GEMSTONES OF TANZANIA

AND
THE DANGER OF SINGLE STORY OF EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRY IN EAST AFRICA

Eng.Gilay Charles Kilayi Shamika

MINERALS AUDITOR IS
PRECISELY LIKE A
PILOT.

A SINGLE DISCREPANCY
OF MINERALS WEIGHT
WILL CAUSE A HUGE TAX
DEVIATION.

LIKEWISE

A SINGLE DISCREPANCY
OF A NEUTICAL MILE
WILL CAUSE LANDING
DEVIATION
Author Profile

Eng.Gilay Charles Kilayi Shamika is a Senior Minerals Engineer and

Gemologist at Tanzania Minerals Audit Agency (TMAA) under the Ministry
of Energy and Minerals, United Republic of Tanzania.

TMAA has done exemplary performance and is among iconic Government

Agencies. The Agency is mandated to conduct financial and environmental audit as
well as auditing and monitoring of quality and quantity of minerals produced and
exported by large, medium and small scale miners in order to maximize benefits to
the Government from the mining industry for sustainable development of the
country.

He started working in the mining sector since 2003 with Alex Stewart Assayers,
American based company. He joined Gold Audit Program 2007, the department
under the Ministry of Energy and Minerals in Tanzania, mandated to audit and
monitoring production and export of all products produced in gold mines operating in the country. After
the unprecedented performance, the Government decided to extend the responsibilities of the program and
in 2009 formed Tanzania Minerals Audit Agency where he works now. Apart from being employed in the
Government, Eng.Shamika, G.C.K has devoted his spare time to act professionally by writing colossal of
articles, studies, researches and presentations.

He is a well-rounded professional having qualifications of all three facets of extractive industry : Chemical
and Minerals processing Engineer from University of Dar es Salaam, Gemologist from Gemological Institute
of America and Completion courses of Oil and Gas from Global Academy for Mining, Oil and Gas,UK.
 CHAPTER ONE

How Can Revenues Derived from Domestic Extractive industry Oil and Gas Production be
productively Utilized to Eradicate Poverty in East Africa. Conceptual Research Paper.

Abstract
This research paper examines how revenues derived from domestic extractive industry oil and

gas production can be productively utilized to eradicate poverty in East Africa. The paper

describes the obstacles to using extractive industries as a vehicle for poverty reduction and

sustainable development, and poses solutions based on two schools of thoughts which entails the

two stories of extractive industry; mineral resources are a potentially great source of wealth

for poor countries, and the same can be a curse to the developing countries - for policy

makers to be aware with both stories and find a way to minimize the second story of negativities.

The researcher has developed new conceptual framework showing relationship between

economic growth and revenues generations. The concept cemented that revenue re-investment is

a denominator of sustainable economic growth and not the function of revenues boom from

extractive industry or any other economic sector. Other argument of „Soft and physical

Infrastructure‟ has been introduced.

The article concluded that; the revenues re-investment is the denominator of the sustainable

economic growth when guided with comprehensive and transparent „soft infrastructures‟.

The research tells all about two stories of extractive industry; positivity and negativity side of it.

There is a great danger of telling single story of positivity only, especially when the negativity

surfaces the authorities use more efforts to explain and contain riots from the citizens. Let the

truth be told and the citizen will be used to it when negativity emerges from extractive industry.
1.0 Introduction

The expanded trade and investment among the East African Community (EAC) Partner States

has increased economic growth and development prospects in the region, with regional GDP

increasing from US$42.4 billion in 2006 to 74.5 billion in 2009 and reached $ 80 billion in 2012.

Kenya‟s economy remains relatively large at about 35.7% compared to that of the other EAC

partner states.

The extractive industry in East Africa has experienced a boom that coincides with favorable

„enabling investments environment‟. The overall inflow of FDI to EAC increased from a total of

US $1,323 million in 2006 to US $1,714 million in 2009.

For the period from 1998 to 2012, the 7large scale gold extractive industry entities in Tanzania

paid to the Government a total of TZS 2.86trillion (royalty amounting to TZS484.69billion and

taxes amounting to TZS 2.38trillion). This is about 15.81% of total revenue generated (TZS

18.09 trillion or USD 12.06billion) by the entities during that period.

Huge discoveries of offshore gas have been made in recent years in Tanzania, with estimated

reserves currently at 53.2 trillion cubic feet (tcf) and rising, valued at USD 430 billion (TPDC

Report, 2013) and expect to see an increase in revenue of up to $ 3billion a year.

The ongoing laying out of Mtwara – Dar gas pipe in Tanzania, will result in providing gas to

produce electricity capable of generating over 2,000 megawatts of electricity and expect to

reduce the cost of producing thermal electricity from the current USD 0.34 cents to USD 0.12

cents per megawatt. In Kenya, the discoveries of Oil by Tullow in Lokichar basin, promised to

have a 600million barrels of oil reserves. Kenya is planning to build the pipeline like Tanzania,

from Lokichar basin to a terminal on the coast Lamu.

The Tullow operations have contributed KES 4.1billion in local content expenditure in 2013 and

KES 1.9 Billion government payments.

Uganda oil discoveries show the good sign of the government and the community to benefit.

Uganda‟s energy ministry and Tullow Oil both estimates that the current reserves alone could

generate over $ 2billion in annual revenue for more than 20years.The contract to build oil

refinery has already endorsed which means East Africa has now entered into a new history of oil

and gas producer.

These discoveries have increased revenues in East African Partner states, the current situation of

the region economically also shows the improvement of the economy.

The GDP of total 5 countries grew from USD 30billion in 2002 to USD 75billion in 2009 with

an average of GDP growth rate of 7 per cent and single digit of inflation rate of 5 per cent.

The poverty continues to drop from 24.5 in 2009/10 to 22.2% in 2012/13 for Uganda, Kenya

population below poverty line in rural is 49.10 and urban 33.7 while Tanzania rural 33.3 and

urban 15.5 in 2013.Rwanda and Burundi are also showing improvements in explorations going

on.

1.1 Poverty

The definition of poverty according to the World Bank, considers poverty to be a multi-

dimensional phenomenon, it is more than inadequate income or even low human development as

perceived by many. Poverty comprises as well: material deprivation, low levels of education and

health, vulnerability and exposure to risk, voicelessness and powerlessness.

The benchmark of measuring poverty line using one dollar per day, while the currency

strength/pegging are now manipulated, its authenticity becomes questionable. Purchasing power

within local markets is different from international markets.

There are most of countries in the suburb where people can live satisfactorily below one dollar

per day by purchasing locally……..why comparing someone in New York who cannot get daily
bread below one dollar while there are someone in Kinshasa who can and you put them together

into similar economic index computation?

It is true that there are common „human needs‟ but no common „human wants‟. The two result

into total daily expenses and ultimately purchasing power. The definition above encompasses

both common needs and wants, which is wrong to my view. Needs can always be met but wants

can never be fulfilled.

Is better to have a reference (below one dollar) but this reference should not be ultimatum in

grading poor countries especially African countries and other developed countries.

There are should be a comprehensive debate among economists on the way to re-define the

computation of poverty lines – generalizing the purchasing power, incomes and expenses (wants

and needs) globally bring inconsistency. Better put in a certain geographical location which has

economic similarities.

2.0 Poverty Eradication Measures

2.1 Economic Growth

Economic Growth and Revenues Generations are inseparable terms and they need careful

definition to differentiate. You might have reliable sources of revenues generations which shows

an increase annually, and it can be defined or interpreted as an economic growth.

Additionally, the increase of foreign direct investment (FDI) in the country can be defined or

interpreted as an economic growth since more capitals have been poured into the economy of a

specific country. The question is, which one should start and is truly Economic Growth;

(a)Does the revenues generation lead to the economic growth by re-investing those revenues to

boost other economic projects and result into economic boom, or (b) Economic Growth (in the
sense of FDI) leads to the reliable Revenues generations and re-invest those revenues to keep the

economy escalating?

Both are collect: The essence of economic growth is to get optimal revenues for the Government

to fulfill its obligations of serving its people satisfactorily. Therefore economic growth and

revenues generations is a complete closed circuit (cycle); there is no definitive starting point

once both are rolling.

You can have a single reliable source of revenues generations and use those revenues wisely to

boost the economic growth, or prepare suitable environment for investments (FDI) and

ultimately the economic growth takes its way by re-investing revenues.

In light of the above, the common denominator is the utilization of revenues generated to keep

the economic growth cycle existing and revolving, otherwise there will be a gap between

revenues generations and sustainable economic growth.

The figure below shows relationship between economic growth (EG) and revenues generation

(RG).

The relationship between EG and RG shows four patterns in which the countries both resource-

rich and non-resource rich countries can experience depending on the measures taken by the

government and the private sector whether formal or informal.

 Economic Growth (EG) Vs Revenues Generation (RG) Conceptual Framework

Quadrant I: Real Economic Growth.

There is direct proportional between EG and RG due to;

Proper mechanisms in supervising investments compliance, revenues collections and proper

incentives and taxes;

No single dependence on revenues generations, all sectors are strengthened including local

projects within the communities (re-investing revenues).

The economy is characterized by labor intensive industries and services sectors.

Quadrant II: Statistical Economic Growth.

There is inverse proportional between EG and RG due to;

Increase of Investments accompanied with over-incentives to the investors which delay the

maturity of investments in terms of return to the countries of operations

Inadequate institutions capacity (soft infrastructure)

Mostly RG depends on the single sector especially extractive industry while there is relaxation in

dealing with other traditional economic sectors

Quadrant III: Zero Economic Growth

This is the mirror image of quadrant I. Lack of the measures taken in quadrant I results into

economic setbacks (austerity).

Quadrant IV: State Economic Growth.

This is a mirror image of quadrant II.There is inverse proportional between EG and RG;

Statistically the EG show decrease while the Revenues generations (collection) increase. This is

due to boom of informal sectors where there is no proper records from informal economic

activities but the state collect taxes from local councils, municipals and local markets from those

activities and the state economy goes on.

Internationally the Economy Growth statistics won‟t be available for compilation while locally

the state is gaining revenues from informal sectors – (state economic growth) and the livelihood

of citizens show improvements.

The interpretations shows that you might have Economic Growth but with decimal revenues

generations, and as well having revenues generations without statistical economic growth.
In light of the above, the real economic growth is reflected into how the revenues generated from

that growth is re-invested to keep the growth escalating, otherwise the growth will be decimal.

And that the denominator of economic growth is revenues generations and not the status of

number of capital intensive investments.

2.2 Economic Growth from Extractive Industry

2.2.1 Positivity: It is true that, the resource extraction can contribute to poverty reduction by

generating economic growth. The growth in GDP of resource-rich countries tends to reduce

poverty as the country become able to fulfill its obligation of serving its people (Weber-Fahr,

2002).

The rational for extractive industry to eradicate poverty is through enhancing economic growth,

increase government revenues and in return finance the poverty reduction programs, create jobs

directly or indirectly, transfer of technology through either learning by doing or colleges initiated

by extractive industries, downstream industries related to extractive industries and also

infrastructure advancement within or to the vicinity of extractive industries.

All these in totality if managed responsibly, they would contribute to the vast poverty

eradication in the East African community taking considerations of ongoing discoveries of Oil

and gas.

To get rid of resource dependence to effect economic growth negatively, the revenues boom and

spill over from extractive industries have to be re-invested into traditional economic activities

like agriculture and manufacturing industries.

2.2.3 Negativity: The negativities of Extractive Industry are not explicit told to the extent that

most believes that there is no way the natural resources can bring negativity to the country‟s

wellbeing;
Decrease rate of GDP

There are three types of resource-rich countries where extractive industry, oil and gas is

dominant (50% of all exports), critical (15 to 50% of all exports) or relevant (6 to 15% of all

exports).The empirical records demonstrates that from 199o to 1999 the GDP of all three types

countries were decreasing compared to non resource –rich countries (Scott,2005).

Level of Illiteracy

The dislocation of people, child labor and migrant workers cause comparatively high illiteracy in

resource-rich areas. Thorvaldur Gylfason tests three different measures of education against

natural resource abundance and finds that;

1) An increase of 18 percentage points in the share of natural capital from one country to the

next is associated with a decrease in public expenditure on education by 1% of GNP;

2) A five percentage point increase in the share of natural capital is correlated with a decrease

by one year in the schooling that an average girl at the age of school entry can expect to

receive; and

3) A five percentage point increase in the share of natural capital is associated with a 10

percentage point decrease in secondary-school enrollment from one country to another

(Gylfason, 2001).

Social Tension

The commissioning of extractive industry, oil and gas projects are capital intensive with a lot of

exposure of the poor within those vicinities to social risks; displacements from their areas, influx

of migrant workers and foreigners who disturb the cultural arrangements of the inhabitants.
The World Bank demonstrates that, often at any extractive industry areas the influx of people

lead to price inflation; higher income of mine workers lead to rising local prices for food, fuel,

land, and housing.

This cause more poverty on local community; mine workers enjoy the situation while the locals

and newcomers who have missed the employment, turn the area into‟ poverty hot bed‟ and in

return results into school absenteeism, child labor and prostitution.

2.2 Revenue Generation from Extractive Industry

„There are few areas of economic policy-making in which the returns to good decisions are of so

high – and the punishment of bad decisions so cruel –as in the management of natural resource

wealth. Rich endowments of oil, gas and minerals have set some countries on courses of

sustainable and robust prosperity; but they have left others riddled with corruption and persistent

poverty, with little of lasting value to show for squandered wealth.

And amongst the most important of these decisions are those relating to the tax treatment of

oil, gas and minerals.’

Positivity: The first and foremost intention of the developing countries to attract foreign direct

investment is to get the reliable sources of revenue generation. The revenues accrued will be

used in fulfilling poverty reduction programs. The capacity of East African countries to ensure

appropriate mechanism to collect the net returns from extractive industries is of high importance.

Though due to financial muscles of those multinational companies and sometime

recommendations from the World Bank, the countries of origin tend to be challenged to reduce

the royalties import duty, corporate income tax and customs duties (Campbell et. 2003)
The East African community in its Article 114 of the Treaty for the Establishment of East

African Community has emphasised efficiency management and utilization of natural resources

to strengthen the development of East Africa.

East African Development Strategies has again earmarking on how to govern, audit and monitor

revenues from natural resources including the intention to have strong mechanism of revenues

collection.

Tanzania has gone extra mile by establishing Tanzania Minerals Audit Agency (TMAA) and

Kenya is on move to establish Minerals Audit Unit.

The establishment of stable fiscal regime with win-win situation between parties, appropriate

mechanism for revenues collection, transparency, accountability and ultimately proper channel

of revenues expenditures, will result into more revenues generation and hence fulfillment of

poverty reduction programs.

Negativity: The initial programs of having more revenues generation can either be a source of

sustainable development or a cause of more poverty. Most of the African countries think mostly

of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) as a proper way to have more revenues generation. In

making sure they entice more FDI, they give more incentives to those investors to the extent that;

the expectations of having more revenues are not met, simply because the over- incentives given

takes more time for those companies to give back to the countries in which they operate.

These incentives sometimes cause setbacks of local industrialization schemes like free

importations of consumables, spares and other supplies which are locally produced.

Secondly, revenues collection from local economic activities does not consider the level of

activities. While for FDIs there are incentives like tax holiday and free importation, there is no

intentional plan to give grace period for locals who have just started their business.
Ironically, the multinational companies get more incentives to the expense of local economic

activities in the name of revenues generations to the Government. The World Bank structural

adjustment has addressed this issue and most of the East African state partners have started

implementing policies which favor internal communities (local content policy) in participating

into extractive industry opportunities.

2.3 Job Creation

The Africans‟ mindset of pre and post colonialism era, define job as employment in public

sector. Those in private sector and self-employed were not considered as employees – having

real job.

Fortunately the shift has happened since 1990s when the FDI started operating in most of

African countries. Currently there is no demarcation among public sector, private sector and self

employees. The mindset has changed and most of Africans, especially middle age generations

have shown a way to initiate their companies and like to work into private sectors.

Job Creation from Extractive Industry

„The extractive industry is an assembly where all careers of literates and illiterates convene to

work together in producing a single line product‟.

Positivity: The extractive industry is among the sector which creates a good number of jobs. The

booming of extractive industries in East African Partner states expect to employ more people.

The large scale mines in Tanzania have employed 8,803 workers in 2012, out of which 8,134

(equal to 92.4%) are Tanzanians.

