Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Module Description
A research design ensures that the evidence obtained effectively address the
research problem as unambiguously as possible. It allows researchers to hone in on
research methods that are suitable for the subject matter and assures the success of the
study. An impactful research design usually creates a minimum bias in data and increases
trust in the accuracy of collected data.
The module provides the various concepts related to the use of appropriate design
in research. It also presents the different methods in the selection of subjects of the study.
Learning Outcome
1. Determine the appropriate research design.
2. Develop sampling plan.
Module Content
1. Determine the Appropriate Research Design
Essential Elements of the Research Methodology:
A. Research Design. A very important aspect of research methodology which
describes the research mode (whether it is qualitative or quantitative research
or if the researcher will use a specific type, e.g. descriptive, survey, historical,
case study or experimental).
B. Research Locale. This discusses the place or setting of the study. It briefly
describes the place where the study is to be conducted.
C. Respondents of the Study. This describes the target population and the
sample frame that comprise the respondents of the study.
D. Instrument of the Study. This explains the specific type of research
instrument that will be used, such as questionnaire, checklist, questionnaire-
checklist, interview schedule, teacher-made test and the like.
E. Validation of and establishing reliability. Two of the characteristics of a
good instrument, validity and reliability, should be established before the
research instrument is utilized. IT has to pass the tests for validity and
reliability.
F. Statistical Treatment. One of the many ways of establishing the objectivity
of the findings of the research is subjecting the data to different but
appropriate statistical formulas and processes.
G. Notes in Chapter III. Published or unpublished materials that are used as
references in the chapter must be mentioned to give due credit to avoid the
unethical practice of plagiarism. For uniformity purposes, the chapter starts
with an introductory paragraph.
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Quantitative research is the traditional method which refers to a general
set of orderly disciplined procedures to acquire information. It utilizes
deductive reasoning to generate predictions that are tested in the real world.
By “systematic”, it means that the researcher progresses logically through a
series of steps, according to a pre-specified plan of action. Quantitative
researcher gathers empirical evidence –evidence that is rooted in objective
reality and gathered directly or indirectly through the senses. Checking for the
presence or absence of skin inflammation, determining the anxiety level of a
patient and measuring the weight of the newborn infant are all examples of
empirical observations.
The degree to which research findings can be generalized to individuals
other than those who participated in the study (referred to as generality of the
research) is a widely-used criterion for assessing the quality of quantitative
studies. It is based on the concepts of manipulation and control of phenomena
and the verification of results validating empirical data. In a quantitative study,
therefore, the researcher is concerned with the use of numbers and statistical
analyses.
Quantitative research designs are classified as either experimental or
non-experimental. (Please refer to table 1).
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
Experimental research is concerned primarily with cause and effect
relationships, wherein all experimental studies involve manipulation or control
of the independent variables (causes) and measurement of the dependent
variables (effects). This utilizes the principle of research known as method of
difference. This means that the effect of a single variable applied to the
situation can be assessed and the difference likewise determined.
In experimental research there are variables that are not part of the study
focus but are believed to influence study outcomes. These are called
intervening or extraneous variables. These variables are part of the study
limitations. These intervening variables are labeled threats to internal and
external validity.
• Internal Validity – the degree to which changes in the independent
variable can be attributed to the independent variable.
Threats to internal validity:
a. Selection bias – results when the subjects or respondents
are not randomly selected.
b. Maturation – happens when the experiment is conducted
across a longer period of time during which most of the
subjects undergo physical, emotional and or
psychological changes.
c. History – happens during the conduct of the study when
unusual affects the result of the experiment.
d. Instrumentation change – the instrument used in
gathering the data must not be changed or replaced
during the conduct of the study. It must also be the
instrument used in all of the subjects.
e. Mortality – one or more subjects die or drop or transfer
f. Testing – threat may occur in studies wherein a pretest is
given or where subjects have knowledge on baseline
data.
• External Validity – the degree to which the changes in the
dependent variable can be attributed to the extraneous variables.
