-11 Moisture Content of Exhaust Air for WET and WET/DRY Towers.. 67
8
Generating Plant............................................ 81
LIST OF TABLES
G-4 134
Climatic Data for New York, N.Y .................................
Principle Symbols
Symbol Description
A area
C heat capacity
cp heat capacity
Dh hydraulic diameter
h height
h specific enthalpy
ITD (T T
Xin ain
k thermal conductivity
Nu Nusselt Number
P pressure
Pr Prandtl Number
Re Reynolds Number
RH relative humidity
t plate thickness
11
Symbol Description
T temperature
T reference temperature
0
V velocity
z length of fin
Greek
fin efficiency
'if
p density
Subscripts
a air
in inlet
liquid (water)
out outlet
v water vapor
12
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
transfer surface which would give low evaporation rates at costs competitive
with equal wet tower capacity. The wet-dry concept is the result of this
(see Figure 1-1) to keep the hot water in discrete channels over which
cooling air is blown. These channels serve to restrict the free surface
area of the water, thus reducing evaporation and water loss. The packing
plates are made of conductive material which acts as a fin heated at the
conceding a small amount of evaporation the fabrication costs for the wet-dry
surface have been reduced far below those of a completely closed or dry
heat exchanger.
To demonstrate this concept a model test tower was built during 1975.
high heat transfer rates while the initial results of the computer analogy
Work this year has included the instrumentation and testing of the
test results with the computer program predictions has shown the program
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tower systems were sized and compared under a wide range o inlet conditions.
to these shortcomings was to alter the air flow to blow horizontally across
the packing section. The advantages of this crossflow design are described
flow tower.
work can also be found in Volume 2. Technical and special interest subjects
CHAPTER 2
The model tower tested for this report is essentially the same as
sections.
counterflow design with a plan area of four square feet (0.37 m 2). The
heat transfer packing section holds the packing plates. Hot water is
the bottom. Ambient air from the laboratory enters from the bottom of
There are 14 V-trough packing plates each (Figure 2-2) with 21 troughs
making up a total heat transfer area of 280 ft2 (26 m 2 ) [1]. Air flow was
fixed by fan size and was approximately 350 ft3/min/plan foot square area
(1.8 m3/s/plan m2 area). Inlet water flow rate could be varied from 2.7
measuring air and water temperature at the inlet and exhaust of the packing
section. Calibrated rotometers measured water flow rate and a pitot tube
was used to check airflow rate. Changes in moisture content of the air
the air and water energy balance of about 15%. The highest error observed
in the nine test runs was 24% with the average error approximately 13%
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describe the performance of the tower and to check the validity of the
inlet and outlet conditions of both the air and water. The specific
the water and air streams, the amount of water transferred to the air
and the air and water flow reates. It was decided that an accuracy of
order to maintain the accuracy required for this change, the two water temp-
other hardware (See Appendix A). A single ice bath junctior was used
between the switches and the readout device. The calibration method was
it, when placed in the same constant temperature bath. A steam bath
it was found that a calibration to better than .50 F was difficult using
this method. A stirred silicon oil bath was then obtained which was
18
placed in a narrow glass tube with oil covering the junctions. The
temperature of the bath inside the tube was held constant to + .lF at
about 176°F. However, these fluctuations were slow enough so that the out-
was fourd that while the thermocouples produce a steady voltage for a short
time, their calibration will change by about + .10 F over a period of several
of + .10 F not only with time, but also with respect to each other. Accuracy
was used to measure the thermocouple output. This meter had a resolution
the meter had high input impedance (10 M) compared to the wire resistance
(500) the effect of the small current flow on the thermocouple voltage
were not used for the runs, because a device of the accuracy required is
often bulky and sensitive to vibration. The digital meter also made it
- I 'I - - ·
ple 1/32" Bead
To Thermocouple
Switches
Icw . .
Spray Holes
Silicon
Seal
Figure 2-4
Thermocouple Installation
Channels (Approximately in Outlet of Collection
Actual Size)
21
was measured inside the distribution pipes, at the top and bottom of
the packing plates and at the outlet of the collection channels. The air
temperature was measured below the collection channels, at the bottom and
top of the packing and above the distribution pipes. To obtain an average
over the cross-section of the tower, nine measurements were ade at each
made. The air and water temperature on the plates were measured by using
three locations at the top and bottom of three different plates. (See
measured at the outlet of the channels below the plates instrumented for
air and water measurements (See Figure 2-4). The thermocouples in the
pipes were placed in the same nine locations as in the packing section.
(Figure 2-3). The measurement of the air temperature above the pipes
and below the channels was accomplished using rakes with three thermo-
the other tower locations. The air and water measuring thermocouples
on the plates and in the troughs, were fastened in place with silicon
in the system before and after a run, and a measurement of the air
22
humidity at both ends of the packing section. The first method was not
used since it was decided that leakage in the tower would greatly affect
accuracy was required for a dew point measurement, to ensure less than
A demonstrator model was used for the test runs, which was found to be
Two rotometers were used to determine the water flow rate through
the tower, each measuring the flow to one of the plexiglass feeder tanks.
flow). For the lowest flow rate used in the tower ( 5 gpm per meter)
To speed the process by which the air flow rate was determined
in the packing section, it was decided to fix a pitot tube in place between
the plates and take only one measurement for each data run.
The air flow between the individual plates was assumed to be turbulent
The pitot tube was fixed between the plates about 1/3 of the way
back and 1/3 of the way (Figure 2-6) in from the sides of the packing
section. Great care was taken to align the tube parallel to the plates
and in the center of the gap. A movable pitot tube was positioned parallel
in the plenum above the packing section and used to scan the airflow at
that point.
Data taken at various air flow rates were then compared and a ratio
was found between bulk air flow as measured by the scanning pitot tube
by the relation:
Thus, for any two pitot tubes in air at the same temperature and pressure,
I= 1 = 1 (2-2)
V2 VIAWT
2 2
and the ratio of the average velocity measured in the plenum and the
V V)W- + I ... -)
avg 1 2 9 (2-3)
Vfixed hfixed
fixed
D h = 0.25 ft (.08 m)
Re = 6400 to 11,000
Vx 1/
V = (Y/ro) where
VCL 0
Re n V/VCL
4,000 6 0.791
110,000 7 0.817
of 0.81.
effect on the energy balance must be shown. The energy balance for a
TABLE 2-1
I-
RUN h Ratio
above avg hfixed
plates
(vi-n) V /V
avg CL
11
Towe
Wal
To, a
b. End View Above Distribution Pipes c. End View Below Collection Channels
tor
bution
Figure 2-6: Pitot Tube Installation Showing Two Locations of the Pitot Tube
28
Q =mai
r (h + w. h -h w h
air airin in vapori air out vaporout
m c (T - T ) + (m - Am ) c water
water p water. o water water p
water in
are evaluated. Here T is 320 F. The reference for the water vapor is
Am
water
=m air (wout -w in ) (2-5)
The value of m
air. is determined by the pitot tube measurement, and is
as are errors in Twater and Twate r . win and wou t are measured with
in out
the dew point hygrometer.
analysis is made using the following form of equation 2-4, combined with
equation 2-5.