The World Bank recounts that, small-scale extractive industry provides employment for about 13

million workers worldwide, while large-scale extractive industry provides direct employment for

about two to three million workers.

The Bank estimates that each large-scale extractive industry job indirectly creates somewhere

between 2 and 25 jobs with suppliers, vendors, contractors and others.

Negativity: However, extractive industries apart from creating jobs, it is as well the cause of

unemployment when local populations are forced out of traditional productive activities. When

compared to other sectors, extractive industries employ less per unit of capital invested. The

capital intensive project in textile, agriculture or tourist will employ many than the same capital

invested in extractive industry.

For instance 30billion USD in extractive industry project will employ less people compared to

the same amount invested in let say Kapunga rice project or Kigoma Mawese project. But this

logic is debatable because the ILO recounts that though extractive industry will employ less

since most of the money goes into equipments but the multiplier effect of the high salary from

miners will compensate many workers in agriculture with less salary compared to miners. Do

African miners get higher salary like may be Latin America as price per ounce is the same

everywhere and cost per ounce in Africa is likely low hence they should get higher or the same

like their counterpart.

Cultural disorientation is another source of unemployment caused by extractive industries in

their operating areas. The indigenous tend to shy away from their cultural life before the

newcomers and left the areas in search of other locations without being sure if they can still

practice their daily activities like hunting, beehives keeping, cutting trees for charcoal vending.

All these activities are against Safety, Health and Environmental compliances within extractive

industry, oil and gas operating areas.

2.4 Technology Transfer

Technology transfer has been named as one of the profound advantage of foreign direct

investments in all sectors. Does the technology of those large scale extractive industry companies

suffice the technology needed for our local miners? Or they don‟t match with the small scale and

medium miners? If Yes or No who is supposed to twist the status quo?

The Governments in east Africa through Ministry of Energy and Minerals are battling around the

clock to build capacity of small scale miners financially and technically.

In reality the technology used by large scale extractive industry companies is not compatible

with either small scale or medium scale (VAT Leaching) operations. Therefore there is no

technology transfer merits in this sense.

But in terms of career development, yes there is. For instance since 1990s when the large scale

extractive industry companies started operating in Tanzania, most of Tanzanians who were

employed in large scale extractive industry companies in the country, are now experts in Congo,

West Africa and Australia.

Technology Transfer from Extractive Industry

Positivity: The technology related to extractive industry is a must taking into account the

booming of extractive industry in the region which has to match with the human resources. The

technology can be impacted from the extractive industry through „learning by doing‟ or trainings

in colleges.

Negativity: Though findings show that knowledge and technology is not developed indigenously

and there is little „learning by doing‟. (Power, 2002).This is due to the fact that most of the

technical jobs are done by foreigners. Few local graduates who know technical know-how and

are in position to acquired technology by „learning by doing‟.

However, extractive industry was the national learning experience in the USA that let to building

a strong technological system from which modern manufacturing developed (de Ferranti, 2002).

The East African partner states can imitate this strategy by insisting implementation of

succession programmes into extractive industry, oil and gas operations. And mandatory

programs for extractive industry to impart technology to nationals, study tours to learn different

processing and recovery operations, technology for small and medium scale miners to maximize

the recovery in their operations.

2.5 Infrastructure Improvements

New concept of infrastructure: We often tend to miss the correlation between physical and soft

infrastructures. These two types of infrastructures relate to each other.

Soft infrastructure is all about policies, regulations, visions, national programmes and ultimately

democratic government. These intangible infrastructures are the ones needed to plan, design and

foresee the physical infrastructures. That means soft infrastructures are supposed to be laid down

first and then ground work for physical infrastructures follows. The soft infrastructures are

immortal for the whole life of the country while physical can be done to completion.

That‟s why when you listen to the political campaigns in Africa, all politicians talk about

physical infrastructures - roads, bridges, School and hospital buildings and the like.

In developed countries, the story is different; they will be talking about soft infrastructures –

health care policies, international diplomacy, security arrangements, national social security

schemes, bilateral economic relations. This is simply because; the softs will perfect the physicals.

The rule of thumb is to start with soft which gives a roadmap to accomplish physicals. If you do

the inverse, it takes ages of time to improve physical infrastructures. Thanks to Western for

helping to improve softs and China for physicals.

Infrastructure Improvements in Extractive Industry Operating Areas.

In many developing countries, infrastructure improvements are needed where the extractive

industry is commissioned. Roads, water and electricity within those vicinities have to be

upgraded for the company‟s operations and surrounding communities. Since in most cases the

companies are the ones to implement those infrastructures, the companies tend to by-pass local

villages. (Frynas, 2001).

However, other mines have distributed road, water and electricity to the surrounding

communities and accelerated the economic growth. The improvements of resource-rich countries

policies have included percentage of revenues to remain within the extractive industry, oil and

gas areas for infrastructure improvement.

There is ongoing debate between the extractive companies, World Bank and resource-rich

countries to see the need of making corporate social responsibilities mandatory rather than

voluntary. During contract sealing, the contract should address the needful infrastructure within

the areas where the operations are going to take place. These costs can either be deducted during

operations as part of the revenues to be accrued by the government or allowed to be accumulated

in initial investment capital.

2.6 Downstream Industries and Services

Downstream Industries are services, manufacturing or processing plants needed to complete

chain value of all activities needed in extractive industry or other industrial processing from

upstream, middle stream and downstream activities.

For instance, at extractive industry sites the downstream for extractive industry engineering

services, crushing services, smelting, laboratories and transportations make a complete cycle to

perfect the extractive industry operations and end product (refined gold –dore‟).
The emphasis of having these downstream industries will speed up the contribution of extractive

industry to the surrounding community by buying all supplies and consumables in the operating

country rather than importing from overseas.

The profit from extractive industries takes time to mature due to nature of the industry and when

they reach closure period, they create revenues deficit.

There is a need to create these industries to bridge the above deficit and balance the maturity

time of extractive industry payback to the communities.

The booming of extractive industry can be re-invested into industries that process and add value

before exported and contribute to poverty reduction (Ross, 2001). The east African development

strategies, has insisted to have value addition regulations of natural gas, oil and minerals in order

to increase value and provide more jobs in the region. Extractive industry Act of Tanzania

(2010), insisted Lapidary industries and gemstones business to be under indigenous control.

The smelter Processing industries for value addition of resources extraction like gold, copper and

nickel, LPG Plant and the like, will add the amount of revenues. Small industries for spare

parties, Lubricants, Chemicals, by products from oil and gas such as plastics, fertilizers and gas

cooker, are among the downstream industries needed within the region.

The supply of food, Personal Protective gears, motor vehicles for transportation of goods and

employees to extractive industries have been rejected in most developing countries because they

lack required international standard.

The revenue has to be used to construct modern industries and meet the required standards by

extractive industries which have been the case for them to import those consumables and

supplies as local countries have failed to meet those standards.

3.0 Conclusion

Having natural resources is not a guarantee for the country to have sustainable development but

is a springboard for the country to stride towards having sustainable development. The natural

resources are initial capitals to be utilised as an engine to drive other economic sectors.

In 2001, Sub-Saharan Africa Extractive Industries accounts for 57 percent of total merchandise

export. At that time, oil and diamonds account for 97 percent of Angola‟s export and

approximately 65 percent of its GDP and Nigeria petroleum generated 85 percent of Nigeria‟s

foreign exchange earnings. Of all these records the region remains among the poor countries.

The East Africa partner states will not be exceptional if good governance in natural resources

and integration of other economic sectors are not considered.

As of now, Sub-Saharan region is doing better having countries with fastest growing economy in

the world and Nigeria has outweighed South Africa and become the leading economy in Africa.

These new shifts of development were attained after considerations of good governance of

revenues collection and re-investment from extractive industries.

The program of sovereignty / wealth account helped to control the revenues from the extractive

industries and the same were used to institute soft infrastructures and ultimately directed into

other economic sectors. The utilization of revenues from extractive industries to boost and

prepare conducive environment of other sectors, have changed the economic trend of Nigeria and

most of Su-Saharan countries.

The empirical studies entail the causes of resource curse and Dutch disease as a two much

relaxation in dealing with other sectors and two much dependence on natural resources which at

the end paralyses other sectors.

Therefore, it is possible for East African Countries to eradicate poverty if and only if, revenues

derived from Extractive Industry shall be re-invested to strengthen other sectors and improve

both soft and physical infrastructures.

Extractive Industries are not sustainable by themselves, therefore cannot bring

sustainable development by themselves, unless the revenues derived are re-invested

(integrated) into other traditional economic sector to make them robust. That’s the

optimal contribution the extractive industry can do.

This drives a point on board that; there is no need of waiting the facets of extractive

industries discoveries for the country to develop. East Africa partner state can use

traditional sectors properly to develop and supplement those discoveries to accelerate the

traditional sectors.

Agriculture, services, telecommunications, ports, railway and the like are there to remain

forever and continue generating revenues while extractive industries are for a certain

period of time accompanied with commodity price volatilities.

Strengthen your traditional economic sector and when there is extractive industry

discovery; use the revenues from extractive industry to keep strengthening your

traditional economic sector.

Extractive Industry is a ‘temporary assembly’ where all careers convene to work

together to produce single line product at a specific solid years. This temporary

assembly needs to be properly organised so that everybody becomes beneficiary

before the assembly disperses.

The philosophy behind this is to make sure the win-win situation among the trio: country,

investor and employees both locals and experts. The issue of local contents in policies
and Acts, import and export procedures, price and capital transfer, permanent residence,

experts permit, MDAs, PSA, sovereignty wealth fund and the like need national attention

before sealing the contract for the region to reap from its resources.

The danger of single story of extractive industry is obvious.

Let the truth be told that, the extractive industries cause development and as well

poverty to the countries of origin.

The Governments everywhere like to talk about the positivity of extractive industry only.

The danger of this is that, the people will get the other story from unreliable sources and

bring chaos, looting or demonstration unnecessarily. To the extent that the authorities will

be obliged to start denying the information surfaced from unreliable sources.

Let‟s tell the people both sides of the story of extractive industry to make sure that

whenever there will be negativity; people will be prepared to accept those predicaments

because they have been told before about let say price volatility like currently where the

barrel of crude oil is around 43 dollars. The cost of exploration and extractive industry

which takes time for the country to get returns and the like.
 APPENDECES

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 CHAPTER TWO

The effect of Mineral Policy and Regulation on the Exports of Gemstones in T anzania:
case study Tanzanite Exports

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Policy Concept

Policy is like architectural drawing showing the whole structure of the house needed either by
owner or tenant. If is for owner‟s residence, the drawing will base on the wants and needs of the
owner at a pace but for renting, the drawing may need some time to be adjusted to allure and
encompass the renters‟ needs and wants, which were not specifically according to the owner pre-
requisites. The owner is compelled to change the drawing to satisfy the tenants otherwise the
tenants will turn down the deal.
Like architectural drawing, Mineral policy is the guidance showing the roadmap of the specific
country towards the demand, supply and allocation of both minerals and the revenues collected
from extractive industry. The extractive industry policies evolve in response to geological
resources, politics circles, economics events and advancements in technology. All these in
totality are dictated by the wants and needs of the investors. Like tenants, the investors‟ wants
and needs may compel the country to adjust the policy as a threshold action for the influx of
investors in the country.
Even if the country is endowed with abundant minerals, if is not internally industrial-consumer
of its natural resources, it will be swayed by investors and therefore it will not withstand its
resources expectations and intent, to the extent that, a „stand-alone mineral police‟ will not be
possible rather it will confer its minerals policy based on FDI, „investors-oriented documented
policy‟.
The solution to this is to be focused in changing our economy into industrialized economy;
increase industries internally to use the available minerals. The United States, Canada and
Australia are all major mineral-producing countries with good to excellent geological
prospective. Their dream is to turn into net consumer and importer of minerals for their
industries instead of exporters. China has already managed this, Brazil is on the track.

Investment
The investment issue has become a global central point of all mineral policies regardless of the
level of the economy of the country – developed, developing and transition economies.
Investment and government extractive industry policy are closely linked. Even the most highly
geologically prospective nations will have difficulty in attracting foreign investment without
adequate national policy, regulatory and fiscal systems. Over the past few years the level of
mineral sector investment has increased in real terms, and those nations that have put into place
regulatory systems which reduce or allow a company to manage risks at an acceptable level
have, for the most part, enjoyed increased levels of investor interest.
The most difficult thing is to balance the will of the government vis-à-vis the common
wananchi/citizens perceptions on the incentives given to investors.
The governments call incentives while wananchi/citizens call it loopholes and become vocal and
enraged with those incentives. To spur investments and at the same time having policy which
pleasing wananchi, needs time as a bargaining tool. For instance Mtwara northern part of
Tanzania‟s saga after educating them the situation is calm.

Academically, there are two schools of thought aired internationally. Which one should start in
country policy, economic democracy (China model) or political democracy (Western model)?
And who should decide the West or country itself? The masterminds of these thoughts among
others from Africa are Ngozi Okonjo Iweala and Dambisa Moyo the author of DEAD AIDS TO
AFRICA, WINNER TAKES ALL and HOW WEST LOST TO CHINA.

1.2 Extractive industry Regulation

Regulations are like house decorations. The decorations are done to perfect the appearance of
the house (policy). Some of the decorations are needed to widen the relaxation of the dwellers
(like regulators- officials vested power) and make life worthwhile without confronting terms and
conditions of the rent fees and also with no changes to the erected house (Extractive industry Act
so to say).
Decorations like painting can be done by tenants at any time whenever there is a need without
prior consent of the owner or with just informing the owner. That means there is flexibility in
doing decoration to easy and smoothing the recurring deeds.

In real sense basing on the above assimilation, extractive industry act is supplemented with
extractive industry regulations, rules, administrative orders, administrative guidelines and other
regulatory devices. Such regulations, rules and administrative orders normally derive directly
from a power granted in the extractive industry act to a specific government officer. Typically,
the Minister for Energy and Minerals and, or Commissioner for Minerals, is granted the authority
to issue such regulations/rules/orders to easy and smoothing the responsibilities needed with
limited time for decisions.

To replace or amend a extractive industry act is a politicized, complicated and time- consuming
process. Typically, an amendment to a extractive industry act will take long time; more
commonly it will take many years so to say. Regulations, on the other hand, can often be
changed very quickly and with limited political input. That‟s why, lawmakers are wise to
consider which subject matter should be in the extractive industry act and which topics are better
placed in regulations. Many extractive industry acts lay out only the fundamental framework of
the mineral-sector regulatory system. The details are provided in the regulations. Now you can
see the correlation of regulations logic with decorations logic above.

1.3 Extractive industry Development Agreement (MDA)

Extractive industry Development Agreement (MDA) is like a single tenant‟s special agreement
with landlord in a house with other tenants. You might have a large house with different tenants
in that house. But one tenant has some exceptions with regards to others. May be, he has rent
three rooms and he promised to pay annually while the rest have single rooms and pay after six
or three months. The one occupied three rooms, asks to be considered by landlord not to do
general hygiene of the surroundings because of the afore mentioned reasons (occupied 3 rooms
and pay annually), the agreement is reached with landlord and communicated to other
tenants……those who are vocal and objected this agreement are told to occupy three rooms and
pay annually, like their fellow and they would be considered the same agreement.
But coz they can‟t have such financial muscles to stretch, the agreement is not in their favour.
The agreement or favoritism so to say is based on the financial capability of the tenant and the
beneficiation of the landlord – two ways traffic.

MDAs are of no exceptional compared to the above digestion, MDAs are part of extractive
industry regulations of its own kind.MDAs are agreements reached between large projects
investors and the government on specific areas particularly fiscal terms. The administrative
officers granted power, discretionary upon their satisfaction, reach that agreement coupled with
vast privileges to investor and the country. Sometime the officers may abuse the power conferred
to them and reach unfavorable agreement to country. That‟s why checks and balance had to be
strengthened to thwart such faults or remove MDAs negotiations into regulations and make it a
topical in enacted Extractive industry Act.

However, governments use agreements to help regulate large mines but handle smaller
operations under specific provisions in the general extractive industry code. In many instances,
even when an agreement is in place, some or all of the extractive industry code may still apply to
the operation. In most cases what agreed are on the fiscal regime perspectives (like waive of
taxes and exemptions on imports tariffs) but other operations still apply to the Extractive industry
Act.