Threats to external validity:
a. Experimenter effect – results when the characteristics of
the researcher affect the behavior of the subjects or
respondents.
b. Hawthorne effect – occurs when the respondents or
subjects respond artificially to the treatment because
they know they are being observed as part of research
study.
c. Measurement effect – also called reactive effects of the
pretest, as part of this occurs when subjects have been
sensitized to the treatment by taking the pretest. This
sensitization may affect the posttest results.
TYPES OF EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
A. True experimental designs. A design is considered a true experiment
if the following criteria are present: the researcher manipulates the
experimental variables; there must be at least one experimental and
one comparison or control group; and subjects are randomly assigned,
either to the comparison or experimental group. The control group is a
group that does not receive the treatment.
1. Pretest-posted controlled group design
- Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
- A pretest is given to both groups
- The experimental group receives the treatment while the
control group does not.
- A posttest is given to both groups
2. Posttest-only controlled group design
- Subjects are randomly assigned to groups
- The experimental group receives the treatment while the
control group does not receive the treatment
- A posttest is given to both groups
3. Solomon four-group design. Considered the most prestigious
experimental design. It minimizes threats to internal and external
validity.
- Subjects are randomly assigned to one or four groups
- Two of the groups (experimental group 1 and control group 1)
are pretested
- The other two groups (experimental group 2 and control group
2) receive routine or no treatment
- A posttest is given to all four groups
2. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Qualitative research or the naturalistic method of inquiry of research, deals
with the issue of human complexity by exploring it directly. In this type, the
emphasis is on the complexity of humans, their ability to shape and create their
own experience and the idea that truth is a composite of reality. Naturalistic
investigations place heavy emphasis on understanding human experience as it
is lived, usually through the careful collection and analysis of data that are
narrative and subjective.
Qualitative research focuses on gaining insights on and an understanding
of an individual’s perception of events. It is concerned with in-depth
descriptions of people or events and the individual’s interpretation of events
and circumstances is of importance. Data are collected through such methods
as unstructured interviews and participant observation. The task of the
researcher is to synthesize the patterns and themes in the data rather than
focusing on the testing of hypotheses. The qualitative researcher is not limited
by existing theories but rather must be open to new ideas and new theories.
Lastly, the researcher does not have to be concerned with numbers and
complicated statistical analyses.
3. MIXED METHOD
The term “mixed methods” refers to an emergent methodology of research
that advances the systematic integration, or “mixing,” of quantitative and
qualitative data within a single investigation or sustained program of inquiry.
The basic premise of this methodology is that such integration permits a more
complete and synergistic utilization of data than do separate quantitative and
qualitative data collection and analysis.
Mixed methods research originated in the social sciences and has recently
expanded into the health and medical sciences including fields such as
nursing, family medicine, social work, mental health, pharmacy, allied health,
and others. In the last decade, its procedures have been developed and refined
to suit a wide variety of research questions (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2011).
These procedures include advancing rigor, offering alternative mixed methods
designs, specifying a shorthand notation system for describing the designs to
increase communication across fields, visualizing procedures through
diagrams, noting research questions that can particularly benefit from
integration, and developing rationales for conducting various forms of mixed
methods studies.
N= N______
1 + Ne 2
KEY POINTS:
• The essential elements of research methodology are: research
design, research locale, respondents of the study, instrument of the
study, validation of and establishing reliability and statistical
treatment.
• Quantitative, Qualitative and Mixed Method are the three types of
research designs.
• Experimental design is a quantitative research that is concerned
primarily with cause and effect relationships.
• There are various factors to consider in determining the sample
size. These are: homogeneity of the population, degree of precision
desired by the researcher and type of sampling procedure
• Probability sampling and nonprobability sampling are the two main
types of sampling. Probability sampling includes simple random
sampling, stratified random sampling, cluster sampling and
systematic sampling. Nonprobability sampling includes
convenience sampling, quota sampling and purposive sampling.