29
6Q = mn (har +w h -h w h )
air air in vapor air out vapor
in in out out
+ mr
water
cp (T
water.
-T)
o
-c
water in water
( -m (w - w ))(T t - T ) (2-6)
water air out in water o
out
where 6 Q is the discrepancy between the air and water sides of heat
1 2 2 2
u(= x uu)+ (- u2) +...+ ( u
The following values which satisfy the energy balance might be typical
. = 150 + 8 lb /min
air - m
i
30
T = 1200 F + .1°F
water-
in
The heat transfer rate for this case as cauculated using equation
=
mr 90 + 1.7 lb /min
water - m
T = 140°F + .1°F
in
T = 1320 F + .19 F
water-
out
In this case Q = 745.43 and the uncertainty is 43.83. Even though the
water temperature change and the absolute humidity may e more accurately
measured for this case, the effect on the energy balance is insignificant.
The error in the air flow measurement still predominates, and the un-
Other factors which may influence the accuracy of the data, include
the fact that the nine locations may not give a true average over the
31
water droplets with the air, and the pitot tube measurements may
tribution pipes and the drift elminators. (See Fig. 2-6). The magnitude
CHAPTER 3
[1], modified to match measured values of the dry plate surface heat
was concerned with totally wet towers with flat packing plates. They
were then modified to include heat transfer from the dry surface. The
solution involves choosing values for the temperatures, water flow rates,
absolute humidity and heat transfer rates and solving for the incremental
changes. These changes are then added to the initial values and the
The expressions for the water surface and dry plate heat transfer
Nu = .022 Pr Re (3-1)
as simple plate fins (shown in Fig. 2-3). Fin efficiency was then
tan hZ2h/kt
fin Z2 (-2)
Z h/kt
where mix' Cmin and Sc are the density, specific heat and Schmidt number
of the air-water vapor mixture. The characteristic length used for these
Provision was also made to allow the program to run for a completely
wet and completely dry surface area. Comparison with previously published
of geometry and flow conditions. Two of these, the wet-to-dry surface area
ratio and the dry plate surface heat transfer coefficient, were determined
Before painting the deposit buildup was easily visible on the surface
and its width could be directly measured with a scale. This was assumed
to be the entire extent of the wet surface area due to the "blotter
(0.6 cm) from the trough bottom and the water free surface width as
was no longer a measureable deposit line. The paint used was non-reflecting
and black. A columnated light source was shone down into the trough from
the side. Any reflection seen would have to come from the water surface,
since the water did not wet the plate and could not "climb" up the side
the photographs showed a clear separation between water surface and plate
surface area ratio of 4%. This was later increased to 55% as it became
evident that the same non-wetting characteristics that helped cut the
35
total wetted surface area were now letting the water streams wander on the
This area ratio did not change significantly over the available
The dry surface heat transfer coefficient of the packing plates was
exhaust fan was then started, pulling the warmer ambient air into the packing
section at a known rate of flow. Local plate and air temperatures were
air temperature.
the value predicted by equation 3-1 when corrected for entrance effects [16].
This increase was attributed to the highly irregular flow channel and
the high inlet turbulence from the flow straighteners and collection
Two other paramters, the wet surface heat and mass transfer coefficients
1.5 also. This was done as the wet surface heat and mass transfer
coefficients depend on the same flow conditions as the dry heat transfer
The summary charts (Tables 3-1, 3-2) list the major points of
comparison between the computer prediction and the model tower test
results. For the model tower tests both air side and water side enthalpy
T T T
AH = (fg + T outCdT)
outw i(hg + f in CdT)+ C (3.6)
o 0o T a
a,
in
Where T is the reference temperature where the enthalpy of saturated
was evaluated from tabulated values [6] of dry air ::, water vapor enthalpy.
These tables were based on T = 32°F (0°C) and for consistency this value
Where the second term on the righthand side of the equation represents
the enthalpy loss due to mass transfer. In practice, the heat capacity
For energy balance calculations, the error was calculated from the
equation:
AH + AH
Er
a 2(
1/2 (AH - AHR)
37
where 1/2(AH - AHz) is the average of the air and water side enthalpy
changes and appears in Tables (3-1, 3-2) as Qtotal for the model tower
tests.
Q was evaluated for the model tower tests from the inlet
evap
and exhaust conditions based on the thermodynamic relations:
T T
Qeap = ( - fh 0=am+ f aoutC dT - water
w in C dT] (3-9)
evap a out in fg T v T
T o
T.
Qeyap i ( (u- [h in C(T. - T )(3-10)
evap a out in fg v kin aout
in the tables for each test run. A specific discussion of each table
follows below.
beginning to scan the inlet section and finishing the scan of the outlet
section. Water sprays, steam jets and other watery experiments in the
thus obtained with the larger errors blamed on unobserved humidity and
This summary is divided into two parts, 5 data runs completed before
painting the packing plates and 4 runs done since that:time (see Appendix E).
Program inputs for the first part consist of ambient inlet conditions
~Jet/Adry= 11%
h = 3.3 BTU/hr-ft 2 °F (16.1 kcal/h-m2 C)
dry plate
het = 3.6 BTU/hr-ft2 °F(18.0 kcal/h-m2 C)
As can be seen from the summary chart (Table 3-1), only once does
the predicted evaporative heat transfer rate differ by more than 10% of
the measured rate and never does the total heat transfer rate fall outside
Corrosion noted on the plates after the initial series of data runs
shows that the resistance to heat transfer added by painting the surface
the same as-before the painting, (except for the surface area ratio)
all the transfer coefficients have been left as in the previous runs.
Refering to the summary chart, Table 3-2, the four runs produced
low in each of the four cases, but moves closer to the computer-predicted
value in consecutive runs. By the last run (on 6/24) the difference is
much less than 10% of the measured value and the predicted value well
within the measured air and water side heat transfer rates.