Extractive industry, oil and gas projects may be the subject of many types of agreement. At the
upper tier is the agreement, or agreements, between the mine, oil or gas project and the
government. A second tier of agreements may define the nature of the mine, oil or gas project
vis-à-vis the owners or controlling interests, i.e., such as a joint venture or shareholder's
agreement. On the third tier will be agreements between the mine, oil or gas project and its
financiers, suppliers, contractors, labour and so forth. Additionally, there is trend in some
jurisdictions for mine, oil or gas project to enter into agreements with local communities,
landowners, land-users or indigenous people by the guidance of the authorities within the
country.

1.4 Extractive industry Act

Extractive industry Act is like a physical permanent erected house. The building passes different
stages, from architectural and engineering drawing to setting, building foundation and walls, and
ultimately finishing. Since this operations entails time and resources consuming, the needs and
wants to build the house requires comprehensive and thoroughly considerations before starting
that exercise. Similarly the intention has to be clear if the house is for owner‟s residence or for
renting. If the intention changes on the course or short time after building, the whole processes
are futile and it will take time and cost to demolish the permanent structure and seek other
building permit from relevant authorities of which the concrete reasons had to be scrutinized.

Extractive industry Act needs time and resources to be enacted and is permanent for a solid
period of time. Like house, the needs and wants of the Act, have to be lectured, scrutinized,
sensitized and ultimately well linked with policy and regulations for smooth implementation.
Thus, as a general observation, important policy matters are addressed in the extractive industry
Act while administrative details are embodied in regulations.
Since laws are more difficult to change than are regulations, the subject matters addressed in the
law are usually considered as more stable than those found in the regulations. There are some
mineral sector regulatory topics where enhanced stability is perceived by most governments as
useful. These are placed into the regulations but accompanied with balance and checks stipulated
into the Act.

„PRIMA COBWEB’ CONCEPT AS AN INTEGRAL OF FUNDAMENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF

EXTRACTIVE INDUSTRY SECTOR CONTRACTUAL, FISCAL, LEGAL AND
REGULATORY FRAMEWORKS

In light of the above concepts, you can see how potential each concept is to perfect the building.
Likewise, in order to perfect the win-win situation in extractive industry, the linkage of police,
regulation, investment, MDAs and Acts are the supreme ground work to be done. The PRIMA
Conceptual frame work addresses this importance;

PRIMA is the abbreviation of POLICY, REGULATION, INVESTMENT, MDAs and ACTS.

Generally the Extractive industry sector is built on these I called PRIMA or Five Foundation
Blocks of Extractive industry sector. Nothing can be said in extractive industry sector which is
not inclusive in PRIMA.The experience shows that non-linkage of PRIMA is the source of
resource curse or dutch disease. That means the Extractive industry sector need comprehensive
approach which links all PRIMA and make it like cobweb where any loopholes whether
deliberately or incidental created will be captured………… PRIMA COBWEB!!

PRIMA
COBWEB

POLICY REGULATION INVESTMENT MDAs/PSAs ACTS

Fig: 01. The Cobweb of Five Foundation Blocks of Extractive Industry

Like a cobweb, where is not easy to find the starting point to untie the cobweb, Prima cobweb
concept address the same logic, that extractive industry sector is nothing rather than PRIMA
comprehensive linkage(cobweb). PRIMA Cobweb do not provide contractual and fiscal regime
loopholes either done by Government officials or colluding with investors. The linkage provides
balance and checks.
The policy and Act may be appropriate but if MDAs are inadequate, then the importance of good
policy and Acts are irrelevant. Similarly, if MDAs are good but policy and Acts are not, non-
MDAs operators, will relax.
PRIMA COBWEB provides „to and fro‟! The end of one block is the starting point of another
block. Likely, in order to laydown one block, you have to start from the beginning to see if other
blocks are aligned with the one you want to fix. It provides a too way traffic and mirror image of
each one.
The decision-makers and other authorities need to make sure PRIMA blocks are inter-linked for
the extractive industry to reap the intended expectations.

2.0 DATA ANALYSIS IN ESTABLISHING ADEQUATE DECISION – MAKING ON

TANZANITE EXPORTS POLICY.

Data source: The data were accrued by the researcher from varies reliable sources. Data
comprises exports of rough, standard cut and beads cut tanzanite but some of the records were
missing to cover the whole particular year. The sum for each year is the average data.

Data authenticity: The data under review has some irregularities from its source. Some of the
data for certain months were not complete, and the units of weigh used are either gram or
kilogram and has denied conversion of carats into either gram or kilogram.
Data assumption: Assuming these irregularities won‟t affect graph trend and interpretation.

YEAR EXPORTED AMOUNT(gm) VALUE (USD) ROYALTY DUE (USD)

2010 146,236.97 16,584,730.31 824,000.07
2011 445,630.23 13,139,492.84 652,988.47
2012 233,095.68 14,493,492.75 723,666.09
2013 458,447.71 15,860,984.60 785,114.44
TOTAL 1,283,410.59 60,078,700.50 2,985,769.07
Fig.02.Rough Tanzanite Export from 2010 through 2013

YEAR EXPORTED AMOUNT(gm) VALUE (USD) ROYALTY DUE (USD)

2010 76,120.33 4,785,013.06 47,850.13
2011 112,902.44 10,481,919.57 107,869.12
2012 188,956.53 14,338,954.67 192,282.02
2013 230,215.55 20,191,672.81 231,282.76
TOTAL 608,194.85 49,797,560.11 579,284.03
Fig.03.Cut Tanzanite Export from 2010 through 2013
 YEAR EXPORTED AMOUNT(gm) VALUE (USD) ROYALTY DUE (USD)
2010 33,466.57 355,337.65 17,766.88
2011 52,698.60 638,658.33 32,533.17
2012 42,846.22 446,072.55 22,263.63
2013 459,135.82 738,008.66 36,719.72
TOTAL 588,147.21 2,178,077.19 109,283.40
Fig.04.Beads Tanzanite Export from 2010 through 2013

YEAR EXPORTED AMOUNT VALUE ROYALTY DUE

2010 109,586.90 5,140,350.71 65,617.01
2011 165,601.04 11,120,577.90 140,402.29
2012 231,802.75 14,785,027.22 214,545.65
2013 689,351.37 20,929,681.47 268,002.48
TOTAL 1,196,342.06 51,975,637.30 688,567.43
Fig.05.Total cut Tanzanite Export from 2010 through 2013(Standard Cut and Beads)

2.1 Graphical Presentation of Given Data

A: Volume of Tanzanite Exports

Graph interpretation: 01: The graph shows the export of rough depends on market trend and not the ban.The
fluctuation is due to market needs and not ban because before total restriction(2010) the export was low compared to
progressive years where the ban applied.
Graph interpretation: 02: The export of standard cut improves progressively.This signify that, the lapidary
industry grows from its infancy level to maturity stage coupled with trust of overseas buyers.However, the iceberg
of this implication is that, most are exported as pre-form and not real standard cut.The pre-form is done purposely to
comply with the act but also there are orders which need the pre-form.Pre-form is regarded as Cut but can serve to
purpose as beads cut do…comply by just cut one side to have provision of cutting into other shapes after export.

Graph interpretation 03: Beads cut serve two purposes; it is the most simple cut and secondly can be re-shaped
into other shape/cut/style( bead cut is sometime called interim cut).By applying drastic measures of ban, it is easy to
switch on beads cut which are apparently made above one gram from low,meadium and rarely high quality
rough.The cost of beads cut is less and most important can be re-shaped again into other cut.Therefore the trend of
graph is due to market demand and shoot up on 2013 encompases both demand and business tricks (interim shape
for compliance)
Graph interpretation 04: The graph includes the sum of standard cut and beads cut to analyse the total cut
exports.The combination also fall into the trend of separates of the two; Improving demand of cut tanzanite and
capacity building of the lapidary activities.Furthermore,beads cut is sometime used to circumvent the ban
internationally.

Graph interpretation 05: The volume of rough exports is twice as much compared to Standard cut tanzanite.The
Government anticipated the Cut to yield more earnings because is made from high quality gems but graphs on value
analysis.below interpret the contrary.On other hand, the trend of cut volume increase progressively therefore much
attention is needed for capacity building in Lapidary industry.The demand of rough is dictated by market demand
and not a ban,that‟s why the fluctuations occur at any year while Cut is dictated by both ban compliance and
demand, continuos increase.
Graph interpretation 06: The combination of Standard cut and beads cut, did well on 2013.This implies that the
businesspersons conform to the ban but taking into consideration the two purposes of beads cut, the interpretation
remains covertly since it serves as a cut and also as a implicit rough.

B: Value of Tanzanite Exports

Interpretation of graph 07: The trend shows, though the volume of sales of tanzanite is importance for increasing
royalty but what matters most is the quality of the Tanzanite exported. On 2010 the weight exported was
146,236.97gm and resulted into royalty of 824,000.07USD, while the export of 2013 with weight of 458,447.71gm
gave royalty of 785,114.44USD which is less than 2010 although the volume has doubled. Another implication is
that, the ratio or correlation of weight of rough versus its royalty is like 1:2; One gram exported gives two USD of
royalty if factors present during these exports, remain constant. This is due to royalty percentage taxed and the
multiple effect of the gemstone pricing method i.e. whenever the weight of the single stone increases, its price
multiplies. Two stones each with 2grams will be sold together with les price compared with one stone having
4grams if 4Cs are the same with those two separate stones. That‟s why the price of gems is arranged according to
the size (weight ranges) of a single stone. Thus, the graph tells us, most of the roughs sold are not under 1grams
that‟s why they revealed this trend.
Interpretation of graph 08: The trend shows, the volume of sales/export is direct proportional to cut royalties
accrued. This cements the trend of the logic of quality that is when the 4Cs are appropriately matched, the results are
superb. For each cut gram exported gives one dollar of royalty if the factors governed the sales in those years under
review remains constant.

Similarly the graph tells us most of the Cut tanzanite exported has good quality but mostly in small size after cut and
polish. That‟s why even the multiple price effect is tarnished. Lastly the royalty percentage (1%) plays another role
of the trend; one percentage is so small to couple with the high quality and high price of the export, to earn high
royalties. The cost of cut and polish at Arusha varies between 1 to 2 dollars by carat. That is to say, the total accrued
beneficiation; royalty, cut and polish cost and salary of cutters in totality outweighs the beneficiation of rough in
reality? The trend denies even if you add those GDP beneficiations.
Interpretation of graph 09: The effect of high volume of rough exports, carat weight of rough per stone (price
multiple effect) and royalty percentage charged on rough (5%), all together escalate the royalty of rough by far
compared to Cut tanzanite royalties.

The trend shows persistence of the rough exports before and after ban, and its privileges on the side of royalties
accrued. The graph also interpret that, the royalty of rough though is higher than that of standard cut, the standard
cut royalties increases by two times annually while for rough there is fluctuations. The general interpretation of the
graph is that, there is competing trend between the two and for businesswise it means let the two naturally trade
themselves. Don‟t drop any on the way.

Interpretation of graph 10: The trend of total cut (combination of standard and beads cut) has the same
interpretations like graph 09 above.
3.0 Discussion of Results

Rough Tanzanite Exports:

From the graphs, there is statistically and academically conflicting trend between rough and cut
exports in terms of which one has to be given green light or statutory go ahead.

Rough volume and value for the period under review, outweighs volume and value of Cut, both
before and after ban follow up. Similarly, since 2010 through 2013, the implication shows the
export of rough is not impeded by ban rather by market demand. This is proved by the surging of
the volume on the due course. This is to say, rough tanzanite exports is substantially important
since more order is being placed regardless of the ban. If you find the „mean standard‟ of the
exports from 2010 through 2013, rough tanzanite shows maximum „mean‟ compared to Cut
tanzanite. Mean standard is used to measure the stability of the market against any impediments.

Again, the market demand coupled with 5% royalty compared to 1% royalty of cut, has much to
do to the government in revenue collections and meeting the budget target of either zonal or
ministry office.

Basing on the above analysis, satisfying the customer demands that is business philosophy. The
businesspersons will do everything to fulfill the demands available anywhere and whether
lawfully or unlawfully (smuggling).The interpretations have also made unconfirmed call on
beads cut, which might be used by some businessperson to circumvent a ban.

To avoid this, the allowance of rough business has to be reviewed. Secondly, meeting the
government target that is real good governance because the government will meet the needs of
citizens and internationally hailed. High volume of rough coupled with 5%royalty earns more
revenues by far compared to cut exports.

Cut Tanzanite Exports

The volume and value of Cut export improves progressively which means the Lapidary industry
is gaining the momentum from its infancy stage. Though the volume and value are far less
compared to rough, the trend shows hope and resolute of the business. Therefore it needs
shoulder-to-shoulder attention from the authorities in keeping building capacity.

More important, Cut exports conform to ban restrictions. Since ban assertion, Cut export has
been improving progressively regardless of the market demand (free of market speculation/niche
market). Though the volume of cut tanzanite export is less and again considerably affected by
1% royalty, on the other side, the economic multiplier effect of the lapidary industry is of great
importance. At Arusha the cost of cut and polish is estimated to be around 1 to 2 dollars per
carat, although mostly, the business is done by bargaining the lump sum for the whole lot to be
cut and polished. People have invested in lapidary facilities and employed workers. This implies,
emphasis on Cut exports needs much momentum to encourage those who have shown initiatives
and support the growing market of cut and polished tanzanite.

In a broad note: The graphs interpretations cement that; it will be academically dishonest
to stop any among the two exports –rough and cut tanzanite.

The aforementioned interpretations declare that, both rough and cut exports have comparative
and competitive advantage in improving gem industry in our country. Each one bridges the gap
left by the other.

Additionally;

 The gem business is very delicate and is the mixture of traditional and professional skills
and knowledge. There are traditional or customary and contemporary gems customers.
The traditional customers are the ones who never have alternatives/substitutes, if they
want tanzanite, they will always look for it. But these customers are minority;

 The contemporary customers are many and they don‟t bother swaying from one kind of
gem to another. What they need is the durability and colour. If they miss tanzanite (blue),
they opt other blue gems like Sapphire, Kyanite or Iolite;

 The bad thing also of contemporary customers is that, they choose who to cut, design,
polish, and set their jewelries. That means they want rough stones and choose cut styles.

This business is very delicate and always „EVOLVE and NOT PLANNED‟. It‟s booming and
fade up is not professionally forecasted in most instances.

That‟s why many countries have decided only to prepare places and people who what to do this
business and let them regulate the trend of business without the government intervention. The
government should only research, which ways are appropriate to collect the revenues but not
how to control the business.

The countries which opted to control the business, they started building capacity in lapidary,
jewelries setting and decorations industries. After that they waived import tariffs and some
countries chosen people to run the business without paying taxes. The taxes will be deducted
from errands rendered due to those activities related to gem business and other more programs .
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Generally my conclusion is to maintain status quo, for the aim of having freewill export in
future after both trades reaches maturity stage.
Progressive intensification of ban on rough with specific timeframe and guidance to develop
lapidary capacity is a right decision so as to keep encouraging lapidary activities and growth of
Cut exports, subsequently regulating timeframe and relaxation for rough export to meet demands
available.
The existing situation has encompassing both rough and cut export in a competitive way
coupled with business tricks. Better rely on the current status quo. Keep insisting a ban but
provide the current allowance for rough and cut while building capacity for lapidaries. With time
both businesses will regulate themselves.

Future Plan for Tanzanite

One Stop Centre For Gemstones Business: the need to have gemstones bourse at Arusha
where selling and buying will be effected under the guidance of Government officials.
TANSORT and TMAA have to oversee and regulate the prices and permits.

Treasury Reserve: Since tanzanite is only found in Tanzania, there is a need to reserve tanzanite
as a government treasury but also keep some of Tanzanite in a museum so that when the deposits
perished, the future generation will have something to see and become tourists‟ attraction and
researchers‟ attention.
 CHAPTER THREE

Gemstones Processing Methods: Tanzanite as a case study

FACE PICKING, ROM SORT RECOVERY, COBBING, CLARITY GRADING, SIZING ONE,
COLOUR GRADING, SIZING TWO AND CUTTING

MINERALS AUDITOR IS
PRECISELY LIKE A
PILOT.

A SINGLE DISCREPANCY OF
MINERALS WEIGHT WILL
CAUSE A HUGE TAX
DEVIATION.

