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 Collected data in the raw form would be voluminous and no comprehensible. Therefore it should be condensed and simplified for better
understanding and usefulness. Classification is first stage in simplification. It can be defined as a systematic grouping of the units according to
their common characteristics. Each of the group is called class. For example in survey of Industrial workers of a p articular industry, workers can
be classified as unskilled, semiskilled and skilled each of which form a class.
   
The very important types are:
1) Geographical classification: Data are classified according to region.
2) Chronological classification: Data are classified according to the time of its occurrence.
3) Conditional classification: Data are classified according to certain conditions.
4) Qualitative classification: Classification of data that are no measurable. E.g. Sex of a person, marital status, colour etc.
5) Quantitative classification: Classification of data that are measurable either in discrete or continuous form.
6) Statistical Series: Data arranged logically according to size or time of occurrence or some other measurable or no measurable characteristics.
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i. Classification is done according to a single attribute or variable, is known as one way classification.
ii. Classification done according to two attributes or variables is known as two -way classification.
iii. Classification done according to more than two attributes or variables is known as manifold classification.

1. One-way classification
No. of students who secured more than 60 % in various sections of same course
2. Two ± way classification
Classification of students according to sex who secured more than 60 %
3. Manifold classification.
Classification of employees according to skill, sex and education.


a. Tabulation follows classification. It is a logical listing of related data in rows and columns.
b. Objectives of tabulation are:
i. To simplify complex data
ii. To highlight important characteristics
iii. To present data in minimum space
iv. To facilitate comparison
v. To bring out trends and tendencies
vi. To facilitate further analysis

       

 
In spite of the fact that they are closely related, the differences are as follows.
 

. It is the basis for Tabulation It is the basis for further analysis
. It is the basis for Simplification It is the basis for Presentation
Data is divided into groups and sub groups on the basis of similarities and Dissimilarities.
Data is listed according to a logical sequence of related characteristics
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a. The number of units associated with each value of the variable is called frequency of that value. Suppose the variable takes the value 15 and
the value 15 occurs 3 times then 3 is called the frequency of the value 15.
b. A systematic presentation of the values taken by v ariable together with corresponding frequencies is called a Frequency Distribution of the
variable. It is presented in Tabular form called as Frequency Table. If class intervals are not present, then it is called a discrete frequency
distribution. A frequency distribution formed with class intervals is called a continuous frequency distribution.
c. A continuous frequency distribution is divided into mutually exclusive sub ranges called   $ Class intervals have lower and upper
limits known as lower class limit and upper class limits. The differences between upper class limit and lower class limit is termed as class width.
The middle value of a class interval is called  $
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Year 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Rice Yield (M-Ton) 199 201 300 250 352 325 366
Wheat Yield (M-Ton) 225 300 250 230 190 201 325
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They are drawn when we have two or more sets of comparable values. Example: Simple Bar Diagram: It is drawn when items are to be compared
with respect to a single characteristics. A rectangular bar is constructed with height proportional to the magnitude of the items.
YEAR
Rice Yield (MTon)
Wheat Yield (MTon)
1999 199 225
2000 201 300
2001 300 250
2002 250 230
2003 352 190
2004 325 201
2005 366 325
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i. To present mass data in a concise form
ii. To facilitate comparison
iii. To establish relationship between sets
iv. To provide basis for decision making
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i. It should be simple to calculate and easy to understand
ii. It should be based on all values.
iii. It should not be affected by extreme values
iv. It should not be affected by sampling fluctuation
v. It should be rigidly defined
vi. It should be capable of further algebraic treatment
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i. Algebraic sum of deviations of a set values taken from their Mean is always Zero
i,e _ (X ± X) = 0
ii. Sum of squares of deviations of a set of values from their mean is always minimum.
i,e _ (X ± X) 2 is always minimum.
iii. It is capable of further algebraic treatment. Suppose if X1, X2«.. Xn are the means of n1,
n2««.nn sets of values, then their combined arithmetic mean value is given by
X = n1x1 + n2x2+««+nnXn
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Every human activity has an element of uncertainty. Uncertainty affects the decision making
process. We use the word ³Probably´ every often, like, probably it may rain today, probably
the share price may go up in the next week. Therefore there is a need to handle uncertainty
systematically and scientifically. Probability theory helps us to make wiser decisions.
a.  :
An operation that results in a definite outcome is called an experiment.
Tossing a coin is an experiment if it shows Head or tail on falling. If it stands on its edge,
then it is not an experiment.
b. 3   :
When the outcome of an experiment cannot be predicted, then it is called Random
experiment or stochastic experiment
c.   or total number of outcomes of an experiment is the set of all possible
outcomes of a random experiment and is denoted by S. In tossing two coins S = {HH, HT,
TH, TT}. The number of outcomes is denoted by n(s) = 4. If the number of outcomes is finite
then it is called Finite Sample Space otherwise it is called Infinite Sample Space.
d. $ :
Events may be a single outcome or combination of outcomes. In tossing a coin getting a
head is (event A) a single outcome. Therefore P (A) = ½ In tossing two coins getting a head
(event A) a combination outcomes HT and TH therefore P(A) = 2/4 = 1/2 . It is a subset of
sample space.
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Two or more events are said to be equally likel y if they have equal chance of occurrence.
In tossing an unbiased coin getting head and tail are equally likely.
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Two or more events are said to be mutually exclusive if the occurrence of one prevents the
occurrence of other events. In tossing a coin if head falls, it prevents the occurrence of tail
and vice versa.
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A set of events is exhaustive if one or other of the events in the set occurs whenever the
experiment is conducted. It can be defined also as the set whose totality of sample points
form the total sample points of the experiment.
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A variable which assumes values 1 and 0 with probabilities p and q=1p,
is called Bernoulli variable. It has only one parameter p. For different values of p (0£p£1), we
get different Bernoulli distributions. 1 r epresents the occurrence of success
0 represents the occurrence of failure. In other words the assumption for the distribution is
outcome of a experiment is of dichotomous nature i.e. Success / failure, present / absent,
defective / non defective, yes / no etc. Example: When a fair coin is tossed the outcome is
either head or tail. The variable ³X´ assumes 1 or 0.
3   
  