From these results it was concluded that the agreement between the
analytic (computer) model and the heat transfer model tower test results
were good enough to permit the use of the computer program (listed in
TABLE 3-1
3/19
measured 43.7 839 405 738 939 48 24
computer 875 460 53
3/22
measured 36.7 677 336 638 727 50 13
computer 700 358 51
3/23 am
measured 38.1 759 427 750 768 56 2
computer 765 402 53
3/23 pm
measured 43.3 935 490 835 1017 52 18
computer 955 526 55
3/25
measured 44.5 877 463 844 909 55 7
computer 900 481 54
41
TABLE 3-2
5/6
measured 42.3 544 279 518 571 51 10
computer 654 278 43
5/11
measured 53.7 755 440 812 697 58 15
computer 366 371 43
5/25
measured 52.8 701 316 653 749 45 14
computer 771 305 40
6/24
measured 28.0 380 195 413 346 51 17
computer 400 171 43
42
CHAPTER 4
the two most widespread types of cooling towers used today, the
evaporative (wet) and the non-evaporative (dry), with that of the V-trough
has been made of each tower type (Appendix D). Each of these designs
is sized to give the same hot water temperature drop and total heat transfer
rate for a set of fixed design inlet conditions. The designs have then
conditions and the results (evaporation rate, heat transfer rate, exit
of these [13] systems are very promising and the main thrust of this
(Figure 4-1), but for simplicity it was assumed that each tower acted
use a dry tower sized so that it alone can handle the required heat load
43
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added only at higher ambient temperatures when the dry tower is unable
to carry the entire heat load alone. This design has the advantages of
being much lower in cost than a single dry tower sized to handle the
this work) which would also reflect some of the advantages of the con-
For the purposes of this comparison, it was assumed that the basic
that is, if a certain tower could transfer heat at a rate Q under one
to keep the heat transfer rate constant at this second set of conditions.
The fan power and water loss would also be reduced by the same fraction.
single tower.
surface;
tower which was built and evaluated at M.I.T. within the last
year.
4) WET + DRY @ 800 F: a DRY tower sized to handle the design heat
load below 80F dry-bulb (27QC) inlet air and a WET tower to
5) WET + DRY @ 60F: similar to (4), with the DRY tower sized at
609 F(16°C) inlet air and the WET tower added at higher ambient
temperatures.
6) WET + DRY @ 400 F: similar to (4), with the DRY tower sized at
400 F (4CC) inlet air and the WET tower added at higher ambient
temperatures.
heat load at 60QF (16'C) inlet air and a WET/DRY tower to help
8) WET/DRY + DRY @ 40°F: similar to (7), with the DRY tower sized
at 40F (4°C) inlet air and the WET/DRY tower added at higher
ambient temperatures.
performance for the combination cooling towers described above. For the
most part these comparisons are based on a constant rate of heat rejection
and a constant inlet hot water temperature for each system being
system share the heat load, with the DRY component operating at its
maximum capacity for those conditions and the evaporating (WET or WET/DRY)
cut back to hold the system heat rejection rate constant. When the DRY
component sizing temperature is reached, the DRY tower carries the entire
heat load and the WET component is completely shut down. Only for
Use of these graphs must be tempered with the knowledge that each
basic tower type (DRY, WET, WET/DRY) has a different mechanism for heat
capabilities of the three basic designs with inlet dry bulb temperature.
These and the following performance curves were taken from data
ambient air and the inlet hot water. Thus the total heat rejection
rate at Tamb = 90F (320 C), ITD = 400 F (22°C), would be half that at
The WET tower has two heat transfer mechanisms which must be taken
together to determine the overall heat transfer rate. One, dry convection
from the hot water surface is essentially the same as that of the dry
however, makes up only 15% of the total heat rejection on the average
and thus has small influence on the total performance of the tower. The
the ambient air and inlet hot water. For most of the operating range
of the WET tower, this difference is a strong function of the inlet hot
pressure curve for water. Only at ambient temperatures close to the inlet
hot water temperature, does the moisture content of the ambient air
The combined result of these two mechanisms gives the WET tower
Fig. 4-2 A
3.0
Total and Evaporative Inlet Air
Heat Transfer Rate vs Temperature
2.5
Thot water= 130 F (53 C)
DRY
a i
2.0 Inlet Air 40% R.H.
Cr~--- -
4
5
C
C' Design Point
1.0
WET/DRY
0.5 "I
W
(C)
Fig. 4-2 B
1.5
Total and Evaporative Inlet Air
u,,4- T.CC D,+--
, VS T m-.+ -..
p r-a U rOL
r-
0.5 cr
JFT/DRY
oL
0 10 20 30 40 50 (C)
_
1
I I I 1 I I I 1 0
40 60 80 100 120 (F)
Fig. 4-2 C
0.5
O 10 20 30 40 50 (C)
II I-
I I I
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4 I6 180
40 60 80 100I
100 120 (F)
Fig. 4.3
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t water
2.0
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For the WET/DRY tower, the same two mechanisms for heat transfer
are also operating, but their proportional share of the heat load has
evaporation. Thus the WET/DRY tower seems to behave much more like the
DRY tower, where overall capacity increases with the ITD. The WET/DRY
tower is also less affected than the WET tower by ambient air moisture
Figure 4-4 compares the required air mass flow rates of the various
designs using a purely WET tower as a basis. Heat load is held constant
For a DRY tower the necessary air mass flow increases rapidly as
The WET + DRY combination towers behave as a purely DRY tower until
they reach the temperature for which the DRY portion was sized. Above
this design point the rate of increase of the air flow rate is reduced
as the WET portion now takes a growing share of the heat load.
The WET/DRY tower operated above the WET tower flow rate, but well
below those of the WET + DRY towers in all cases. It also exhibits much
less of a tendency to rise at higher temperatures than does the DRY tower.
The WET/DRY + DRY towers require slightly more air flow than the
WET + DRY towers with the same all-dry design temperature. This was due
to the reduced evaporative share of the heat load and the higher air flow
O 0
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53
This graph does not take into account air pressure drop across
towers for a fixed heat rejection rate using a purely WET tower continuously
operating at 90°' dry-bulb (32CC), 40% R.H, for comparison. Inlet hot
must be brought into service. The water consumption rates for all designs
then rise to meet where Ta 130aF (54°C), at which point all heat
the lower operating ranges, but begins to consume more water as inlet
reduced.
All the combination towers and the WET/DRY tower consume much less
water than a WET tower under the same conditions. All WET/DRY+ DRY
systems consume far less water than similar WET + DRY systems having
The variation of water consumption rate with ambient and inlet hot
design. The WET/DRY tower used in the previous comparisons was evaluated
54
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0D
· 3 Eo
·
a
4)
3 4-
00 _ 10 _ _ _ 0· C
with varying inlet temperatures and fixed heat load. The results appear
in Figure 4-6.
on line and evaporation takes over a growing share of the heat load.
Finally, at 900? (320 C), the WET/DRY tower is operating at full capacity.