LIKEWISE Tanzanite the Uniqueness of Tanzania

A SINGLE DISCREPANCY OF
A NEUTICAL MILE WILL
CAUSE LANDING
DEVIATION
1.0 INTRODUCTION

Tanzanite was formed over 600 million years ago when Mt. Kilimanjaro erupted caused a unique
set of conditions to form deep within the earth - heat and pressure mixed with rare chemicals
such as Vanadium to allow this exceptionally rare gem stone to form. These conditions remained
constant for the entire 600 million years and Tanzanite grew. It was first discovered by man in
1967 when an enormous grassfire swept the land below Kilimanjaro Mountain. As Tanzanite is a
brownish color in its rough state, the crystals lying on the surface were never noticed until when
the grassfire had burnt the land and heated the stones. They turned bright, glittering violet-blue in
the sunlight and attracted the attention of some Maasai tribesmen.

Tanzanite was named by Tiffany & Company (New York) and for the first ten years after its
discovery Tiffany's had the exclusive right to this lovely gem stone. Today, after the
liberalization of the Tanzanian economy, it is a free market.

To date the only known reserve of Tanzanite gemstone in the world is a strip of 8km by 1km at
Merelani area in Manyara region, Northern of Tanzania. Tanzanite is believed to be discovered
at the area in 1967 and in 1971, the tanzanite mines were nationalised and extractive industry
was taken over by the State Extractive industry Corporation, STAMICO. Production records for
the first five years indicate a decrease in grades, mainly attributed to haphazard extractive
industry and theft. During 1978, Tanzania Gemstone Industries, a state organisation established
by STAMICO, published a report recommending the viability of full scale extractive industry of
gemstones. No meaningful action was taken. During the next ten years, production decreased.
There was also an increase in informal, artisanal extractive industry. By 1989, an estimated
30,000 artisanal miners were working in the area.

In 1990, the Tanzanian Government curbed artisanal extractive industry and demarcated the area
into Blocks A, B, C and D. Block A was awarded to Kilimanjaro Mines Limited, Blocks B and D
to small-scale miners and Block C to Graphtan Limited, a graphite extractive industry company.
Graphtan ceased extractive industry activities in 1996 and Afgem acquired the extractive
industry licence for Block C. In 2000, Afgem completed a feasibility study for the commercial
extractive industry of tanzanite and mine development commenced in 2001. In 2004, the
TanzaniteOne Group acquired Afgem's tanzanite business and assets.

Mining
The extractive industry method employed at TanzaniteOne extractive industry Ltd is
Underground Extractive industry. Currently there are six operational shafts in their SML which
stretch by 1km by 2km. These operational shafts are ; Bravo shaft, CT shaft, Main shaft, Askari
shaft, Delta shaft and Investor shaft which is used as hoisting shaft for Main shaft, Delta shaft,
and Askari shaft to bring out ores. Two shafts TC and JW are not operational. Extractive industry
currently takes place through five shafts: Delta, Askari, Main, CT and Bravo shafts. Shafts are
sunk at an angle of 42° along dip of the JWZ mineralisation zone.

The shafts are fitted with tracks and material is removed via a hoist and inclined shaft structure.
Drives are driven along strike at an angle of ±16° along the plunge of the fold noses. A
monorope (endless looped rope and pulley) system is used to remove materials in bags from the
extractive industry fronts towards the inclined shaft ore pass infrastructure. Blasting is used as
the main method of mine advancement. Once favourable boudin structures are approached
pneumatic drilling and handpicking is used to remove tanzanite as carefully as possible.

Geology
Tanzanite is a thousand times rarer than diamonds and is trichroic, which means that in its rough
form, it radiates three different colours from each of its crystallographic axes: blue, violet and
burgundy. Tanzanites are found in Lelatema Antiform in Merelani, Manyara Region, Northern
Tanzania. It is believed to be formed 600 million years ago.

3Tsavorite + H2O + 5CO2 = 2Tanzanite + 3Quartz + 5Calcite

Tanzanite is found within a relatively complex geological environment and is found in

'chocolate-tablet' boudin structure, typically located in the hinges of isoclinal folds (folds dipping
in the same direction) present in the ore body. The Geologists at Tanzanite one has identified two
potential strips of these unique zones in the area and has named them as Upper Horizon and
Lower Horizon. The familiar and currently mined is the JW zone in Lower horizon, named after
Ally Juyawatu who is believed to be the first miner in the area. Deep hole drilling, geophysics,
geochemical analyses and structural and geological mapping have all increased the level of
geological knowledge. Drilling programme has shown that the lower horizon, which hosts the
economic mineralisation, extends three times further dip than initially anticipated. This databank
of proprietary geological know-how is unrivalled and will become more important than ever as
extractive industry operations deepen and the artisanal extractive industry styles employed on the
other license blocks become redundant.
2.0CLASSIFICATIONS OF TANZANITE GEMSTONES
The gemstones are classified according to the clarity (the extent of inclusion free) and colour.
There are standards used to explain the inclusion effects on the gems quality set by GIA. For
Tanzanite gemstones, the TanzaniteOne Extractive industry Company has its own standards
special for Tanzanite. Let us start by looking on them before we go into classifications. Just the
abbreviations and what they mean but you will broadly have full dose of Inclusions on the
section of Clarity grading. (Table 1, 2 &3)

Table 1: GIA Standards

Inclusion Abbreviation Explanation/What is seen in Gems

VVS Very Very Slight
VS Very Slight
SI1 Slight Included 1
SI2 Slight Included 2
I1 Included 1
I2 Included 2
I3 Included 3

Table 2: TanzaniteOne Standards

Colour and Inclusion Abbreviation Explanation/What is seen in Gems

A Exceptional Colour, Eye Clean

B Rare Deep Blue/other Colour, Eye Clean

BSI B Colour-Slightly Included
BI B Colour Included
BL B Lighter Colour Grade, Eye Clean

BLSI B Light-Slightly Included

BLI B Light Included
D Opaque Material(agreed to use D instead of O )

Table 3: The effect of Inclusions on the types of Gemstones

Type of Gemstones Inclusions Effect
VVS minute to not detectable
VS minor
SI1 NOTICEABLE to obvious
Type 1 Gemstones SI2 OBVIOUS to noticeable
I1 prominent to moderate effect on appearance or durability
I2 prominent to severe effect on appearance or durability
I3 prominent to severe effect on beauty, transparency, or
durability
VVS minor
 VS NOTICEABLE to obvious
Type 2 Gemstones SI1 noticeable to OBVIOUS
SI2 obvious to prominent
I1 prominent - moderate effect on appearance or durability
I2 prominent - severe effect on appearance or durability
I3 prominent - severe effect on beauty, transparency, or
durability
VVS NOTICEABLE to obvious
VS noticeable to OBVIOUS
SI1 obvious to prominent
Type 3 Gemstones SI2 obvious to PROMINENT
I1 prominent to considerable effect on appearance or durability
I2 prominent to severe effect on transparency or durability
I3 prominent to severe effect on beauty, transparency, or
durability.

2.1 Type 1 Gemstones

These gemstones are TYPICALLY inclusion free. They can be found without inclusions though
not always – sometime without and other time with. The chances of having them without
inclusions exist.

Amethyst, Beryl (except Red Beryl and Emerald), Citrine, Chrysoberyl (except
Alexandrite), Garnet (except green and orange), Kunzite, Topaz, Green Tourmaline,
Tanzanite, Zircon

2.2 Type 2 Gemstones

Gemstones that normally MAY have a few inclusions

Alexandrite, Andalusite, Iolite, Peridot, Rhodolite, Ruby, Sapphire, Spinel, Tourmaline,

and Tsavorite

2.3 Type 3 Gemstones

Gemstones that normally do not come clean

Emerald, Red Beryl (Bixbite), and Rubellite (Red Tourmaline)

3. 0 PROPERTIES OF TANZANITE GEMSTONES

Tanzanite is an exceptionally rare gem stone- estimated at a thousand times rarer than diamond.
There is only one source for it in the world - on the slopes of the legendary Mt. Kilimanjaro at
Merelani Tanzania.

3.1 Unique features of Tanzanite

Tanzanite is the only gem stones in the world that is "trichroic". This means that when white
light passes through, it breaks into 2 paths and creates 3 different colors - one axis will look
violet, reddish brown and the third a blue-violet. The picture below shows the same Tanzanite
crystal from 3 different angles showing its amazing trichroism.

Figure 06: Three colours of Tanzanite in response to light

In the rough state most Tanzanite is predominantly brown and blue. Heating at 600 degrees
centigrade causes this color to change to blue violet. This is a permanent and stable change.
Tanzanite due to its trichroism characteristic has never been synthesized, but a number of
imitations exist and the most common is blue-violet glass. A synthetic fosterite has also been
used as an imitation and is known as Tanzanique in the trade. It does not have the same
trichroism so is easily distinguished from the real Tanzanite.

Table 4: Gemological Properties of Tanzanite Gemstones

Gemological Properties Unit of Measure
Gem Species Zoisite
Specific gravity 3.35
Hardness (Mohs Scale) 6.5
Toughness Fair
Stability to light Stable
Carat Weight Below 1-10 ,rarely 100 +
Birthstone December

A great deal of Tanzanite marketing makes a big deal of the "red flash" phenomenon of
Tanzanite. This is one of the features of the stone and is due to Tanzanite's trichroism. Tanzanite
is extremely light sensitive, with incandescent lighting (yellow lighting found in common light
bulbs) tending to shift its color to the violet side causing the red and pink flashes to appear
within the stone. The images below of the same stone show it under white (daylight) and under
incandescent light:
 Under white light Under incandescent light

3.2 Optical and other Properties of Tanzanite

This is very important to be pinpointed particularly by Clarity and Colour graders of the
Tanzanite. Is through these properties one can master the colour and clarity grading. Knowing
how the light breaks down into spectral colours through the Tanzanite gem will help the colour
and clarity grader where to focus (the position of eyes) during grading. Therefore kin
observations of these optical properties will pave a way for real gems valuation rather than being
on „the eyes of beholder‟.

3.2.1 Optical Properties

The optical properties are the major properties of gemstones which distinguish them from
precious metals/minerals which are completely opaque in response to light.

 Dispersion: This is the splitting of light as it enters a gemstone. Colors separate during
refraction of white light, which leads to seeing “fire” in a gem. By this property, the
internal features of the gem can be identified and hence used as a distinguishing feature
from other gems – classification. The dispersion index differs from gem to gem due to
anatomy of each type of gem and inclusions found within a gem type.

 Refraction: The bending of light (or any wave phenomenon) when it moves between
media with different conductive velocities. Refractive Index is the ratio of the velocity of
light in a vacuum to that in the substance; it determines the angle at which light bends
when it enters a substance obliquely.

 Double Refraction: A phenomenon which occurs when the ray of light entering a crystal
is refracted and divided into two rays instead of one. This is most commonly seen in
Calcite and Zircon.

 Luster: The manner in which a mineral/gemstone reflects light from its surface; it is
affected by the surface‟s smoothness and reflectivity. Rough and polished tanzanite will
respond slightly different;
3.2.2 Physical Properties of Interest
Gems are subjected to treatments and enhancements for quality improvement. Heating, Cutting
and polishing are the methods used for quality improvements. These can only be done after
studying the physical properties of the gem concern otherwise the treatments and enhancements
can‟t be achieved.

 Cleavage: The tendency of a mineral /gemstone to break along a plane due to a direction
of weakness in the crystal. Minerals and gemstones can be split along certain flat planes
which are called cleavage. Cleavage is related to the lattice (the cohesive property of the
atoms) of the crystal.

 Fracture: A break with an uneven or irregular surface crack.

 Tenacity: The strength of a mineral/gemstone. It is also its resistance to breaking,
crushing, bending, crumbling, tearing, or changing shape. There are several different
terms used to denote a mineral‟s tenacity. They are listed below.

The above optical and physical properties are extremely important for all concerned with
gemstones to know the different values and measurements of gemstones. Without knowing these
values, it would be extremely difficult for anyone to be able to identify one gemstone from
another.

3.2.3 Anatomies of Gemstones

This refers to internal structures of gemstones at their ground state. When internally examined at
different three dimension angles, they look like this;

Figure 7: Top view

 Figure 8: Side view from any angle

Figure 9: Viewing from the bottom (or flip it upside down)

3.2.4 Popular Gemstone Cuts

These shapes of gemstones including Tanzanite are possible among other properties is also due
to anatomy of gemstones. The anatomy of Gold does not allow all these kinds of shapes seen for
gemstones. Next chapters will discuss broadly about this concept.

1. The most favorable cuts of gems. These cuts/shapes are favored due to simplicity in
cutting as they match with natural anatomy of gems, availability of special machines used
for these cuts and what is called in market ‘word - of- mouth’.
Note: The Cuts appear in a pair, which is not pair after all, but shows both sides of each Cut.
The briolette top and bottom cut will show no difference that’s why it appears as one.
4.0 THE FOUR (4) C’s OF GEMSTONES

The Colour, Clarity, Carat weight and Cut are termed as 4c‟s of the gemstones. These are the
factors used for grading the quality and price of the gemstones.

 Color

The main indicator of value of Tanzanite, the more vivid pure and bright a color is, the
more it is valued. Tanzanite exists in three different colours when subjected into natural
light or fiber light. But with a single glance, it appears predominantly brown and Blue-
violet into light. However when it comes into colour grading, colour remains a subjective
"eyes of the beholder" sensation. The most colorful Tanzanite is graded as ‘AAA grade’
for GIA Standards and „A grade’ for TanzaniteOne Standard.

 Clarity

Is a major factor in deterextractive industry quality and, consequently, the value of a

gem. This refers to what extent the gemstone is flawless or clear without inclusions. The
more the gemstone is clear (without inclusions) the more the value of the gemstone.
Inclusions not only distract the eye, but interfere with the behavior of light in the gem,
and have a significant effect on brilliancy. However; inclusions that do not affect the
durability of colored are not an issue in deterextractive industry value as corresponding
inclusions in diamonds.

 Carat weight

The international standard unit for gemstones. All gemstones price is based on carat
weight. One carat (1Ct) equals to 0.2g.Tanzanite is almost found in the range of 1-10
carats but rarely up to 20-100+ carats.

 Cut

Has the least impact on a value of the gems among other 4 C's although due to
competition with other gems with posh cuts, the cut of Tanzanite is important to add
value. Cut shapes and cutting techniques will be discussed in the Cutting section.
TANZANITE PROCESSING METHODS AT TANZANITEONE

The discussions will be based on the methods used for Tanzanite gemstones processed at
TanzaniteOne. The prime methods are underway in the Sort house and other methods that are
cutting and polishing carried in Cutting house. The discussion and explanations will base on
experience grabbed in Sort house. Probably next compilation will include everything done in
cutting house-Cut, pre-formed and polishing. But in this compilation, cutting methods and
shapes will only grossly highlighted.

Before going into processing methods, it is healthiest to renaissance three concepts to „bring in‟
perfect understanding when discussing those methods practiced at TanzaniteOne. I have
conceptualized a figurative imagination to enhance understanding of the gemstone processing
methods.

(Therefore the Concepts below are subjective to Compiler and not referred from anywhere)

5.1 Concept 1
TanzaniteOne not only produce Tanzanite but also Tsavorite and other Coloured gemstones.
Therefore bear in mind, you will find other gems and not Tanzanite only and;The Colour referred
is Blue even for those which are not blue are named after it. The table below justifies the said.

Table5: Colour coding at TanzaniteOne

COLOUR EXPLANATION
A Exceptional Colour, Eye Clean
B Rare Deep Blue/other Colour, Eye Clean
BSI B Colour-Slightly Included
BI B Colour Included
BL B Lighter Colour Grade, Eye Clean
BLSI B Light-Slightly Included
BLI B Light Included
D Opaque Material(agreed to use D instead of O )

5.2 Concept 2
Try to imagine gemstone is like a Pineapple in which the first step is to pick it (face picking)
from the market wash it (Sort) start peeling (cobbing), Cut it (sizing one) up to the last stage of
the pineapple peeling and cutting which you remain with inner rod like feature protruding at the
bottom where you hold (Sizing two).OR Imagine the Pancake being cut symmetrical inwards
until you leave the last portion at the middle.

Assimilate above scenarios with the Tanzanite processing methods-The gemstones are brought
(face picking) from the extractive industry site/shaft to the Sort house for processing. Each step
reduces the gemstones (like pineapple example) up to the last step (sizing two) where you get
minimal Sizes. Observe the diagram below for support;

Face picking being the first method where you have large gemstone (the whole pineapple) and
the last stage is Sizing two (nice pieces of pineapple with different sizes ready to eat)

7. Sizing Two
6. Colour grading

5. Sizing One
4. Clarity grading

3. Cobbing
2. ROM sort
rrecovery
1. Face Picking

Figure 10: Concept on Size reduction related to Gemstones processing steps.