An experiment which results in two mutually exclusive and exhaustive outcomes is called a
Bernoulli experiment. Let a Bernoulli experiment be repeated ³n´ times under identical
conditions, Let Xi, for i=1 to n, assume the values 1 or 0. Then Xi is a Bernoulli Variate with
probability p. Let X = X1 + X2 +««..+Xn denote the number of success in the ³n´ repetition.
Then X forms Bernoulli distribution. Its mean is p an variance is pq.
  0
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It is a discrete probability distribution. Its probability mass function is given by P(X) = nCxq nx
p x, x = 0 to n. The Binominal Distribution is given by (q+p) n = q n + nC1 q n1
p 1 + nC2q n2 p 2 +«««««««..+p n
The successive terms of the expansion gives the probability of 0, 1, 2 ««..n success. The
mean and variance of the distribution are np and npq. ³n´ and ³p´ are its parameters. It is a
unimodal distribution. For fixed n or p as p or n increases the distribution shifts from left to
right.
a. Assumption under which Binomial Distribution can be applied.
ii. The experiment should be of dichotomous nature.
iii. The probability of success should remain the same fro m experiment to experiment.
iv. Experiments should be conducted under identical conditions.
v. Experiments should be statistically independent.
b. Examples of Binomial Variate
1. Number of defectives in a random sample of 6 articles drawn from a manufactur ed lot.
2. Number of seeds germinating among 10 seeds sown.
3. Number of heads turned in tossing 8 coins.
c. Recurrence relation between successive terms of Binomial expansion is given by
(n + 1 ± X) p X q
Where Tx1 = N p(n=X1).
N ± Total frequency. This r ecurrence formula helps us to construct
theoretical distribution for given observed distribution.
There are 3 types of problems in Distribution:
i) To find probability of events
ii) to find expected values
iii) given the parameters to find the distribution .