Any further increase in ambient air temperature would cause the tower
heat transfer rate to drop below the fixed heat load consumption of the
WET/DRY tower for fixed hot water inlet temperature of 1300 F (54°C) over
appear in Figure 4-5. The endpoints and the dashed line represent
water consumption and inlet air temperature when the design is allowed
back when T (and thus turbine back pressure) falls below an acceptable
in
level. This also minimized turbine back pressure under all operating
Running the tower system at full capacity also means higher operating
and maintenance costs, but these should be more than offset by reductions
Fiq. 4-6
0.6
Q=QDesign
Inlet Air @ 40% R.H.
0.5
.-
r,
o
~ 0.4
:er
- )n
Thot wa
0.3 - 130
120
11n /
/00-
0.2
10 20 30 40 (C)
I I I ·
I
8
40 60 80 iOO (F)
of the various systems for locations around the country. All systems
had a constant heat load,inlet hot water of 130°F (540 C), and were again
summer months and declines during the winter. It can also be seen
that the WET + DRY @ 60°F and the WET/DRY + DRY @ 400 F designs have
heat transfer rate, etc) taken from the preceeding figures. This use
the weather conditions under which towers would be operating and makes
of the preceeding and following months. For clarity the curves are
Figures 4-8 A,B represent the yearly totals of the monthly water
than a WET tower under the some conditions. The consumption totals for
the WET + DRY @ 40°F are also fairly close for most locations, and about
Fiq. 4-7 A
1.0
.,
0.8
ign
3tO
-0
er= 130 F (54 C)
ter
.) 0.6
(.
IET/DRY
RY 40 F
RY 60 F
0.4
0.2 + DRY 40 F
+ DRY 60 F
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J
iMonths of Year
Fi. 4-7 B
1.0
WET
,n ~,..__j/
0.8
.o
V) Q=QDesign
to
. 0.6 Thot water= 13o F (54 C)
. WET/DRY
0.4 RY 0 40 F
RY O 60 F
0.2 DRY rq tO F
DRY 60 F
3 F M A M J J A S 0 N D J
Months of Year
59
Fig. 4 -7 C
0.8
(A
(54 C)
-o 0.6
c)
X ' An r
0.4
cu Q 60 F
DRY @ 40 F
0.2
DRY @ 60 F
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J
Months of Year
Fig.4 -7 D
1.0
WET
0.8
Q=QDesign
hot water=
Thot water 130 F (54 C)
0.6 WET + DRY @40 F
, I.WFT -+ nRV G 60 F
(O
-o DRY 40 F
r3
0.4
DRY @ 60 F
.
0.2
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D J
Months of Year
60
WET
( (; 40 F
( ;i) F
1-
i
s
,-t
J
CD
D
-3
0
--I
;y
'I ct
3
1-
WET/DRY + 3
:3
_
DRd, D
3
3 )R) -
40 I
F {.F-
-t
--
S
) 0
WET/DRY + DRY
F ".D I F
(a 60 F -
WET t DRY (d 40 I -
-I
v
F i,tlJ
WET + DRY @ 60 F .
')
I WEI/DRY (D .,
1 / Dlk f %,,
t I
Qj Lz
..
WET/DRY + DRY i
(A60 i .i
.,) I .
4 i;'?ry ./) ( j
air temperature for the three basic component towers, At lower ambient
to reduce the hot inlet water temperature while maintaining the design
pressure and overall power plant efficiency. Modern turbines can have
rapidly for designs above 5 in. of Hg. (600 N/m2). Most turbines now
temperature and requires very hot water above the design point of'
90F (320 C) inlet air. The WET/DRY and WET towers are respectively
temperatures.
back pressure is likely to drop below the design limit, the tower sys-
the total heat load requirement to within the capacity of the tower
Fig. 4-9
10.0
T - 1 - /Cn r\
4-)
8.0
6.0
av
0
I_
cU
(--
Design Point
4.0
2.0
DRY
0 10 20 30 40 50 (C)
i 1i Ii L 1 L
40 60 80 100 120 (F)
each relative humidity, specific humidity of the three basic tower designs.
were varied over the normal operating range of a cooling tower system,
air at over 100% relative humidity, i.e. with entrained air droplets.
conditions of less than 100% R.H. fogging may occur depending on the mix-
ing conditions of the ambient air and the tower exhaust. If the mixture
passes through the saturation region for water vapor during mixing, fog
The WET/DRY tower, with its reduced evaporative heat transfer, does
not produce a fog plume even under the most unfavorable ambient con-
ditions.
Some types of WET+DRY combination tower systems mix the exhaust air
reduce the incidence of fogging by allowing the wet tower exhaust to pre-
However, due to cost and land use considerations, the more recent
trend in combination systems has been to build two separate towers, each
Fig. 4-10 A
100 160
130
95
100
90
_0
Ir 80
a)
oei.
0 10 20 30 40 (C)
_ 1 1 I _ICL i
40 60 80 100 (F)
Fig. 4-10 B
-40
100 -
Ln
-20 160
60 -
100 -
-10 0 10 20 30 40 (C)
! I
! ! I
40 60 80 100 (F)
Inlet Air Temperature
65
Fig. 4-10 C
100
- I a: . . .. - ._. r*__ .
Ke atl v
for a DF
80
,f.
Inlet Air 90% R.H.
60 QQDesign
E
I3
a)
40
,
to Thot wate I -
20 - 100
130 160 _ 40 (C)
0, ·
iq ·
20 30
40 60 80 100
Ib (F)
5-
c
:3
-40 Q130_QDesign
o) 130
100 -
X
I...
- 30
0O 100 i. I A
40
l (C)
_ _I I ·
80
40 60 80 100 (F)
Fig. 4-10 E
100
Relative Humidity Exhaust Conditions
for a WE'
80
Inlet Air @ 90% R.H.
Q=QDesign
__ 60
40 -T (F)
4-J
hot wate
c( 100
a, 20
ex· 130
160 10 20 30 40 (C)
0o · _ I · I · i i
I
40 60 80 100 (F)
Fig. 4-10 F
(F)
(C)Exhaust Air Temperature
for a WET/DRY Cooling Tower
160 - -70
a,
4- Inlet Air @ 90% R.H.
140 - Thot water (F) QQDesign
60 160-
5-
ca.
a)
120 - -50
130
4-J - 40
L
l=
100 -
bO
100
X - 30
IW~
80 -
-20 0 10 20 30 40 (C)
i
1 II I _ 1
I
40 60 80 100 (F)
Fig. 4-11 A
06
-V
04 I Thot wat
E' 'Irn
IUV
.U
- 02 _ 130
CD R.H.