5.3 Concept 3
From the above concepts, carry on thinking the example of pineapple. From pineapple you will
have materials (peels and rod like at the middle) to be discarded and those for eating. But due to
massive demands of materials for production in different sectors, these days nothing is discarded.

The same happen in gemstone processing methods. Along the processing methods, there are
materials of irrelevant but are then sold locally. The processing methods are summarized below
in Table 6 with the explanation of what is left and what is seconded in the next or iteration
stages.
Table 6: The Gemstone Processing Material Balance
PROCESS/METHODS CARRYOVERS /LEFTOVERS
The gems are picked from the shaft just by looking on the face of it and identify it. They are
Face Picking normally large stones. Those which are clean go to cutting section and those which are attached or
embedded to normal stones; they have to be brought in the sort house for sort recovery and the rest
of the methods
ROM Sort Recovery The process of sorting materials from the run-of-mine and discord unwanted materials. The
recovery gems are then seconded to cobbing.
Gems from ROM Sort recovery are cobbed and graded into A-C, D grade, Colour, Tsavorite,
Waste and Off-Cuts.
Cobbing Carry Over: A-C carried to Clarity grading while Coloured (greenish gems) are taken to Cutting
process or sold as they are.
Left Over: D grade, Coloured, Tsavorite, Waste and Off-cuts are collected for local selling and
sometime for export.
A-C gems from cobbing are clarified into A, B, BL and SI, I.
Clarity Grading Carry Over: A, B and BL gems are carried to colour grading without passing into sizing 1. While
SI and I gems are carried out into Sizing 1
Left Over: Nothing left here, all materials are in transit
SI and I gems from Clarity section are sized into ranges from size 1 to 14. At sizing 1, the gems
Sizing One with the weight from 0.01 up to 0.49grams are arranged here and those above, from 0.5 up to
20+grams are taken to Sizing 2 for more weight arrangements.
Carry Over: SI and I Gems with size 5 to size 14 are carried to Colour grading while;
Left Over: SI and I Gems with size 1 to size 4 are collected ready for selling.
At this section remember we have A, B and BL gems from Clarity section and also SI and I Gems
with size 5 to size 14 from sizing 1 section carried to Colour grading. Therefore these are our feed
to be processed. The common useful methods used for colour grading is from GIA (Gemology
Colour Grading Institute of America).
Carry Over: The colour of A, B and BL gems are enthusiastically confirmed while SI and I Gems
are classified into relation to A,B and BL to get their hybrid i.e. A(I),A(SI),AL(I) and AL(SI) but
these have never been obtained. Therefore only BI, BSI, BLI and BLSI are graded from SI and I.
That means broadly there will be A, B, BL, BSI, BI, BLSI and BLI. But grossly colour grading
can end at A, B, BL and C. That means all gems with inclusion are generalized as C (BSI, BI,
BLSI and BLI)
Left Over: No materials are left here. All colour graded gems are carried to Sizing two.
The intention of this section is to grade the gems according to their weight starting from Size 5.
Sizing two We already have colour grading; the last stage is to arrange those gems with reference to their
weight and colour. The gems with the same size and colour are mixed together and weighed.
This is the last stage where the gemstones after being sized according to colour and weight, they
are packed ready for selling.
The detailed explanations will include the vivid example of what is done in all methods at
TanzaniteOne Extractive industry Company.
6.0 DETAILED PROCESSING METHODS

The whole seven (7) processing methods undertaken at TanzaniteOne will be discussed with
detailed example for each method.

6.1 Face picking

The gems are picked from the shaft just by looking on the face of it and identify it. They are
normally large stones, medium and small. They comprise wanted and unwanted materials. All
materials are brought in the Sort house for clean up and weighing. Those which have no
inclusion, the decision need to be made whether to sell as they are or go to cutting and those
which are attached or embedded to normal stones and inclusions, they have to remain in the sort
house for sort recovery and other processes. These are like alluvial gold (course particles of gold)
picked from Ores or collected on gravity circuit (free/liberated gold).Table 7 shows the practical
example of face picking;

Table 7: Practical example for Face picking

Total weight Picked from Pit (g) Total weight of grade D (g) Total weight for cobbing Shaft
(g)
10383.99 4616.04 4567.95 MAIN
Source: TMAA

Explanation based on the above practical example

 Total weight Picked from Pit: This is the total weight of materials picked from the pit.
They are picked by the miners just by looking and find them as the gemstones and packed
into bags, all the way to Sort house.

 Total weight of grade D: The materials from the pit are then checked for confirmation.
They have to be washed to see them clearly. Those which are Opaque are the ones called
grade D and the other which are transparent and pass the light by showing their true
colour, are the real gemstones separated for cobbing. Hence total weight of D grade
means the weight of Opaque materials. They are gemstones with less value. They don‟t
exhibit the true properties of tanzanite.

 Total weight for cobbing: This is the weight of real gemstones to be taken to the next
process of cobbing. The real gemstones are cobbed to remove unwanted materials
attached to them. But also reduces the gemstones into reasonable sizes to ease clarity and
colour grading.

 Shaft: This is the area where those materials have been picked/ mined. It is called shaft
because the place is underground where you need to descend by shaft. Therefore the
extractive industry area is named after it. In this example the gemstones were brought
from Main Shaft.
6.2 ROM Sort recovery
This is the process of sorting/separating materials from the run-of-mine (ROM).It is the same as
face picking logically but the difference is;

 ROM is the pile of materials (ores) with general geological estimation of grade e.g. 5g/t.
That means for every tone there is 5gram of required gemstone/minerals.

 The second difference from face picking materials is that, the materials from ROM need
to be crushed to the required size before brought in the Sort house for sorting i.e.
separation of gemstones, D grade and other „Taka Taka‟.

 The Crushed materials from ROM are stored into bags and drums. Sorting is done by
taking substantial portion of materials depending on the number of Sorters.

 To avoid direct contact of materials for security purposes, the sorting and all other
methods are done in the housing cabins.

Table 8: Practical example for ROM Sort recovery

Total weight from ROM( g) Total weight recovery (g)
147100 gm 10764.20gm

Explanation based on the above practical example.

 Total weight from ROM: This is the weight of portion of ROM materials given to
sorters on a particular day for sorting required and unwanted materials.

 Total weight recovery: This is the weight of required materials (recovery) obtained from
ROM materials.

Therefore ROM sort recovery is the process of separating gemstones and other materials from
the process plant crusher brought by conveyor. The separation/sorting is done manually. For gold
the crushed materials from the mill go into cyanidation and leaching BUT for gemstones the
crushed materials are then sorted by hand to get the gemstones. (Figure.11)
Figure 11: ROM Sort recovery process. The spatula-like equipment is used for sorting rather than fingers
for security purpose.

6.3 Cobbing
Is the trimming of gemstones to remove unwanted materials and to reduce the gems into
reasonable sizes for easiest of undertaking clarity and colour grading.

The small whippy hammers are utilized delicately to remove unsatisfactory materials. Despite
the loss of weight necessarily incurred in the cobbling process (off cuts), the remaining material
is upgraded to such an extent that it brings a price more than the original gems and makes up for
the weight loss and cost of labor. Let us remind ourselves about the following which had already
previously discussed;

Remember from face picking and ROM sort recovery, required materials were taken to this
stage. In previous pages we have mentioned that at TanzaniteOne not only tanzanite is available
but also other gemstones. The practical example below depicts the gemstones available-Coloured
gemstones, Tsavorite gemstones which is also available at Kenya Tsavo national park and is
named after it.

Table 9: Practical Example for Cobbing

Total weight(g) A-C D grade Coloured Tsavorite Waste Off-cut Total weight(g)
10701.5 1805.35 5160.94 334.78 53.89 334.39 3009.53 10698.88
Explanation based on the above practical example

 A-C: TanzaniteOne during Cobbing they combine all gemstones with inclusions and
name them as “C grade‟. Therefore whenever you see Colour grade C it means the whole
package of BSI, BI, BLSI and BLI.

 Therefore in practice A-C means combination of all colours A, B, BL, BSI, BLSI, BI and
BLI (revise colour grading standards at TanzaniteOne pg…)

 Coloured: These are the gemstones available at TanzaniteOne which do not have the real
colour of tanzanite.

 Tsavorite: Tsavorite gemstones are also available at Kenya Tsavo national park and are
named after.

 Off-cut: These are small pieces of all gemstones available during hammering/cobbing of
gemstones. They are used for mixing with other materials to make Tiles and other
ceramic items for shining the surface.

Figure 12: The cobbing process at TanzaniteOne.

6.4 Clarity
Clarity is the second most important of the 4c's when considering Tanzanite quality. Clarity
simply refers to how inclusion-free a gemstone is. Once again, the most universally accepted and
most documented system is the GIA system but there are also numerous other trade based
systems in use like the one used at TanzaniteOne as seen in previous chapters. The other system
commonly used is Munsel System but will not be discussed, have a time to web it.

The discussion will only base on GIA system and its TanzaniteOne derivative system for
tanzanite. Below is a chart showing the GIA and TanzaniteOne clarity/colour grading system
which will be referred in our discussions. The TanzaniteOne Standards is the one which is
emphasized since we are deeply dealing with tanzanite in our compilation.GIA system is
revised for building the concept related to TanzaniteOne Clarity/Colour grading standards.
Figure 13 and Table 10 indicates the level of inclusions and how those levels can be graded.

A B/BL BSI – BLSI BI- BLI (TzOne System)

Figure 13: GIA and TanzaniteOne Clarity grading

Explanations of level of Inclusions

 VVS: This is the top grade in the GIA system. Tanzanite is classed by the GIA as a "Type
1" gem which means it is graded very strictly. Stands for Very very slightly included and
whilst most VVS Tanzanites are flawless they can contain minute inclusions which are
difficult to see with a loupe (10x magnification) and invisible to the unaided eye. Typical
minute inclusions may be very fine needles, tiny hairline feathers, very faint clouds and
percussion marks.

 VS: This stands for Very Slightly Included and these stones are characterised by minor
inclusions which are somewhat easy to see under 10x magnification but usually invisible
to the unaided eye. Typical inclusions may be small included crystals, liquid inclusions,
fine needles, small feathers

 SI1 - SI2: This stands for Slightly Included and these stones are characterised by
noticeable inclusions which are apparent under 10 x magnifications. In SI1 they are
usually visible and SI2 quite visible to the unaided eye. Typical inclusions are included
crystals, large liquid inclusions, feathers, dense clouds.
  I1-I2-I3: The lowest grade. Stands for Imperfect. These stones are characterised by
inclusions that have a negative effect on either appearance, durability or both. At I1 there
is a moderate effect on either factor, I2 a severe effect on both factor and I3 a severe
effect on both factors.

Table 10: The summarized level of inclusions

GRADE STANDARD
Very, Very Slightly included -
VVS Inclusions are easily seen under 10X
magnification, but usually not visible to
the unaided eye.
Very Slightly included - Obvious
VS inclusions are easily seen under 10 x
magnifications, and usually visible to the
unaided eye.
Slightly Included 1 - Inclusions are large
SI 1 and numerous under 10x magnification,
and prominent to the unaided eye.
Slightly Included 2 - Inclusions are large
SI 2 and numerous under 10x magnification,
and very prominent to the unaided eye.
Included 1 - Inclusions are very obvious
I1 and have a moderate negative effect on
the appearance OR durability of the
stone.
Included 2 - Inclusions are very obvious
I2 and have a severe negative effect on the
appearance OR durability of the stone.
Included 3 - Inclusions are very obvious
I3 and have a severe negative effect on
BOTH the appearance AND durability
of the stone.
WHAT YOU SEE
The gem is almost perfectly transparent.
If you examine the stone closely enough,
you may see very tiny flaws.
The gem is still transparent and lively.
On close examination, a few small flaws
can be seen.
The gem is mostly transparent, but one
or more flaws are easily visible.
The gem is generally transparent, but has
a number of large flaws.
The stone either has so many inclusions
that it is only partly transparent, or if
transparent it has one or more cracks that
might weaken the gem.
The stone either has so many inclusions
that it appears to be translucent, or if
transparent it has cracks that could
weaken the gem.
The stone has so many inclusions that it
appears to be translucent, AND it has
one or more cracks that weaken the gem

6.4.1 The meaning of An Inclusion

The inclusions are virtually materials other than original gemstones. They may be formed before,
after or on the same time with the gemstones. Broadly is defined as; Any irregularity or
dislocations in a crystal's lattice, or structure, marks of the crystallization phases, color striations,
and internal fractures, which may be caused by internal stress or external pressure.

Simply the material trapped within the body of a crystal which is different from the primary
elements of the host crystal.
6.4.2Types of inclusions commonly found in Tanzanite gemstones and other gems

 Crystal‟s feathers, needle like, cracks, healed fractures and included lily pads and foils.
 Individual pinpoints, included crystals, voids
 Clusters of included crystals, or voids
 Clouds of pinpoints

6.5 Grading the clarity of Tanzanite

Most color stone clarity grading is assumed to be with the unaided eye. The Sunlight is used to
see the clarity through/within the gemstone. But the specialized dealers and companies of
gemstones use the special equipments to minimize the human error especially if your eyesight is
below standard. The fiber light is used at TanzaniteOne and magnification lens (10 x
magnifications).

 Carefully study a gemstone, observing characteristics that distract the eye or could affect
durability, transparency, brilliance and color. Mentally summarize those observations and
ask yourself in which category the gem belongs. If you notice a minor inclusion, start
your grading assessment again with that clarity grade as a minimum.

 The logic behind is to grade A/B/BL and SI/I from the cobbed Tanzanite. A/B/BL are
combined while SI/I are separated.

 At this process weight is not considered, only inclusion matters. Bear in mind here B do
not only signify blue but also other colour rather than Blue. The same rules as of Blue
colour apply to other colour and named after A/B/BL and SI/I.

Table 11: Practical Example for Clarity grading

Total wt A-BL SI I D REC. COLOURED TOTAL Shaft
2095.93 73.64 84.37 1680.03 152.43 NIL 104.69 2095.16 ROM
585.38 49.33 36.23 447.56 - - 52.13 585.25 MAIN
Source: TMAA

Explanation based on the above practical example

 D and Coloured already discussed on cobbing.

 A-BL: These are the tanzanite and other gemstones without inclusions and they mean A,
B and BL. These go direct to colour grading without passing to Sizing 1.

 SI: These are the gemstones with Slight Inclusion. They may be A, B or BL with
inclusions. (ASI, BSI and BLSI) but these naming will be arranged on colour grading.

 I: These are the gemstones with real inclusions vividly seen. They may be A, B or BL
with vivid inclusions (AI, BI and BLI). But these colours will be categorized during
colour grading;
After that SI and I go to Sizing 1 to be graded according to their sizes from the range of size1-14
and where;

 The SI and I with sizes 1-4 (0.01 - 0.49g) are packed ready for selling.

 Those from size 5-14 (0.5 - 20+g) go to Colour grading and then to sizing 2.

Generally at Clarity process, you will have three groups of Tanzanite

 A, B and BL without inclusions

 A, B and BL with Slight Inclusion (SI), that is ASI, BSI and BLSI and finally

 A, B and BL with vivid Inclusion (I) that is AI, BI and BLI

The figure 14 shows the clarity grading by using fiber light to identify the level of inclusions on
and within the gemstones. The figure also shows the three containers in which those three types
of Tanzanite are stored during the process.

Figure 14: Clarity grading by using fiber light

6.6 Sizing Indicator

In gemstone sizing refers to arrangement of gemstones according to their weights, inclusions and
colours. There are two types of arrangements of gemstones during processing;

Sizing one (1) and Sizing two (2).Conversional weight is 0.2g equals to 1 carat (1ct)
  Sizing one (1): This involves arrangement of gemstones from size 1-14.Those from size
1-4 are collected and packed ready for selling and the gemstones above size 5-14 are
taken to Colour grading and then finally to Sizing two(2)

 Sizing two (2): This deals with gemstones from size 5-14 and is the final process.
Though due to human error you may find the gemstones with sizes below 5-14

Below is the table (Table 12) showing the Sizing Indicator (the range of weight and
corresponding size)

Table 12: Sizing Indicator used at TanzaniteOne

SIZE ROUGH WEIGHT(g) GRADE
1 0.01 – 0.09 B/BL
1 0.01 – 0.15 C
2 0.10 – 0.15 B/BL
2 0.16 – 0.19 C
3 0.20 – 0.29 B/BL/C
4 0.30 -0.49 A/B/BL/C
5 0.50 – 0.79 A/B/BL/C
6 0.80 – 0.99 A/B/BL/C
7 1.00 – 1.99 A/B/BL/C
8 2.00 – 2.99 A/B/BL/C
9 3.00 – 4.99 A/B/BL/C
10 5.00 – 6.99 A/B/BL/C
11 7.00 – 9.99 A/B/BL/C
12 10.00 – 14.99 A/B/BL/C
13 15 .00 – 19.99 A/B/BL/C
14 20+ A/B/BL/C
Souce: TanzaniteOne Extractive industry Company Ltd.

