ABSTRACT
hardware. The most common kind of networking hardware
In this world, it is no longer enough to simply
have and use PCs; today it is imperative that you also
"get connected." The real power and usability of PCs
becomes apparent only when they are linked so that
they can communicate with one another. From the
simple two-computer home or small office local-area
network (LAN) to the ever-growing global Internet,
networking is the future of computing, and that future is
here today.
Because network communications is quickly
becoming a part of our lives, even those not directly
involved in the information technology (IT) industry
should know something about the basics of networking.
Just as it would be difficult to function in today's world
if you knew nothing about a telephone and its features,
in the not-too-distant future, knowing how to "get on
the network" will be a requirement for many
individuals, both at work and at home. So to establish
the better Network across the world all the components
/things have to be integrated properly. The Network
Hardware and Software course introduces me to
Network Administration and provides necessary
information to administer a network.
INTRODUCTION
Networking hardware and software is the study
that involves how a group of two or more computers that
intelligently share hardware and/or software devices with
each other. This module provided an introduction to
essential networking terminology, standards and protocols,
local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs),
and the open systems interconnection and TCP/IP models.
Moreover, it developed practical working
knowledge of networking tools and networking hardware
and
software including hubs, switches and routers-and
their configuration/troubleshooting- and layer2 and 3
topologies (OSI model) and addressing formats.
NETWORKING HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
To network computers together, we need to install
networking hardware and software. This section describes
various networking hardware and software components that
I confronted while building the local area network
connection.
NETWORKING HARDWARE
Networking hardware typically refers to
equipment facilitating the use of a computer network.
Typically, this includes hubs, bridges, routers, switches,
access points, network interface cards and other related
today is copper-based Ethernet adapters, helped largely by
its standard inclusion on most modern computer systems.
Wireless networking has become increasingly popular,
however, especially for portable and handheld devices.
Other hardware prevalent within computer
networking is data center equipment (such as file servers,
database servers and storage areas), network services (such
as DNS, DHCP, email etc) as well as other specific network
devices such as content delivery.
Other diverse devices which may be considered
Networking hardware include mobile phones, PDAs and
even modern coffee machines. As technology grows and IP-
based networks are integrated into building infrastructure
and household utilities, network hardware becomes an
ambiguous statement owing to the increasing number of
'network capable' endpoints.
These network devices are used to extend cable
connections, concentrate connections, convert data formats
and manage data transfers. The fallowing are networking
devices that I experienced with- during my practical work.
REPEATERS:
A repeater is a network device used to amplify
signals from one cable segment and pass those signals to
other segments without changing the data.802.3 and
Ethernet systems can be extended using repeaters.infact,
10BASE T concentrators are actually a specific type of
multi-port repeater.
It doesn't make intelligent decisions concerning
forwarding packets like a router.
A good example of the use of repeaters would be
in a local area network using a star topology with
unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The length limit for
unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most
common configuration is for each workstation to be
connected by twisted-pair cable to a multi-port active
concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that
pass through it allowing for the total length of cable on the
network to exceed the 100 meter limit.
HUBS:
HUBS concentrate connections. they take a group
of hosts and allow the network to see them as a single unit.
This is done passively without effect on the data
transmission. active hubs concentrate hosts and also
regenerate signals.
SWITCHES:
A SWITCH is a device that provides a central
connection point for cables from workstations, servers, and
peripherals. In a star topology, twisted-pair wire is run from
each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are
active, that is they electrically amplify the signal as it
moves from one device to another. Switches no longer
broadcast network packets as hubs did in the past, they
memorize addressing of computers and send the
information to the correct location directly.
ROUTERS:
A router is network device that translate
information from one network/PC to another; it is similar to
a super intelligent bridge. Routers select the best path to
route a message, based on the destination address and
origin. The router can direct traffic to prevent head-on
collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct
traffic along back roads and shortcuts. Routers can even
"listen" to the entire network to determine which sections
are busiest -- they can then redirect data around those
sections until they clear up. They can route messages
between any two protocols, and between bus, star, and ring
topologies.
WIRELESS NETWORKING HARDWARE
Wireless networking has become increasingly
popular, however, especially for portable and handheld
devices. People and businesses use wireless networks to
send and share data quickly whether it be in a small office
building or across the world. Another important use for
wireless networks is as an inexpensive and rapid way to be
connected to the Internet in countries and regions where the
telecom infrastructure is poor or there is a lack of resources,
like most Developing Countries. The most commonly used
network hardware components are: wireless routers and
bridges AND Access points.
ACCESS POINTS:
Access points are stationary wireless device that
receives and retransmits data, extending the range of
wireless computers on the network. Access points can also
connect to an Ethernet network, linking wireless computers
to other computers connected with cables.
WIRELESS ROUTERS:
A wireless router is router represents with built-in
access point. This device may also be constructed
With two or more built-in Ethernet switch ports.
The wireless router functionalities are similar to the wired
routers.
WIRELESS BRIDGE:
A wireless bridge represents an access point and an
antenna that are physically separated from one another. The
access point is connected to a wired LAN and the antenna is