~.) 100
0 40 (C)
I
-A
1 I
1 1 1 -I
40 60 0
80 100 (F)
Fig. 4-11 B
.03
E
Thot wat,
r-
160
U
Inlet Air @ 90% R.H.
Ca .
cU
Ln
01 130
100
0 1u zu 3U 40 (C)
I
7 - -· ·
60 80
40 60 80 100 (F)
Inlet Air Temperature
68
CHAPTER 5
The present design has the cool air entering at the bottom of
the packing section and exiting at the top [1]. The hot water is
distributed over the packing plates at the top of the section and
great care had to be taken in the original design to reduce the amount
of copper pipes with evenly spaced holes drilled along their length.
sheet metal gutters at the bottom of each packing plate which would
catch the cooled water and channel it quickly aside out of the air
Alignment of both the pipes and gutters was difficult and had to be
For a full-size tower the size of the pipes and gutters would
larger pipes and gutters would decrease the airflow area and require
unacceptable level.
configuration.
Instead of having the air flow from the bottom of the packing
section to the top, the proposed design would have the air flowing
corner of the grid where both air and water inlet conditions are
of this section are calculated and the results used as inlet conditions
for the grid sections below and directly to the side. By moving
give some better agreement, but the calculating time is greatly increased.
The program also contained provision for mixing the cooling air
in heat transfer rate between well-mixed and unmixed airflow was found
sized in the same way as the component towers used for the comparison
area than the comparable counterflow WET/DRY tower where both were
sized to carry the same heat load under 900 F (320 C), 40% R.H. conditions.
tower designs are quite close and are shown in Figure 5-1.
Although these initial estimates are very rough and were not
The savings i design and production costs would well offset the cost
C-)
M
vo I
C
- C%
e-OO1
-
Itt
4-)
- a)
E
(D'
L
La-.
-I .4(1c
!O c
'I--
0 aQ
LL*- 4 q- 3.
S-
C, C
U 0
CD
0
C,
L-
0- - o
'-4
,.Z.4-
0 Lo i 'deA3
I I I I I I I I
L.O C3 l.
(M) , Cu
II,
73
meant to give the reader a feel for the general size and shape of such
draft wet tower module, with the packing section about 30 ft (9,19 m)
high and 20 ft (6.1 m) thick. The air intake area is about 4300 ft2
future investigation.
74
Cu
c'
I---4
r--
in
U,
I I [ _[I · __
-
- .
N I ~-- %
I\-II% I
- ~ '
'-X _ ,X I-
__.
N II. -5J 71
0 e I- - -- -' -- I
-2r
CL
'
a
z
-t: N -N
\
'SI 11 11
"I
N \
'\ N
1\
1\ 11
:,- allow
\
"I,\\
--'t,
C
0
-
_
i- -
,, WX*v is
I
_
t/
o L !
Z
C0
ro
.4 U 4-,
L)U7
Li
0- c I
4-
U- \a CD
_ I[ ww- · __ J I[Jn I
4- _/-
O
E: ZZ2,
// I1:77
-/
t-
C
z--7- Z zZzz-7----7--7-
L7 -
./ /7z z
/
___
II
%A
zz z- 11
C
N
I "Iz z i z z z 11z z
i 7-."
L) / i ..
~ ~r
' ~/ ~' ~/ ~~~~~~ I-
J 1 . .
. _
I-r
cn
iLt
ti.
a
4
I -- 4
c,
I
U
a1 ac ~-
r Q J
.c
*_
4-
(3
(A
V
.r
c
4-)
to
4-
a, Oci
r- 1,t
LLJ
S~~c c ---
7-
C)
m
75
operating experience with the wet-dry concept this analysis will rely
Please note that the wet, dry and wet-dry performance models sum-
marized n Sec. 6.2 are not the same as those presented in Appendix A
and used in Chapter 4. The dry and wet system design parameters and
total costs have been taken directly from the WASH-1360 report [16].
These designs are optimized for a 1000 we fossil fuel plant at a fic-
[16] and used here for the calculation of capital and penalty costs
for each type of cooling system. Section 6.2 summarizes the design
ation method and optimization procedure for the dry and wet systems
cooling system type and capacity, etc. Thus the determination of the
true cost of a cooling system must include not only the initial and
and power plant operation, and 3) a total evaluated cost of the cool-
ing system.
for parts and labor on the system. The major equipment for the systems
makeup and blowdown equipment, and the terminal heat sink, e.g. the
tingency charges.
[16]. Two major penalties are the loss of capacity and the cooling
the plant are compared to a base capacity and its corresponding energy.
Deviations below base values are charged to the cooling system as pen-
alties, whereas deviations above the base values are taken as credits.
nance and operating cost equations. This factor assumes the plant will
run at maximum power for 75% of the year and otherwise be at zero load.
base load power plants which are usually run at full capacity due to
The replacement energy penalty, P2, and the cooling system auxili-
[16]:
8760
p2 = Cap - ) (R) AKW(T)] dt (6-2)
afcr (
8760
P3 = (K)(HPw) + Cap (- ) (R) IHP (T)] dt
[ (6-3)
8760
/
P5 = (K)(HPt)max + Cap (a-fc) (R) [HPt(T)] dt (6-4)
where:
t Time (hra)
Note that 3 and P5 both have two components, i.e., the capital
Penalty P4 is the makeup water costs for the system given by:
P4 = (G ) (C ) (l/afcr) (6.5)
i w
where;
Gm = Yearly makeup requirement (gal/yr)
based on the total capital cost and the amount of rotating machinery.
80
The cost of heat rejection from a 1000 Mwe fossil fuel generating
plant will be considered. Figure 6-1 shows the heat rate correction
The wet and dry systeft compared in the following section (6.3)
are taken directly from te ASH-1360 report. These two systems are
based on the economic model described in Sec. 61. The wet-dry system
cept, a few major assumrptions have been made about the final design
Fig. 6-1
I.
1.
1.(
4u
1.1
-r
onditions:
GJ 1.(
= 1043 Mwe
= 7365 BTU/kw-hr
1.( ack
= 1.5 in. Hg abs.
co e
4
1.C
=
1.1
1 2 3 4 5 6
As in the case of both wet and dry systems, the wet-dry cooling
module, then seeks an optimum design point for sizing the final tower
system.
ment in the terminal heat sink, The cost of each module is broken
down into three groups, fans and motors (identical in cost for all de-
signs), structure and piping (here based on data from Ref. [L6] and
(based on packing surface aea and material and fabrication costs dis-
and 121 F (40C) hot water temperature has been assumed. The following
(millions of dollars)
the optimum. Next the design inlet hot water temperature was optimized.