6.7 Sizing One (1)

This deal in essence with the gemstones having inclusions .All gemstones with inclusions are
arranged at Sizing One with relation to their weight. Those without inclusions are not involved at
Sizing one they are direct taken to Colour grading and Sizing two.

Remember at clarity process, the gemstones without inclusions (A, B, BL) were taken to colour
grading and then to Sizing two without passing into sizing one.SI and I gemstones are the ones
taken into Sizing one.

Table 13: Practical Example for Sizing 1

Total wt Size 1 Size 2 Size 3 Size 4 Size 5-14 Total grade Shaft
770.50 50.07 42.17 175.96 266.98 234.36 770.17 I ROM
85.49 - - - 10.65 74.81 85.46 SI CT
36.23 - - - 5.58 30.65 36.23 SI MAIN
143.77 1.71 4.12 26.62 55.84 55.40 143.69 I DELTA
21.98 - - 0.54 5.28 16.07 21.89 SI DELTA
Source: TMAA
Explanation based on the above practical example

 Size1 to Size 4: The gemstones with inclusions and having weight from 0.01-0.49g that
is size 1-4 are finalized/packed for Selling. The reason is that, they are two small for
further processes like Cutting .The only further process is heat treatment to make them
more Blue violet.

 Size 4 to Size 14: Those with weight from 0.5-20+g that is Size 5-14 are taken into
Colour grading then to Sizing two. These can be further treated (cutting/polishing)
therefore is better to grade them up to the final stage (Sizing two) and the buyer will
decide whether to buy rough or further treatment (cutting/polishing).

Figure 15: Sizing One (1) process

Each beaker holds one size of gems that is size 1, 2, 3 and 4 its own beaker. While sizes 5 up to
14 are mixed in one beaker (see the one full to the rim). At the left hand side on the figure is the
scale used for sizing (weight ranges)

6.8 Color grading

This is the most complex process in grading Tanzanite and other gemstones. This can also be
used as a loophole for tax deviations. Blue colour can be called Blue light purposely to decrease
the value. Therefore the evaluators and buyers need time to cross check them though roughly to
confirm the colour. But as I said the peripheral between Blue and light blue sometime not easy to
‘mark’. The same happen between Blue Light Slightly Included and Blue Slightly Included.
These ambiguities were mitigated by Munsell when he introduced the concept of hue (original
colour) saturation (intensity) and tone (lightness/darkness).

Saturation and Tone are used to distinguish the ‘range of colors’ (range of hue) –is it deep Blue,
pure Blue or slightly Blue. Hue doesn‟t confuse because is the color that we notice immediately
like red, blue, yellow, or green. Albert H. Munsel, an American painter and art instructor was the
first to identify these basic qualities of a specific color - hue, saturation and tone. The GIA
eventually adopted these principles to create a standardized gemstone color-grading system.

But the system has no final guidelines to base; it just gives you the blueprint of the system
principles and where to start but how to finalize depends on the beauty of the beholder.
Regardless of the shortcomings of GIA, it is still the only System to be referred. The figure 9, 10
and 11 will help us to build the concept of saturation and tone before we go into practical
example.

Figure 16: Gemstone Hue Chart

Saturation is the intensity of the hue present in a color sensation. Colors of low saturation are
sometimes called weak, grayish or brownish while those of high saturation are said to be highly
saturated, strong or vivid.

Figure 17: Gemstones Saturation chart

Tone indicates the lightness or darkness of a color sensation. The scale ranges from 0 for pure
black to 10 for pure white. Black and white and the grays between them are called neutral
colors. They have no hue. Colors that have a hue are called chromatic colors. Colors that do not
have a hue are known as achromatic. The value scale applies to chromatic as well as to neutral
colors. GIA uses 7 of those steps (Tones 2 thru 8) for grading tone in transparent colored
gemstones.

Figure 18: Gemstone Tone chart

NOTE: From the above concepts of Hue, Saturation and Tone, one can still get stuck to
distinguish between Saturation and Tone. Am I wrong? And still no quantitative techniques to
mitigate the confusion.

6.8.1 GIA Color grading steps

Judge hue and saturation by identifying the Key Colors which are direct seen. We do that by face
up stone and find the Key colors - the colors under the crown facets which show the best
representation of color in the stone. The fiber light is used to assist to identify the colour
satisfactorily. We do not consider washed out, windowed, or areas of extinction;

 Windowing refers to the washed out area in the center of a stone generally seen
through the table. A stone with a large washed out area is said to have a large
window.

 Extinction refers to the areas of darkness visible through the crown. These areas
appear gray or black.

 Brilliance is a measure of the light which enters the stone and reflects back to our
eye. It is seen as the bright areas or flashes within the stone.
You may see these steps; they just explain how to start but don’t comment how to arrive to the
final judgment. The Crown, Window /table, girdle these can be seen after cut but for rough
gemstone not ease to know the crown and window sides. These are shortcomings of GIA.

6.8.2 TanzaniteOne Colour grading steps

Tanzanite Gemstones are arranged according to the standard colour. People do confuse Colour
grading with clarity grading .During clarity grading, the criteria is to look on the inclusions only,
grade those without inclusions and those with inclusions regardless of their colour. While Colour
grade is based on colour, weight and inclusion.

Here the standard colour has already implemented. Blue colour is a Key Colour in grading all
gemstones available at TanzaniteOne. Tanzanite is predominantly Blue and brown. When heated
it turns Blue-Violet permanently. Tsavorite is greenish and Coloured gemstones are pale blue
and pale brown. Tsavorite is separated but the rest are graded based on blue colour. There are A,
B, BL, BSI, BLSI, BI and BLI types of colour. Those gemstones which are not blue are named
after blue colour as I said before. Suppose the gemstone is brown or yellow it will be named as
Blue, B and if slightly brown/yellow it will be named Blue light, BL etc

For beginners, the „Master stones‟ or Master colours are used to differentiate the colour until the
grader become experienced with those colours and start doing grading in his/her own.

Table 14: Practical example for Tanzanite Colour grading at TanzaniteOne

Total wt A B BL COLOUR YELLOW WASTE TOTAL Shaft
470.12 - 88.87 362.67 18.51 - - 470.05 CT
119.72 - 20.68 86.79 12.39 - - 119.86 DELTA
Source: TMAA

Master colors referred for tanzanite

COLOURED BL B A

Explanation based on the above practical example

 A: Is the exceptional colour, deep Blue without inclusions. Very rare to get it.

 B: Blue or Brown or any visible colour

 BL: Blue light or Brown light or any light colour

 Colour: Pale Blue, Brown or any pale colour.

6.9 Sizing two (2)

The intention of this section is to grade the gems according to their weight, colour and
inclusions. We already have colour grading; the last stage is to arrange those gems with reference
to their weight and colour. In essence Sizing two (2) deal with gems from Size 5 onward.
Therefore expect to get more gems at Sizing two with Size 5 and higher. But due to human
error, the gems with weight less than Size 5 are found taken to Sizing two stage. That‟s why
sometime size 1, 2, 3 and 4 appear at Sizing two (2) stages instead of being collected at Sizing
One.

Table 15: Practical Example for Sizing two (2)

Total Grade SIZE SIZE 3 SIZE 4 SIZE 5 SIZE 6 SIZE 7 SIZE 8 SIZE 9 SIZE10 Total
wt 2
12.79 B - - 1.32 1.61 1.89 3.20 - 4.81 - 12.83
270.18 BL 1.79 17.15 86.30 90.50 27.70 37.80 8.92 - - 270.16
16.80 BSI - - - 5.12 2.69 8.44 - - - 16.75
124.21 BLSI - - - 78.67 20.51 25.07 - - - 124.25
77.53 BI - - - 43.84 14.80 18.90 - - - 77.54
400.78 BLI - - - 343.82 40.70 16.31 - - - 400.83
31.28 B - - 0.4 1.91 6.06 9.86 - 7.10 5.94 31.27
164.69 BL - - 28.58 41.80 14.95 53.27 6.77 9.26 5.77 164.61
6.82 BSI - - - 2.95 2.45 1.30 - - - 6.70
40.05 BLSI - - - 17.61 12.33 8.00 2.01 - - 39.95
18.61 BI - - - 12.11 0.92 5.58 - - - 18.61
66.74 BLI - - - 58.04 5.07 3.61 - - - 66.72
Source: TMAA

The above can be also presented as following;

Grade Weight(g) Grade Weight(g)

4B 1.72 5B(SI) 8.07
5B 3.52 6B(SI) 5.14
6B 7.95 7B(SI) 9.74
7B 13.06 5BL(SI) 96.28
9B 11.91 6BL(SI) 32.84
2BL 1.79 7BL(SI) 33.07
3BL 17.15 8BL(SI) 2.01
4BL 114.88 5B(I) 55.95
5BL 132.3 6B(I) 15.72
6BL 42.65 7B(I) 24.48
7BL 91.07 5B(LI) 401.86
8BL 15.69 6B(LI) 45.77
9BL 9.26 7B(LI) 19.92
10BL 5.77

NOTE: The same procedures as for Sizing One (1) is used. Beakers and Scale are also used for
arrangement of sizing two (refer figure 15)
8.0 GEMSTONES CUT AND POLISH

Second Compilation will include this process of Tanzanite cutting techniques in details. For now
just have some partial hints of cutting techniques.

The process of cutting and polishing gems is called gem cutting or lapidary, while a person
who cuts and polishes gems is called a gem cutter or a lapidary. Gemstone material that has not
been extensively cut and polished is referred to generally as rough. All gems are cut and
polished by progressive abrasion using finer and finer grits of harder substances. Diamond, the
hardest naturally occurring substance is used as an abrasive to cut and polish a wide variety of
materials, including diamond itself.

8.1 Cutting Techniques

Several common techniques are used in lapidary work: Sawing, grinding, sanding, lapping,
polishing, drilling and tumbling.

 Sawing: A thin circular blade usually composed of steel, copper, or a phosphor bronze
alloy impregnated along the outer edge with diamond grit and rotating at several
thousand surface feet per minute literally scratches its way through a gemstone.

 Grinding: with silicon carbide wheels or diamond-impregnated wheels, gemstone is

shaped to a desired rough form, called a preform.

 Sanding is similar to grinding but uses finer abrasives. Its purpose is to remove deep
scratches left by coarser abrasives during grinding.

 Lapping is very similar to grinding and sanding, except that it is performed on one side
of a rotating or vibrating flat disk known as a lap, and it is used especially to create flat
surfaces on a stone (as in faceting).

 Polishing: After a gemstone is sawed and ground to the desired shape and sanded to
remove rough marks left by coarser grits, it is usually polished to a mirror-like finish to
aid light reflection from the surface of the stone or refraction through the stone, in the
case of transparent materials.

 Tumbling: Large quantities of roughly shaped stones are often tumbled, i.e., turned at a
slow speed in a rotating barrel with abrasives and water for extended periods of days or
weeks. By tumbling with progressively finer grades of abrasive and washing carefully
between grades, the stones are gradually smoothed and polished.

 Cabochons: One of the simplest lapidary forms is the cabochon, a stone that is smoothly
rounded and polished on top, relatively flattish, and either flat or slightly rounded on the
bottom. This form of cutting is often used for opaque or translucent stones, but is also
 frequently used for transparent materials that contain too many inclusions to yield a good
faceted stone. Coloration and patterning provide the major interest in such stones.

 Faceted Stones: Faceting is most often done on transparent stones. Flat facets are cut and
polished over the entire surface of the stone, usually in a highly symmetrical pattern.

 Inlays: In an inlay, a gemstone is cut to fit and glued into a hollow recess in another
material (metal, wood, or other stones) and then the top ground and polished flush with
the surrounding material.

 Intarsias and Mosaics: In both intarsia and mosaic work, small bits of different colored
stones are fit together and the top cut and polished to present a picture or other interesting
pattern

 Sculpture: Gemstones can be carved, like other materials, into almost any form, limited
only by the talents of the sculptor. Carving is accomplished with a variety of diamond-
impregnated steel bits.
 REFERENCES
1. UNDP, 1998 World Report on Gemstones Extractive industry.

2. TMAA Database. http://www.tmaa.go.tz

3. How are gems cut and polished.

http://www.tradeshop.com/gems/howcut.html

4. Conrad Mtui, TMAA TanzaniteOne Analytical Report ,2011

5. Physical and optical properties of Minerals and gemstones.

http://www.rocksinmyheadtoo.com/PhysOpti.htm

6. The gemstones cutting process.

http://www.gemstoneartist.com/Process.asp

7. Understand tanzanite GIA colour grades.

http://www.lapigems.com/tanzanite.asp

8. Tanzanite unique properties.

http://www.etanzanite.com/tanzanite_pictures.htm
 CHAPTER FOUR

Gemstones of Tanzania
Color, Transparency, Refractive Index, Specific Gravity, Spectrum, Inclusions and Rough Shape

Introduction

Gemstones have little attention in Tanzania compared to precious metals. Precious metals
especially gold, copper and silver are known to most of Tanzanians and the business of the same
is booming on daily basis. For gemstones is different story. Few Tanzanians who know about
gemstones. When you talk about gemstones, few people will refer to Tanzanite, Ruby and
garnets only. But there are more types of gemstones in Tanzania.

This chapter is aimed to provide knowledge of gemstones which are cheaply available in
abundant compared to precious metals. On top of that, they also command higher price than
gold. The knowledge also will help Tanzanians to venture into gemstones and hence
diversification of minerals business. Rather than everybody thinking of precious metals,
Tanzanians can now start thinking of varieties of gemstones seriously.

Tanzania is believed to be the second country with higher amount of gemstones reserves after
Madagascar. Gemstones are available in alluvial form along the river banks, swamps, and natural
dams and in the valleys where the gemstones are washed out from the mountains by rainfall
drains. Umber valley in Tanga is among the famous valleys with alluvial gemstones. The chapter
has shown the areas with gemstone reserves. This will help if somebody has found the gems at a
certain area, he/she can refer to this chapter and see what kind of gemstones are found in that
area .Whenever you see any colored stone within your vicinity, think about gemstones and not
just gravels or pebbles. Consult this chapter or any Minerals office for identification. You might
be playing with a gem worth a millions of dollars!

It is not a joke; the records show even Dr.Williamsons found diamonds from indigenous who
were blind about diamond. The first diamond also at south Africa Kimberly, was found within
the hand of child playing with it as a normal pebble stone and one geologist saw it and the story
changes.Songea sapphire and Tunduru Alexandrite were discovered by missionaries. The people
thought those stones are evil because they don‟t look like normal stones. Rubies having red
color, were thought to be bloody stone causing death and alexandrite which changes color from
Blue/Green to red, were thought to have mysterious power. Therefore after arrival of
Christianity, the Christians took those stones to the priests (missionaries) to pray for them and
curse the devil not to bring again those wicked stones.

Knowledge is power, be ready to get knowledge in every field, you never know when it will ripe
and pays.
 Philosophy of Gem Business, Diamond Poem and CSR Benchmark Poem

For Gem Business Illiterates;

Gem Business is like Politics,
And,
Politics is like Gem Business.

Most of the People buy Gems by just trusting the seller about the benefits and features of the
merchandise (blind purchase concept). The Gem might be real or fake but they just trust the
seller‟s words and close a deal. Politics is the same; you just trust the politician‟s words and vote
for him/her. Both politics and Gem Business share the same trait ………both need trust.

But for Gem Business Literates;

Gem Business is a Science

And,
Science means Reality
Gems knowledge is a science which can be proved and confirmed, hence distinguished from
politics. The one with knowledge of gemstones is equipped with different skills to identify and
confirm what kind of jewelry/gem is. For him/her is not about trust but reality. The only way to
get this science is either to join a college or through private studies, and get rid of being one of
those who buy or deal with jewelry/gemstones blindly. Devote your time and go through the
whole compilation and for sure you will definitely become „Gem Literate‟.