generally mounted on the top of the building. The access
point is then cabled to the antenna and rest of the
functionalities are similar to bridge.
WIRELESS LANs:
A wireless LAN or WLAN is a wireless local area
network, which is the linking of two or more computers
without using wires. WLAN utilizes spread-spectrum or
OFDM modulation technology based on radio waves to
enable communication between devices in a limited area,
also known as the basic service set. This gives users the
mobility to move around within a broad coverage area and
still be connected to the network.
NETWORKING SOFTWARE
A computer operating system is the software that
provides the foundation on which the computer's
applications and services run. Similarly, a network
operating system (NOS) enables devices to communicate
with other devices and to share resources across the
network.
NOS is sometimes used to describe any operating
system that has built-in networking components. This is in
contrast to a standalone operating system, which is
designed to be used in isolation. Generally, however, an
NOS is an operating system, such as NetWare or NT Server,
that runs on a network server.
This section describes most commonly used Cisco
internetwork operating system software and Netware
operating system software.
CISCO IOS SOFTWARE
Cisco technology is based on the Cisco IOS, which
is the software that controls the routing and switching
functions of network devices. A solid understanding of the
IOS is essential for a network administrator. As with a
computer, a router or switch cannot function without an
operating. It is the embedded software architecture in all of
the Cisco routers and is also the operating system of the
catalyst switches. Without an operating system, the
hardware does not have any capabilities. The
Cisco IOS provides the following network
services:
-basic routing and switching functions.
-Reliable and secure access to networked resources
-Network scalability.
The IOS is core technology that extends across
most of the Cisco product line. Its operation details may
vary on different internetworking devices. The IOS
provides a command interpreter service known as the
command Executive(EXEC). As a security feature the
Cisco IOS software separates the EXEC sessions into two
access levels. These levels are user EXEC mode and
privileged EXEC mode.
Cisco continues to develop different IOS software
images to optimize the Cisco IOS software that these
various platforms require. Each image represents a different
feature set that serves the various device platforms,
available memory resources, and customer needs.
Although there are numerous IOS images for
different Cisco device models and feature sets, the basic
configuration command structure is the same. The
configuration and troubleshooting skills that are acquired
for any device will apply to a wide range of products.
The naming convention for the different Cisco IOS
releases contains three parts:
* The platform on which the image runs
* The special features supported in the image
* Where the image runs and whether it has been
zipped or compressed
One of the main considerations when selecting a
new IOS image is compatibility with the router flashes and
RAM memory. In general, the newer the release and the
more features that it provides, the more flash and RAM
memory it requires. Use the show version command on the
Cisco device to check the current image and available flash.
The Cisco support site has tools available to help
determine the amount of flash and RAM required for each
image. For example, specific IOS features can be selected
using the Cisco Software Advisor, which is available to
registered Cisco.com users. The Cisco Software Advisor is
an interactive tool that provides the most current
information and allows users to select options that meet
network requirements.
NETWARE OPERATING SYSTEM
Netware was originally developed as a server
operating system for Novell's S-net, star network. There are
two main product lines-NetWare 2.x designed to run on an
Intel 80286 platform and above, and Netware 3.xm
designed to run on an Intel 80386 platform and above.
Netware 386 is a real-time operating system that manages
memory, access, and all the network transactions.
Internetworking is achieved on NetWare386 by the
integration of different networking hardware within a single
logical network. In terms of software required, Netware 386
contains all the software necessary to install and operate the
network server and connect up to active workstations on the
network. It includes a C-library Application programming
Interface (API) to support Network Loadable Modules
(NLM) developement,the streams environment, Transport
level interface library for interprocess communications,
Btrieve 386 NLM for record management and tools for the
support of client/server applications.
TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
TCP/IP reference model has four layers: the
application layer, transport layer, Internet layer, and the
network access layer. The application layer handles high-
level protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and
dialog control. The transport layer provides transport
services from the source host to the destination host. The
purpose of the Internet layer is to select the best path
through the network for packet transmissions. The network
access layer is concerned with the physical link to the
network media.
Although some layers of the TCP/IP reference
model correspond to the seven layers of the OSI model,
there are differences. The TCP/IP model combines the
presentation and session layer into its application layer. The
TCP/IP model combines the OSI data link and physical
layers into its network access layer. The following protocols
operate at the TCP/IP Internet layer:
• IP provides connectionless, best-effort
delivery routing of packets. IP is not
concerned with the content of the packets
but looks for a path to the destination.
• Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) provides control and messaging
capabilities.
• Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
determines the data link layer address, or
MAC address, for known IP addresses.
• Reverse Address Resolution Protocol
(RARP) determines the IP address for a
known MAC address.
TCP is used extensively by many of the Internet's
most popular application protocols and resulting
applications, including the World Wide Web, E-mail, File
Transfer Protocol, Secure Shell, and some streaming media
applications.
However, because TCP is optimized for accurate
delivery rather than timely delivery, TCP sometimes incurs
long delays while waiting for out-of-order messages or
retransmissions of lost messages, and it is not particularly
suitable for real-time applications such as Voice over IP. For
such applications, protocols like the Real-time Transport
Protocol (RTP) running over the User Datagram Protocol
(UDP) are usually recommended instead. The following
diagram summarizes the list of protocols.
 PROTOCOL SUMMARY