A higher design inlet hot water temperature would require fewer modules
associated with the resulting higher turbine back pressure. The actual
84
costs are achieved by sizing the wet-dry system for a high inlet hot
back pressure of 5 in. Hg. (17,000 N/2 ). Higher inlet water tempera-
For the wet-dry system (Table 6 -4) costs were significantly increased.
the results summnarized for both high and low back-pressure turbines in
Table 6-3.
laxing some of the initial design criteria follows. These figures are
as definite savings,
possible to double or triple the water flow over a given plate surface
area. Further assuming that this could be done with little or no in-
85
TABLE 6-2
Diagonal
--Rouoheni ng
Ribs
Ai rflow
Water
Channel s
End View
of Plate
ft ,
V
Detail of Water Channel
87
- -
- T C" N-
H ON ("0 H
0 ;N (N ,N H r.4 H H H -
4H
N~~~~
,- ,. I _ · E v_ _ _
trr 0
LI - T , o r-. cN r- oo oo
CX X ' CX (N (N (N (N H H H
0.4 o ODo M n14 ) C4
m C4
r co44o -4
OT
n
U)
O
-
-,tr
CN
Ow)
O O ) O C CD C
o( q.H 0OHOC' o0 0O 00 0CD
CD 0 0D
04 % C CI
X £O M CO
H H H H m o 00 O
:,N 4 Q
· Q;
U N I- -
U V 4i D c~ c
t o
U 4- U) ,-'
e s _
0cc E _
eq~
_ _- _R
00
O O
0 '0 (N 00 t O t O L) X X
H Q
U, - C) c0 L C 4 C
:>,4
i E4 H H H H H H H H H
u
P9
'00
o HE
U) 0 00
C C' H
C . .
vE
V) 4P- *H* Ho
H C)
C'.c) c
It)
o -t r-
C~ It r-4 r_ -T
_ 1_
. O'
H
a H X
a)o 00
0WI
:3 V)U
) U) Un 0 Un U)
0
(n %ON COl
H HO O,
H O
H O4 '.O 0
cc '0
0 O0 O0
(U
"O
5
0'.0 ,--'0 es ,- ~~(N
H '0
OL 0N o0,' .N
H oo
O 444co.
P4
O oO .1-
u uc c~
3 3 00Y)000r4
r- * * )00
. * ON 0C4T0
cc
l
0
(N (., NO H . . cc cc
,1 U 4J
U pI !p
o
Oo :
H IN cIN
¢En
T
W
0 U) c coX
r~oJ co
a)
I.. Ca
o)
1
H
LnH U% H U H UH
0% 0' U"% U%
0 UO
1
3 a)
kI H -1 I - 1- _1
0
4-i g
000
H :
a)
>I
4i C)CI ) C4 H I I
0 c
88
in the total module design heat transfer rate of 22% for 2X water load-
ing and 32% for 3X water loading. This occurs due to the reduced water
side effectiveness thus raising the log mean temperature difference 112].
Continuing the process, should the plate height and spacing re-
water loading restored, the module design heat transfer will rise an
capital cost and 4% in total evaluated cost for the entire system. In
the low back pressure design. The final figures for the high back
P (K)(AKnWx) (6-1)
P1 = $8.78 x 106
Cap 0.75
afcr = 0.15
3/
R a $8.5 x 10 kw-hr
8760 AKW(T)dt = 5.19 x 107 kw-hr
P2 -$2.21 x 106
8760
The integral AKW(T)dt has been evaluated from Table 6-2 and
climatic data for Boston, Mass. (Table G-3). This data is comparable
This cost has been set equal to that of the mechanical draft
P3 = $3,83 x 106
This is felt to be accurate due to the similar water flow rate and
Cost of Makeup Water and Water Treatment for the Coling System
Thus:
=
P4 $0.07 x 106
Thus:
P5 = $5.29 x 106
and using the cost of $1.21 x 106 for a wet tower system with 23 modules,
and $2.61 x 106 for a dry system with 94 modulea, then for a wet-dry
system of 59 modules:
=
P6 $1.92 x 106
Adding up all of these capitalized penalties gives a total
system (wet, dry and wet-dry) have been tabulated for comparison in
Table6 -3.
The capital costs of the wet-dry tower system are very de-
will have costs that will be relatively fixed for any given size
basins) and costs that will be unique to each design (packing, fin-tube
units, etc.).
draft wet and dry systems and the wet-dry module design of Sec. 62,
the first two groups of these costs have been evaluated for the wet-
module is in the packing section, this cost for a wet-dry tower system
sheet (a June 1976 U.S Steel quote adjusted for inflation) and the
92
for a final cost of$6.21 x 106 for packing plates alone. Adding this
to the fixed and proportional costs gives a capital cost of $26.6 x 106
TABLE 6-4
Capital Costs
Circulating Water
Structure 0.550 .710 .710 .710
Circulating Water
Pumps 0.670 1.030 0.471 1.030
TABLE64 Part 2
Capitalized
Energy Replacement
Penalty 28.32 2.46 29.1 2.21
Due to turbine back
pressure variations
6.4 Results
of the relative cost of the wet-dry alternative. The high back pres-
sure design has an initial capital cost competitive with the mechanical
draft wet tower of the WASH-1360 report. The price for this initial
approach those of the mechanical draft dry tower. The low back pres-
sure design wet-dry system has a higher initial cost due to the higher
number of tower modules, but incurs penalty losses more on the order of
the wet tower system, far below those of a dry tower system. On an
overall basis, the wet-dry system has higher costs than a wet system,
but again consumes only 40% as much water over the course of an oper-
ating year,
Chapter 4. Although these models are not of exactly the same configu-
system.
@ 600 and WET/DRY @ 40° , show the WET/DRY combination system costing
here first. Material and fabrication costs have been rather arbitrar-
ily assigned and may be much different in reality. For example, pres-
ent day packing costs for a wet-dry tower have been estimated at about
$0.20 per ft2 of air-side surface area ($2.16/m2). A check with dry
not demonstrate the major surface cost advantage that the wet-dry con-
ted that doubling the packing plate raw material cost to account for
costs can also be argued. A fixed capital charge for the worst possi-
ble loading condition (high temperature, peak power load) may not
accurately reflect the true cost of meeting this load. Pumped stor-
possible solutions to the peak load problem that depend on each power
presented with the belief that further analysis and optimization can
The penalty charged to each type of cooling system for the highest
with the heat rate of an identical plant operating at the maximum yearly
temperature, rejecting heat with the tower design being evaluated. The
varies with each type of tower system, wet tower (11% penalty, 12% total),
Using the figures of Sect. 4.3 and Ref. [16], the following effects
=
Penalty Rate (Base charge $150/kwe)
WET 1.77 8% 6%
case of the dry and wet-dry towers, and this price may easily vary from
99
brief periods in the summer it is very likely that the system may have
extra capacity elsewhere within its grid that is provided for scheduled
Each of these alternatives would differ in cost from gas turbine capacity
site of this generating plant, the maximum temperature over the year was
seen that the dry bulb temperature exceeds 90F (32C) for only 0.5% of
the years. If the lost capacity is calculated for this temperature range:
The last column indicates that the wet-dry tower is being more
heavily penalized for the last few degrees in maximum ambient temperature.
cooling system cost is due to conditions found only 0.5% of the time.