Diamond Poem

Diamond is Durable than any gem,

Diamond is the most Desirable gem among others.
And above all
Diamond is a real Deal.
And for sure;
Diamond will never in any case let you into Desperation.
CSR Poem for Williamson Diamond Mine –Mwadui, CSR Presidential Award winner

I salute Dr.Williamsons for his thanksgiving to Mwadui

He deserves to be in the records at Tanzania National Museum- unfortunately he is not.
He deserves to be named after a certain street or colleges- unfortunately he is not.
And to me I salute him because;
Mwadui is a planned and surveyed town,
Mwadui is a clean area compared to none extractive industry area,
Mwadui is a place with all accommodated workers different from other mines,
Mwadui is a centre of education with all level of schools and colleges,
Mwadui is a place of divinity doctrines with churches and mosques,
Mwadui is only place where the extractive industry employees used to be in pensionable scheme,
Mwadui is the only place where you helped to educate the workers‟ children and employ them
Mwadui is the only place where the experts have experienced the culture of friendship among
Mwadui employees and they have coped with it
Mwadui currently nobody is trying to wear your shoes rather than vandalizing the estate properties
you left to us, thanks to Petra trying to maintain status quo of Williamson.
Mwadui is the only place you loved with your whole heart and laid down there, but nobody takes
care of where you are laid and left the resources you strived for almost ten years.
You set the Benchmark for other Investors to follow but nobody take heed of your Benchmark.
Currently we talk about CSR, but during your time it was just thanksgiving because you were not
forced by any law but you did. Today we have law but no fully adherence.
Yet I say Mwadui should be the Benchmark for all Mines‟ CSR.
IMPORTANT TERMS IN GEMSTONES

COLOR

In science color is a result of light wavelength when an object‟s surface responds to light. The
object‟s surface can absorb, transmit or reflect light. These responses are the ones which results
to the color we see. Human being can only see wavelength between 750 and 380nm.In
gemstones, color is the combination of hue, tone and saturation.

Colored stones as the name itself signifies, color is the supreme criteria in judging and grading
colored stone. The hue, saturation and tone in their totality pave a way to a premium.GIA has
done a great job in expressing the real differences of those three terms and how to identify them.

Hue: Hue is the color that we notice immediately like red, blue, yellow, or green. Saturation is
the intensity of the hue present in a color sensation. Colors of low saturation are sometimes
called weak, grayish or brownish while those of high saturation are said to be highly saturated,
strong or vivid. Saturation and Tone are used to distinguish the „range of colors‟ (range of hue) –
is it deep blue, pure Blue or slightly Blue.

Tone indicates the lightness or darkness of a color sensation. The scale ranges from 0 for pure
black to 10 for pure white. Black and white and the grays between them are called neutral
colors. They have no hue. Colors that have a hue are called chromatic colors. Colors that do not
have a hue are known as achromatic.

In ancient histories color is related with happiness, grief, sorrow or misfortunes. In Bible and
Qur‟an color also signifies something according to scriptures. In different ceremonies colour is
the one which determine the event at glance. Once you see black colour and large crowd of
people, you start thinking of something wrong. The flags of nations have different colours not by
accident but they hold the means and ways of the struggle movements towards the independence.

For colored stones; color is the one which mostly bear the value of a particular gemstone
followed by other factors- 4Cs.

TRANSPARENCY

In common English a word transparency means Clearness, Simplicity, Openly, Explicitly,

Precision and Intelligibility. For English natives it might mean different but the logic remains the
same. The word „Transparency‟ has gained momentum in contemporary politics both in
international and national forums. It is either related to democracy or administration, for instance
transparency in democracy practices or transparency in administrative decisions.
Scientifically transparency means ability of material to transmit light. The gemstones which
allow light to pass through and enable observer to see through (clear), the gemstones are said to
be transparent. If totally the gemstone doesn‟t allow light to pass through is said to be opaque.

But there are other gemstones which are in between;

Transparency – Ability to transmit light

Semi-transparent – Capable of transmitting light with some distortion, so an object viewed

through the material is indistinct.

Translucent – Capable of transmitting and diffusing light so an object viewed through the
material cannot be distinguished.

Semi-translucent – Capable of transmitting light only through thin area usually at the edge.

Opaque – Inability of transmitting light.

HEFT OF GEMSTONES:

Heft means how heavy a gemstone is when you feel it in your hand. The heaviness of a
gemstone differs according to their crystal formation.

INCLUSIONS AND PHYNOMENA

The meaning of Inclusion

The inclusions are virtually materials other than original gemstones. They may be formed before,
after or on the same time with the gemstones. Broadly is defined as; Any irregularity or
dislocations in a crystal's lattice, or structure, marks of the crystallization phases, color striations,
and internal fractures, which may be caused by internal stress or external pressure; Simply the
material trapped within the body of a crystal which is different from the primary elements of the
host crystal.

Types of inclusions commonly found in gemstones

 Crystal‟s feathers, needle like, cracks, healed fractures and included lily pads and foils.
 Individual pinpoints, included crystals, voids
 Clusters of included crystals, or voids
 Clouds of pinpoints
There are three types of inclusions, or processes, through which other materials can get into a
crystal;

Protogenetic Inclusions: These inclusions were already present before the host mineral was
formed. The host mineral grew around them. Therefore they are older than the host crystal.

Syngenetic Inclusions: Formed at the same time as the host mineral. These inclusions can be
solids, liquids, or gases, or combinations of any of the three forms of matter. These inclusions are
therefore the same age as the host crystal.

Epigenetic Inclusions: These inclusions were formed after the host crystal was formed. These
inclusions are usually either formed by exsolution or from the recrystallization of a fracture in a
host mineral. They may also be liquid, solid, or gaseous. These inclusions are therefore younger
than the host crystal.

PHENOMENA

Phenomena are unusual display of gemstones in response to light. It is optical effects caused by
reflection, interference or refraction. The phenomena effects increase the price of the gemstones;
customers like buying something two-in-one, normal gemstone and phenomenal gemstone when
light is directed on a gemstone.

Types of Phenomena Effects

Asterism: Appearance of a star on the surface of a gem when light reflecting from minute
needle-like inclusions in a gem.

Adularescence: Appearance of blue-white light in moonstone caused by thin fibrous or layers in

moonstone by diffracting, diffusing and interfering the light.
Aventurescence: Appearance of glittering spots of color caused by light reflections due to
platelets inclusions.

Chatoyancy: Appearance of cat‟s eye resemblance on gemstone surface after light being
reflected by minute parallel needle-like inclusions, fibrous or parallel tubes inclusions depending
on the gemstones. In other word; Phenomenon of certain Cat's eye minerals which causes them
to exhibit a concentrated narrow band of reflected light across the center of the mineral.
Chatoyancy is almost exclusively exhibited on polished cabochons.

Color change: Change of color of a gemstone body when different sources of light are applied
(incandescent and fluorescent).

Play-of-color: Appearance of flashes of spectral colors (rainbow colors) in opal when minute
silica spheres in opal cause diffraction interference of light.

Iridescence: Appearance of interference colors seen in agates and other gemstones. But mostly,
the term is for agates.
Orient: Orient logically is iridescence phenomenon but when occur in pearls, is called orient.
Therefore orient is iridescence in pearl.

Labradorescence: Appearance of broad color flash across the surface of Labradorite feldspar.
This occurs when the thin layers in Labradorite cause light interference.

REFRACTIVE INDEX (RI)

Refractive Index (RI) is the ration of speed of light in the air (vacuum) to the speed of light in a
medium.

SINGLE REFLECTION (SR): Is the optic property of a gemstone to exhibits a single reading
on the refractometer. The reading does not change even if you turn the gemstone on the
refractometer. If you use the polarizing filter, when you turn the gem under the polarizing filter,
the gem‟s light reflection intensity remain the same.

DOUBLE REFLECTION (DR): Is the optic property of a gemstone to exhibits a double/more

than one reading on the refractometer - the maximum and minimum readings on the
refractometer. The readings change as you turn or move the gemstone on the refractometer. If
you use the polarizing filter, when you turn the gem under the polarizing filter, the gem‟s light
reflection intensity change.
GEM REFRACTIVE INDEX (RI) IS LIKE HUMAN FINGER PRINT

The RI is the most useful method in identifying gemstones. Garnet and Ruby can be quickly
distinguished by SR or DR. All Garnets are single reflective (SR) while Rubies are double
reflective (DR).

Gemstone‟s RI is like finger print for human being. There is no way, a finger print of one human
being to resemble with others. The same for gemstones; each gemstone has its own RI. It is only
possible for RI of one gemstone to overlap with other gemstones and having the same
birefringence but rarely to be the same.

GEMSTONES SURFACE APPEARANCE

Gemstones surface exhibit different appearance when cut and polished. The differences are
contributed by texture and structure of the gemstones crystal lattice- hardness.

Luster is the term used to describe how does the surface of faceted gemstone look like in
reflected light.

High luster: The gem surface shines like mirror. This includes diamond, hematite, and Zircon
and demantoid garnet.

Hematite luster is called Metallic: Mirror like luster

Diamond Luster is called Adamantine: the highest luster for all transparent gems

Demantoid garnet and Zircon Luster is called Sub adamantine: Not sharp like adamantine.

Medium luster: The gem surface shines like glass or slightly like glass (Vitrous and Sub-
vitrous).Most transparent gemstones belong to this luster.

Low luster: The gem surface looks like Greasy, Resinous, Waxy and Dull.

Sheen Luster: The shines of the gem occur just below the gems surface. The reflection is seen
as if is inside the gem surface and look Silky/ Pearly.

SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Simulant means naturally look like. These are gems which occur naturally and used to imitate
other gemstones. For example colorless natural sapphire, quartz, topaz and rocky crystal are
sometime used as diamond simulant, while;
Synthetics are manmade gemstones with the same chemical and physical properties as natural
gemstones they imitate. They are made in Laboratory.

GEOMETRY OF ROUGH GEMSTONES

1. Meaning of Geometry in mathematics

In mathematics geometry topic is among the difficulty. Is about how angles are related to shapes,
area and lengths of an object. I remember in my Ordinary and high school it takes ages of time to
understand this topic; especially the logic behind Angle of sine, cosine, tangents etc.

The scientists also have taken centuries to find the simplicity of geometry calculation. The most
complicated geometry involves curved, domed and circular objects. The early mathematicians
struggled a lot and some discovered pie (π), Angle of sine, cosine, tangents and other constants
to simplify geometry of those complicated objects. The discovery of Calculus to some extent
makes life easy but for others is even worse……..!

Archimedes takes not less than 20 years to find geometry of curved objects but he was killed
before he completed his work. When roman police came to arrest him he said ‘please do
anything to me but don’t disturb my circles’. His room was full of drawings of curved objects
trying to find the easy way of calculating angles, areas and lengths. Curved and hanging bridges,
domed and curved buildings, enjoy this topic in engineering and architectural calculation before
erected.

2. Meaning of Geometry in Gemstones

In gemstones, geometry means the same as in mathematics. It means a shape of rough gemstones
(crystal shape). Each rough gemstone has its habit naturally (crystal shape). The occurrence of
Moonstone shape is expected to be different from corundum and other gemstones.

There are occurrences of seven crystal systems (shapes) in gemstone as summarized in the next
pages;
Source: http://www.realgems.org

1. Cubic or Isometric – It is assumed all sides and length to be the same but not always.
Sometime octahedrons (eight faces) and dodecahedrons (10 faces) are found into this
crystal shape.

2. Tetragonal - similar to cubic crystals, but longer along one axis than the other, forming
double pyramids and prisms.
3. Orthorhombic - like tetragonal crystals except not square in cross section (when viewing
the crystal on end), forming rhombic prisms or dipyramids (two pyramids stuck together).
4. Hexagonal - six-sided prisms. When you look at the crystal on-end, the cross section is a
hexagon.
5. Trigonal - possess a single 3-fold axis of rotation instead of the 6-fold axis of the
hexagonal division.
6. Triclinic - usually not symmetrical from one side to the other, which can lead to some
fairly strange shapes.
7. Monoclinic - like skewed tetragonal crystals, often forming prisms and double pyramids.
This is a very simplified view of crystal structures
Some example of roughs with typical crystal system
TANZANITE BACKGROUND

anzanite Name History: Since Tanzanite is only found in one source in the world, Tanzania
East Africa. Tiffany & Co the main distributor decided to name it by referring to the country of
Torigin.

Colour Ranges: Tanzanite crystal occurs as a transparent rough with different colours including
brown, blue, greenish-blue and khaki. But the most common is the one with blue colour.
Predominantly blue tanzanite is generally worth more than other hues. The deep blue (A- grade)
is obtained by heating tanzanite in controlled temperature but also they occur naturally.

Tanzanite has distinguished property of showing three colors at different angles (Trichrinic)

Varieties: tanzanite comes from Zoisite group. Before discovery of Tanzanite the only Zoisite
varieties known were Thulite and Anyolite.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.69 to 1.70

Specific gravity (SG): 3.35
Inclusions: Often inclusion free but can include fine needles, pinpoints and clouds.
Hardness: 6.5 to 7

TREATMENT

Heating: Produce colors that include light to dark Violetish blue and bluish purple, as well as
pure blue. But these colors also occur naturally.

Confuse with: Sapphire, Kyanite, Amethyst

TANZANITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA:

Manyara: Merelani Tanzania
RUBY BACKGROUND

Colour Ranges: Ruby comes from Corundum group. According to GIA, for the corundum to be
called ruby, it should be deep, pure vivid red. This depends on the combination of hue, tone and
saturation. But in other geographical area even pinkish, purplish or orange red sapphire are called
rubies. Therefore the distinction depends on the geographical areas. But professionally deep,
pure, vivid red is ruby.

Varieties: Ruby and Sapphire are varieties of Corundum group. The difference is colour. Ruby
is red while sapphire is Blue. Sapphire has other fancy colours, like Songea Orange colour, etc.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.762 to 1.770

Specific gravity (SG): 4.00
Hardness: 9 Moh‟s scale
Inclusions: needle like rutile inclusion, fingerprint inclusions, high or low relief inclusions, two
phase inclusion, straight and hexagonal growth banding, angular color banding and twining lines.

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION

Imitation: Glass
Confuse with: Spinel, Tourmaline, Garnets, Topaz

RUBY DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Morogoro: Mwalazi, Ngongolo, Matabe, Mayote,
Mvomero,Matombo,ulanga(chipa,mahenge,Lukande,Epauko)
Dodoma: Winza, Malamo, Madengi,matumbulu,mlali,mleha,Kongwa(pandambili) and
Mangalisa
Tanga: Kalalani, Kofi Mountains and Umber River valley
Manyara: Hanang (dudumera), Monduli ,Mundarara
Kilimanjaro: Same (Lolobukoand North pare Mts)
Pwani: Bagamoyo(mandera)
Ruvuma: Mbinga (Likombe)
SAPPHIRE BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: Sapphire has many colours but when the word Sapphire is used alone it means
sapphire with blue colour. Sapphire with other colour than blue (fancy sapphire) need to have
pre-fix of color for instance, Orange sapphire, Pink sapphire, Purple sapphire.

Varieties: Sapphire is a variety of Corundum with the same geological properties like ruby the
difference being only colour. Ruby red while sapphire Blue and other colours – fancy sapphires
(orange, pink, purple, colorless, grayish etc). The Orange sapphire from Songea Tanzania is
among the expensive fancy sapphire after pink.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): 1.762 to 1.770

Specific gravity (SG): 4.00
Hardness: 9 Moh‟s scale
Inclusions: needle like rutile inclusion, fingerprint inclusions, high or low relief inclusions, two
phase inclusion, straight and hexagonal growth banding, angular color banding and twining lines.

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION

Imitation: Glass
Synthetics: Flame fusion sapphire, Flux sapphire, Hydrothermal sapphire, Floating zone
sapphire.
Confuse with: Amethyst, Kunzite, Tanzanite, Spinel, Zircon, Topaz, Tourmaline,
dAquamarine.Chrysoberyl, etc
Fancy Sapphire Confuse with: Citrine, Alexandrite, Rhodolite garnet, Spessartite garnet,
Malaya garnet.

SAPPHIRE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Lindi: Nachingwea Lumesule, Tunduru
Morogoro: Mahenge
Tanga: Umba valley
Dodoma: Winza
EMERALD BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: Emerald has only green color; it is a beryl with green color.