Protocol
Cable
Speed
Topology

Ethernet
Twisted Pair, Coaxial, Fiber
10 Mbps
Linear Bus, Star, Tree

Fast Ethernet
Twisted Pair, Fiber
100 Mbps
Star

LocalTalk
BUILDING LARGER LANs AND WANS
Twisted Pair
.23 Mbps Larger LANs and WANs can be constructed by
Linear Bus or Star using the LAN servers such as Terminal servers, gateway
servers, disk and file servers and switches. Larger LANs are
Token Ring characterized by their use of redundant links with switches
Twisted Pair using the spanning tree protocol to prevent loops, their
4 Mbps - 16 Mbps ability to manage differing traffic types via quality of
service, and to segregate traffic via VLANing.
Star-Wired Ring
LANs may have connections with other LANs via
FDDI leased lines, leased services, or by 'tunnelling' across the
Fiber Internet using VPN technologies.
100 Mbps
Dual ring LOCAL AREA NETWORKS

ATM A local area network can be defined as data

Twisted Pair, Fiber
155-2488 Mbps
Linear Bus, Star, Tree
transmission system that aids intercommunication between
people or applications, by the use of terminals or personal
computers within the confines of a restricted geographical
area. Today LANs within a company can also be viewed as
a layered system of interconnected workgroups.
LANs consist of the following components:
* Computers
* Network interface cards
* Peripheral devices
* Networking media
* Network devices

LANs allow businesses to locally share computer

files and printers efficiently and make internal
communications possible. A good example of this
technology is e-mail. LANs manage data, local
communications, and computing equipment.
Some common LAN technologies include the
following:
* Ethernet
* Token Ring
* FDDI
WIDE-AREA NETWORKS
Wide Area Network (WAN) is a computer network
that covers a broad area (i.e., any network whose
communications links cross metropolitan, regional, or
national boundaries ).WANs interconnect LANs, which
then provide access to computers or file servers in other
locations. Because WANs connect user networks over a
large geographical area, they make it possible for
businesses to communicate across great distances. WANs
allow computers, printers, and other devices on a LAN to
be shared with distant locations. WANs provide instant
communications across large geographic areas.
The practical knowledge gained while working
on networking hardware and software module include-
making LAN connections within my college roof,
configuring and managing routers for the communication
purpose by using the Hyper Terminal command-line
interface and various connections and interfaces such as
serial/Fast Ethernet and their configuration. And also the
experience of various protocols (such as CDP)
configuration and their management and routing algorithms
helps me to control the traffic across the network. By the
end I used PING, TRACEROUTE AND TELNET
CONNECTIONS to test the end-to-end connectivity, to find
where data is sent along the network and to test remote
login connections.
CAREER IN NETWORKING
Many view computer networking as one of the
best and hottest career fields available today. The basic job
titles one sees for computer networking and networking
related positions include:
Network Administrator, Network Engineer,
Network (service) Technician, Network
Programmer/Analyst, Network/information Systems
manager.
• Network Administrators configure
manage LANs and sometimes WANs. He
will be responsible for analysis,
installation and configuration of company
networks. Other activities include
assisting customers with operating
systems and network adapters,
configuring routers, switches, and
firewalls, and evaluating third-party tools.
• Network Engineers focus primarily on
system upgrades, evaluating vendor
products, security testing, and so on.
• Network Technician tends to focus more
on the setup, troubleshooting, and repair
of specific hardware and software
products.
• Network programmers generally write
software programs or scripts that aid in
network analysis, such as diagnostics or
monitoring utilities.
• Managers supervise the work of
administrators, engineers, technicians,
and/or programmers. They also focus on
longer range planning and strategy
considerations.
As I explained earlier the experiences gained from
Networking Hardware and Software module makes me
comfortable and confident that I can do the
functionalities/jobs of a network administrator. Also I am
confident that my professor will guide me and incorporate
the skills required to become a complete Network
Professional by the end of this course.
CONCLUSION
In this paper I have presented the various
networking hardware and software components that I have
confronted during my lab practice and the most commonly
used hardware and software components in today’s
networking applications. I also presented how my skills are
useful to build larger LANs and WANs .Also, the
experiences that I have gathered ranging from LANs
connections, router configurations/troubleshooting to
various protocols to control traffic across the network
,makes me enough confident to compete in this networking
field.
REFERENCES
[1] Patrick H.Corringan: Building Local Area Networks.
[2] Andrews. Tanenbaum: Computer Networks.
[3] M Devargas : Local Area Networks.
[4] Bradley Mitchell: Networking complete
through About.com .
[5] Gilbert Held: Ethernet Networks, Design,
Implementation, Operation, Management
4th Edition.
[6] Georgios I. Papadimitriou, Andreas S. Pomportsis, P.
Nicopolitidis, Mohammed S. Obaidat: Wireless –
Networking.