100
a companion wet tower to the wet-dry system for occasional use as the
moveable baffles that would defeat the water channeling plates and
force the cells to run wet for the necessary length of time. This method
would not significantly increase the yearly water consumption total al-
he deluge mode.
The maximum lost capacity penalty charged to each cooling tower type
thus seems to be biased toward the wet cooling tower system which experi-
REFERENCES
11. Sabersky, R.H., Acosta, A.J., and Hauptmann, E.G., Fluid Flow,
Second Edition, The Macmillan Co., 1971.
12. Rohsenow, W.M. and Choi, H.Y., Heat, Mass and Momentum Transfer,
Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1961.
13. Heller, Lazlo, "Wet/Dry Hybrid Condensing System", Dry and Wet/Dry
Cooling Towers for Power Plants, ASME Winter Annual Meeting, Heat
Transfer Division, Nov.1973.
15. Kays, W.M. and London. A.L. Compact Heat ExcLangers, Second Edition
Edition, MeGraw-Hill, 1964.
102
References (Cont.)
16. Heat Sink Design and Cost Study for Fossil and Nuclear Power Plants,
WASH-1360, USAEC Division of Reactor Research and Development,
Washington, D.C., Dec. 1974.
103
volts between each thermocouple and a standard when both are placed
in the same constant temperature bath. The first test was made using
a standard couple which was connected through the switches, but not
the plugs and other hardware used with the other thermocouples. The
second run, made four days later, used thermocouple #28 as a reference,
which was four microvolts higher than the previous standard at the time
of the test. The position numbers refer to Figure A-1. For more details
to about .05°F.
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
Figure A-1. Tower Cross Section showing the nine positions for
Thermocouple Installation.
104
Distribution
Pipes
1 1 +3 -2 0
2 2 +4 -1 0
3 3 +3 -5 +1
4 4 +4 -3 0
5 5 +4 -3 0
6 6 0 -2 0
7 7 0 -1 +1
8 8 -1 -2 +1
9 9 0 -1 0
Air at Top
of Plates
10 1 +3 0 +1
11 2 +5 0 +4
12 3 +3 0 +3
13 4 +2 -3 +2
14 5 +1 -3 +1
15 6 +2 -2 0
16 7 +2 -3 0
17 8 +1 -3 +1
18 9 +1 -3 +1
Water at Top
of Plates
19 1 +3 0 0
20 2 +4 0 +3
105
Water at Top
of plates
21 3 +3 +1 +4
22 4 +1 -4 +2
23 5 +2 -1 +1
24 6 +1 -2 +1
25 7 +3 -1 +1
26 8 +1 -2 +1
27 9 +1 -3 +1
Air at Bottom
of Plates
28 1 +3 +1
29 2 +1 0 -1
30 3 +1 +1 +1
31 4 +3 -3 -1
32 5 0 -1 -1
33 6 +1 -4 0
34 7 +2 +1 +2
35 8 +4 -3 0
36 9 +3 -1 -2
Water at Bottom
of Plates
37 1 0 -1 0
38 2 +2 -2 0
39 3 +1 0 +1
40 4 +4 -1 -2
41 5 +1 +1 -2
42 6 0 -3 -1
106
Water at Bottom
of Plates
43 7 +4 -2 +2
44 8 +4 -1 +1
45 9 0 -3 0
Collection
Channels
46 3 -2 -2 -1
47 6 +1 -1 0
48 9 +2 0 0O
O
Top Rake
49 1,4,7 -2 -1 +1
50 2,5,8 -1 -1 +1
51 3,6,9 -1 -1 +1
Bottom Rake
52 1,4,7 -2 -1 +1
53 2,5,8 -1 no data no data
54 3,6,9 0 -2 +1
108
by:
+ matr c (T -To)-0
Pwater waterin
C
(mwater mair (wout - Win)) (Twater -To)0 (B-l)
Pwater out
i,, hin
vapor n vapor
out h in
ai air ' hair out I Win' out' water' water
in
ditions:
= 150 lb /min
m
mwaterwater
= 170 lbm/min
m
T = 1200F
waterin
T = 116.4°F
water
out
The following values may be obtained from air property tables using
= 13.938 BTU/lb
h =
vaporou 1104.8 BTU/lb
w = .009225 lbm/lbm
out
limitations:
U. 8 lbm/min
m .
air
u. s 1.7 lbm/min
mwater
. - .1F
UAir Temp.
= .30 F
UDew Point in
= .3°F
UDew Point out
uT = .1°F
water
in
- .10 F
UT
water
out
= .024 BTU/Lbm
Uair.
in
= .024 BTU/Lbm
Uairout
uh = .045 BTU/Lbm
vaporin
Uh = .045 BTU/Lbm
vaporut
u = .000087 Lbm/Lbm
Win
u = .000102 Lbm/Lbm
wout
out
uncertainty:
asQ
(h +w h
a air. + in hvapor - hair - out hvapor )
in out out
air
+ (Wou in )
outt - win
(T - T ) c = -4.038
water out o pwater
=
3h Win air 1.148
vaporin
= mair = 150
ah
airin
= -150
Dhair
= - m
air .
out
36asQ . h
aw. air vaporin - mair(Twater - To) c = 152415
in out Pwater
- To ) c = -153060.
aw air hvapor air water
out out out Pwater
asQ - T
= c (T ) = 3.6
p waterin water out
am
water
m c = 170
aTQ water pwater
water water
a6
water - mair (wout - w in)) = - 169.76
= - c p (mater
out
112
Qair
=m air (h
air
+wout hvapor -h air win hvaporin (B-3)
out
c (mwater
(m
- ( '
air (in
))(Tout -T)
o
(B-4)
As an example the data from the first experimental run will be used.
w = .005528 lbm/lbm
out
h . = 13.5526 BTU/lbm
air
in
h = 15.8360 BTU/lbm
air
out
h = 1099.76 BTU/lbm
vaporin
h = 1103.86 BTU/lbm
vaporut
113
ater= 670.62
=
628.1
average
IIW! - W l * W , fY
water - Qair Imny
.. . . _r-
- 1 c
MC
| WF .- L X L -- LVVJ - J·L .J /o
Qaverage
114
APPENDIX C
RIN.DATA
Table C-1 contains the raw inputs to the model tower and the
with the computer prediction. The first 5 runs were done with the un-
painted packing plates and the last 4 (after 5/5) used the painted
a) co c- n H
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116
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117
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118
APPENDIX D
which meet the same standards of heat rejection and water temperature
(WET/DRY) with the V-trough type packing now being tested at M.I.T.
This design seeks to minimize the air-water contact area thus cutting
The inlet conditions for each of the models was then varied from
considerations.
No effort has been made to optimize any one model, rather the goal
Design Point; inlet air at 90'F (32QC) dry-bulb and 40% RH.
in this case as the values for the surface heat transfer coefficient
(see Table D-l). For this reason, while the total surface area of
the DRY model isaccurate for a counterflow design, the surface area
per plan area value is subjective and therefore not included in the
galvanized sheet steel 0,0233 in (.059 cm) thick. The V-troughs are
one inch (2.5 cm) on a side and are bent to an angle of 600 at the
bottom of the V. The wet-to-dry surface area ratio was set at 5%,
(10 cm) and the plate angle to the vertical was changed from 10 to
450
Heat and Mass Transfer Coefficients: DRY tower, the surface convective
(113m/h) (Section 2.1). WET tower, the coefficients for this model
(21 kcal/h-m2°C) and 300 ft/hr (90 m/h) for the respective heat and
Water Flow per Unit Area - DRY tower, not relevant due to the fixed
values of heat transfer surface area per unit plan area. WET/DRY
was within the range of the model tower tests. WET tower, approximately
T -T
C2 C1
ThlT cl
DRY model, M air = 1,5, This was fairly close to the mass flow
ratios used with the experimental model tower, WET tower, the mass
Table D-1
wate r
wa ter 20 F (11 C)
123
APPENDIX E
After several data runs had been completed with the model tower
Visual observations showed that when water was present in the bottom
tective galvanizing had been worn away in some places and the reaction
of the steel plate with the city water was contributing to the scaling.
area ratio low, one packing plate was coated with an acrylic spray paint
as a test. Several combinations of primer and topcoat were compared and the
one which seemed most resistant to deposit buildup was used. The
plates were cleaned by scrubbing down the water side with citric acid
and steel wool,then "aged" by rubbing down with acetic acid. The
primer was standard for galvanized material, two coats of zinc chromate
primer. This was followed by two spray coats of CrylonR flat back.
124
The surface was fairly smooth to the touch and was not wetted
observed.
layer was approximately 001 in (2.5 x 10-3 mm), Assuming the paint
Only the side of the plates wetted by the water streams was
depositation can be seen. What there is wipes off easily and does
APPENDIX F
FLOW VISUALIZATION
channeling characteristics,
The angle presently used in the model tower is 100 from the
vertical. After the plate surface had been cleaned and painted the
water flowing down the plates was observed to wander at the top and
in some cases did not settle in the bottom of the trough until well
Using a small test plate whose surface had been treated similarly
At 450 water spread over the top portion of the plate channeled
itself immediately into the bottom of the troughs and stayed channeled
down the plate with no wandering. The water channel was approximately
cases jumping from one trough to another and in most troughs requiring
channeled the stream tended to stay that way, although several troughs
126
did exhibit a sort of meandering flow up and down the sides of the
V-trough, The water surface, once channeled, was about .063 inches
The compromise angle was felt to be about 30° from the vertical,
20° and the water surface was narrower than at either 450 or 40 ° ,
APPENDIX G
CLIMATIC DATA
Reference [14]. The summaries show the number of hours each month that
111 - 110 48 - 43 C
109 - 100 43 - 38 C
99 - 90 37 - 32 C
89 - 80 32 - 27 C
79 - 70 26 - 21 C
69 - 60 21 - 16 C
59 - 50 15 - 10 C
49 - 40 9 - 4C
39 - 30 4 - IC
29 - 20 -2 - -7 C
19 - 10 -7 --12 C
9- 0 -13 -- 18 C
Also included for each month is the total number of hours in the
month and the average relative humidity.
128
Table G-1
Albequerque, N.M.
Table G-2
99/90 36 99/90 39
99/90 9 99/90 2
TABLE G-3
Boston, Mass.
Jan. 7440 hrs 50% RH Feb 6792 hrs 50% RH
69/60 6 69/60 20
59/50 253 59/50 261
49/40 825 49/40 1144
39/30 3055 39/30 3092
29/20 2180 29/20 1561
19/10 906 19/10 554
9/0 168 9/0 119
-1/-10 47 -1/-10 41
19/10 2
TABLE G- 4
9/0 57
39/30 3
135
109/100 3 99/90 85
99/90 132 89/80 1223
89/80 1405 79/70 4296
79/70 4524 69/60 1881
69/60 1354 59/50 55
59/50 22
99/90 19 89/80 33
89/80 317 79/70 547
79/70 2532 69/60 2491
69/60 3297 59/50 3043
59/50 969 49/40 1229
49/40 66 39/30 97
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SUBROUTINE BLOCK
VARIABLE DESCRIPTION UNITS
ABDRY Convective heat transfer surface area per ft 2
grid section
ABLIQ Water free surface area per grid section ft 2
AFABLK Air flow area in grid section ft2
CA Heat capacity of air BTU/lb OF
m
CL Heat capacity of liquid water BTU/lb OF
CMIX Heat capacity of air-water vapor mixture BTU/lb OF
CV Heat capacity of water vapor BTUllbm°F
D Distance between water channels in ,packing plate ft
To Reference temperature R
Subroutine MIX
I Counting variable
IXX Number of rows and columns in grid
J Counting variable
TOUT Average air temperature of well-mixed flow R
I I
159
APPENDIXJ
The dry surface heat transfer coefficient for the model tower packing
Chilled air was used to cool the metal packing plates 15 to 20°F below
the model tower exhaust fan was started, drawing the warmer laboratory air
over the plates. Plate surface and local air temperatures were recorded at
plates and air stream, and tower physical properties, the average dry surface
calculation are outlined below with the values in parentheses being a sample
TABLE J-1
0 56.8 10 57.3
20 64.4 30 60.4
40 67.9 50 63.0
60 69.8 70 65.2
80 71.1 90 67.1
Plate Properties
Length 28 inches
Width 43 inches
Air Properties
Temperature 74.40 F
(Tplate = 69.4).
162
* *
7. Using this value of Tplate calculate (C M 0.716)
plate w w
8. From Fig. 3-14 (Ref [15]) use from Step 7 and -1/Cw from Step 4
w w
to find NTU. (NTU 0.48).
9. Use NTU values from Steps 4 and 8 to solve for h. (h - 3.3 BTU/hr-ft2 °F)