Variety: Emerald belongs to beryl group which has two varieties – Emerald and Aquamarine.
Aquamarine is a blue beryl while Emerald is a green beryl.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.577 to 1.583

Specific gravity (SG): 2.72
Inclusions: the gem with the most cracks and inclusions; three and two-phase inclusions,
fingerprint inclusions, liquid filled inclusions, tube and needle like inclusions, calcite inclusions,
angular growth zoning, minerals/crystals inclusions.
Hardness: 7.5 to 8

TREATMENT

Fracture filling: filling surface-reaching fractures with colorless oils or resins. Almost 95% of
Emeralds are fracture filled because the occurrence of emerald is associated with fractures and
inclusions.

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Green glass, Synthetic spinel triplet

Synthetic: Flux emeralds, hydrothermal emeralds

Alternatives: Demantoid garnet, Tourmaline, Diopside, Jadeite, Peridot, Zircon, Tsavorite

garnet, Alexandrite

EMERALD DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA:

Manyara: Mbulu Kagera: Karagwe –kyerwa
Morogoro: Mt. Nguru Rukwa: Sumbawanga-Mponda
AQUAMARINE BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: ranges from light blue to dark blue and blue-green

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.577 to 1.583

Specific gravity (SG): 2.72
Inclusions: hollow or liquid filled tubes, fingerprints and two/three phase inclusions. It occurs
also as eye-clean
Hardness: 7.5 to 8

TREATMENT

Heat treatment change light color aquamarine to get the desired dark blue aquamarine.

Confuse with: Topaz, Kyanite, Tourmaline and Zircon

AQUAMARINE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA:

Ruvuma: Tunduru
Manyara: Mbulu
 ZIRCON BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: It has wide range of color- colorless, strong blue, green-blue, yellow, brown,
orange, red, violet. The most occurrences are strong blue and green-blue with green color
component.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

There are two types of Zircon - Higher and Lower Zircon.

Blue zircon is said to be with high properties – strong doubling and high RI.
Green zircon is said to be with low properties – no doubling and may show SR with SG 4.5 to
4.70 or 3.95 to 4.20.

Refractive Index (RI): DR OTL

Specific gravity (SG): 3.90 to 4.73
Inclusions: any natural inclusions possible
Hardness: 6.5 to 7.5

Spectrum: Zircon with blue hue usually shows a key line at 653.5nm (known as zircon line)
with other lines up to 40‟s.

Confuse with: Aquamarine, Topaz, Chrysoberyl, Tourmaline, Idocrase, Demantoid, Hessonite,

Diamond and Sapphire

ZIRCON DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Singida Kiomboi Iramba and Eshamwala
Morogoro: Ulanga
Tanga: Mashewa and Mavumbi
Dodoma: Winza Mpwapwa
Rukwa: Namanyere and Paramawe
KYANITE BACKGROUND

Color Range: Kyanite has most occurrence color is Strong blue, sometime with tints of purple.
It rarely also occur as colorless, blue-green to brown.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.716 to 1.731

Specific gravity (SG): 3.5 to 3.7
Inclusions: Any natural inclusions possible
Hardness: 4.5 to 5.0 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Sapphire, Tanzanite and Amethyst

KYANITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Arusha: Monduli.Manyara: Kwaraha and Sidi Hill
Morogoro: Idibo Kilosa
Tanga: Makalingi, Kitwai, Hakichoo, Gologolo
Kilimanjaro: Hedaru, Chabaruti, Chankunku
Rukwa: Namanyere, Tambaluka, Kisi, Chala.
 TOURMALINE BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: Tourmaline comes in a wide range of colors. It is believed to be a gem with
widest color ranges of any gem species.

Varieties: Tourmaline exists in six varieties categorized by their colours.

1. Rubellite tourmaline 2.Indicolite tourmaline

3. Chrome tourmaline 4.Parti-colored tourmalines

5. Watermelon tourmaline 6. Paraiba tourmaline

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.624 to 1.644

Specific gravity (SG): 3.06
Inclusions: color zoning, thread like inclusions, gas filled fractures.
Hardness: 7 to 7.5 Moh‟s scale
SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION:

Glass, Synthetic Ruby, Synthetic Sapphire, Synthetic Spinel .Confuse with: Any gemstones
because tourmaline has all colors.

TOURMALINE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA:

Kagera: Karagwe –kyerwa
Dodoma: Mpwapwa-Winza, Chamwino (Hombolo)
Mtwara: Newala
Tanga: Handeni-Makwere, Muheza (Ng’ombeni)
Manyara: Kiteto

ALEXANDRITE BACKGROUND

Alexandrite Name History: Alexandrite was first discovered in Russia in the early 1800's. It
was named in honor of Alexander Nicholavich, who was later to become the Russian Czar
Alexander II. Legend has it that the gemstone was discovered on the future Czar's birthday and
named in his honor, though the factual nature of this is disputed.

Color Ranges: Blue in daylight and red/purple in incandescent light. Alexandrite is the highly
regarded color changing variety of Chrysoberyl. The color of Alexandrite changes under
different lighting conditions. If viewed in daylight, its color is greenish blue to dark yellow-
green. If viewed in incandescent or candle light, its color is pink to red. Alexandrite is a very rare
and highly valuable gemstone, and until recently was extremely difficult to obtain due to its
rarity. However, new sources in Brazil and Tanzania have made this gemstone available and
more mainstream on the gemstone market.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.744 to 1.755

Specific gravity (SG): 3.5 to 3.80
Inclusion: Not diagnostic – any inclusion possible.
Hardness: 8.5

Confuse with: Color change Sapphire and color change Garnet

ALEXANDRITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Ruvuma: Tunduru
CHRYSOBERYL BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: Most Chrysoberyl gems are yellow, though some are brown, green, or orange.
Varieties: Chrysoberyl is best known for its important varieties Alexandrite and Cat's Eye.
Alexandrite is a rare and expensive form that exhibits different colors in natural and artificial
light. Cat's Eye is Chrysoberyl that is polished into a cabochon and highly chatoyant, displaying
a sharp line of light through the center of the stone.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.744 to 1.755

Specific gravity (SG): 3.5 to 3.80
Inclusion: Not diagnostic – any inclusion possible.
Hardness: 8.5

Confuse with: Topaz, Tourmaline, Zircon

CHRYSOBERYL DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Ruvuma: Tunduru
 TURQUOISE BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: The color ranges from light to medium blue or greenish blue. It is often mottled
and sometimes has dark splotches. But can also occur without being mottled or splotches.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): 1.610 to 1.650

Specific gravity (SG): 2.74
Inclusions: mottled with dark splotches recessed below the surface.
Hardness: 5 to 6 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitations: Glass, Plastic, Reconstructed turquoise

Confuse with: Agate, Chrysocolla in Chalcedony, Jadeite, Lapis lazuli, Malachite and Nephrite.

DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA
Tanga: Muheza – Gerevi-Hills
PERIDOT BACKGROUND

Colour Ranges: Occurs as brownish or yellowish green to greenish yellow

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.654 to 1.690

Specific gravity (SG): 3.34
Inclusion of natural Peridot: Disc like liquid and gas inclusions commonly called lily pads. High
relief black chromites crystal inclusions.
Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitations: Glass, Plastic, Synthetic sapphire, Synthetic Spinel

Confuse with: Demantoid garnet, Emerald, Tsavorite garnet, Zircon, Topaz, Tourmaline,
Jadeite, and Chrysoberyl.

PERIDOT DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Manyara: Mbulu- Kingiti Dodoma: Kibakwe Arusha: Leishaine Hill.
 APATITE BACKGROUND

Colour Ranges: Occurs in variety of colour ranges. Colorless, Pink, Yellow, Green, Blue and
Violet. Apatite is a fairly uncommon gemstone, and you will only rarely see it offered for sale in
the typical commercial jewelry stores.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.634 to 1.638

Specific gravity (SG): 3.18
Inclusions of natural Apatite: crystals, needles, two and three phase inclusions.
Hardness: 5 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Aquamarine, Topaz, Zircon, Demantoid Garnet, Tsavorite

APATITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Manyara: Hanang- Gallapo
Tanga: Korogwe-Umber Valley
Dodoma: Mpwapwa
Mbeya: Chamloto
Mtwara: Newala- Nagaga
 SPHENE BACKGROUND

Colour Ranges: Sphene occurs in variety of color range from yellow, brown, green and reddish
brown.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR OTL

Specific gravity (SG): 3.52
Inclusions: All natural inclusions are possible
Hardness: 5 to 5.5 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Demantoid garnet, Citrine, Apatite, and Tourmaline

SPHENE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Tanga, Dodoma and Morogoro.
 TOPAZ BACKGROUND

Colour Ranges: The color ranges from Colorless, Yellow, Brown, Reddish, Pink and Orange

Varieties: Topaz has no variety but just trade names

Imperial Topaz: Medium reddish Orange. The most expensive Topaz.

Sherry Topaz: Yellowish brown or brownish yellow to Orange.name comes from the color of
sherry wine. To get rid of confusion with citrine and smoky quartz, Topaz with this color range
is also called precious topaz.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): 1.619 to 1.627

Specific gravity (SG): 3.53
Inclusions: Two and three phase inclusions, liquid inclusions in its planes
Hardness: 8 Moh‟s scale

TREATMENT

Heating: Changes some yellow, Orange, brown topaz to Pink

Irradiation followed by heat: Produces various shades of blue from colorless.

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitations: Glass, Synthetic Sapphire, Synthetic Spinel

Confuse with: Aquamarine, Citrine, Tourmaline, Sapphire, Smoky Quartz, Hessonite garnet,
Morganite, Zircon, Kunzite, Spessartite garnet, Malaya garnet.

TOPAZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Dodoma: Winza Mpwapwa Tanga: Handeni Kwendikundi Plain
IOLITE BACKGROUND

Blue Iolite Purple Iolite

Color Ranges: It ranges from light to dark blue, brown and violet. Since it is pleochroic, it
shows different color from different viewing angles. Depending on the angle, iolite appears
colorless, gray or yellow. Navigators are said to use iolite as light polarizer to locate the sun.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.542 to 1.551

Specific gravity (SG): 2.61
Inclusions: Hematite inclusions, natural inclusions
Hardness: 7 to 7.5 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Glass

Confuse with: Blue Topaz, Amethyst, Sapphire, Tanzanite and Purple/Blue Scapolite

IOLITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Manyara: Babati, Hanang
SPINEL BACKGROUND
Spinal Name History: The name‟s origin is unknown. This is due to spinel being under
estimated and under appreciated by many people during early civilization. The confusion of
spinel with Rubies draws back its popularity by being referred to ruby. It is among the rare
gemstones and hence less known in a market.

Color Ranges: The color ranges from violet, blue, orange, red, pink and purple. Spinel in most
cases appears red and found in the same sources with rubies. It can also appear as color change
from grayish blue in daylight to purple in incandescent light.

Varieties: No variety but it is believed that Spinel is the most synthesized gem used to imitate
other gemstones in the market.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.718

Specific gravity (SG): 3.60
Inclusions: minute octahedral or negative crystals, alone or in fingerprint pattern; included
crystals, iron oxide staining.
Hardness: 8 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Synthetic Sapphire, Glass, Synthetic Ruby

Synthetics: Flux and Flame fusion Spinel

Confuse with: Garnets, Ruby, Tourmaline, Topaz, Aquamarine, Amethyst, and Kunzite.
SPINEL DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA
Morogoro: Mahenge, Ulanga Dodoma: Winza Ruvuma: Tunduru
 SCAPOLITE BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: occur in different colors including Colorless, yellow, pink, violet

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.550 to 1.564

Specific gravity (SG): 2.60 to 2.68
Inclusions: Natural inclusions
Hardness: 5.5 to 6 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Amethyst, Tanzanite, Iolite

SCAPORITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Dodoma: Imagi, Tambi
Tanga: Umba korogwe
 GARNET BACKGROUNDS

During my study at Gemological Institute of America (GIA), garnet varieties identification was
one of my weakness points. I know at a glance that, it is a garnet but which one……Pyrope,
rhodolite, Almandite, Pyrope-Almandite, Hessonite etc!!

My instructor Annie did a tremendous job for me to master garnet varieties identification.
Eventually everything was on a right track and my classmates used to tease me --- King of
garnet. In my practical Exam of 20 stones, I picked up three garnets and I was able to identify
their varieties. Spectrum is the most useful tool for garnet varieties identifications, especially for
those combined garnets.

Green garnet Red garnet Mandarin garnet Mali garnet

DEMANTOID GARNET BACKGROUND

Demantoid Name History: In Dutch language, demantoid means Diamond like. It is called
diamond- like because it shows flashes of rainbow color (fire) like diamond. Demantoid flashes
are more noticeable compared to diamond.

Color Ranges: Green to yellow-green

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.88 (OTL)

Specific gravity (SG): 3.84 to 3.91
Inclusions: Mostly with horsetail like inclusion (radiating needle-like inclusions, but not in all
demantoid)
Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Garnet and glass doublet, Colored CZ, Colored YAG

Confuse with: Emeralds, Peridot, Tsavorite garnet, Tourmaline, Green Zircon, and Green
Sapphire.

DEMANTOID DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

No discovery at present
TSAVORITE GARNET BACKGROUND
Tsavorite Name History: The name refers to Kenya Tsavo National Park where the gem is
abundantly found. Merelani area apart from being the only source of Tanzanite, it also host some
Tsavorites.TanzaniteOneExtractive industry Ltd (TOML as it is called by TMAA) encounters the
Tsavorite when extractive industry Tanzanite.

Color Ranges: The color ranges from light to intense green to yellowish green. It is used mostly
as alternative to Emeralds .Since the stone is not treated it is favored by many customers who
like green color.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.740 (Can be low up to 1.735

Specific gravity (SG): 3.61
Inclusions: Fingerprints, graphite platelets, liquid and minerals inclusions and healed fractures
Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Synthetic Spinel, Synthetic Emerald and Glass

Confuse with: Peridot, Tourmaline, Demantoid garnet and Emerald.

TSAVORITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Manyara: Merelani, Simanjiro -Lemshuku
GROSSULARITE (GROSSULAR/GREEN) GARNET BACKGROUND

Color range: Near-colorless, Yellowish Green or green. Tsavorite and green garnet (grossular)
are all variety of grossularite. The difference is their color intensity. Tsavorite is medium light to
dark green, while grossularite is light yellowish green.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): 1.735 to 1.759

Specific gravity (SG): 3.61
Inclusion: Fingerprints, graphite platelets, liquid and minerals inclusions and healed fractures
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

NB: Grossularite- andradite garnet (mali garnet) is Yellowish green also with RI 1.773 to
1.779 while with RI 1.773 to 1.779 and yellow only , is also Grossularite garnet

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Glass

Confuse with: Tsavorite, Tourmaline, Demantoid garnet and Emerald.

GREEN GARNET DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Manyara: Simanjiro –Lemshuku
Dodoma: Mpwapwa
HESSONITE GARNET BACKGROUND

Hessonite Name History: The information about hessonite name is quite unknown. Whatever
the meaning of the name it is, hessonite is a variety of grossularite garnet like tsavorite. It is also
known as Cinamon Stone in market.

Color Ranges: medium to dark orange to yellow, yellow-green, brownish orange and colorless.

NB: If pale call it grossularite not hessonite

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.740 (can go up to 1.755)

Specific gravity (SG): 3.61
Inclusions: heat wave effect (looks like undulating growth, burnt area or some call it scotch in
water effect) and rounded crystals.
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Confuse with: Citrine, Spessartite, Almandite, Zircon, Topaz, Orange Sapphire and Fire Opal.

HESSONITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Morogoro: Kilosa, Uluguru mount, Mngazi valley, kisitwi
Tanga: Mlola Lushoto, Kilinga and Kihunza Handeni
Ruvuma: Likombe Mbinga
SPESSARTITE GARNET BACKGROUND

Spessartite Name History: The name comes from Spessart which is a district in Bavaria State,
German that was the first source of a gem.

Color Ranges: It is among garnet gem which is not red as most people know all garnets are red
– but it is not. (Always with orange component). Spessartite color ranges from medium – light to
dark Orange, yellowish, brownish or reddish Orange.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.810 (OTL)

Specific gravity (SG): 4.15
Inclusions: heat wave effect (looks like undulating growth, burnt area or some call it scotch in
water effect) and rounded crystals
Hardness: 7.25 to 7.5 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Synthetic Sapphire, Glass

Confuse with: Citrine, Fire Opal, Spinel, Topaz, Tourmaline, Malaya Garnet, Carnelian, Amber.

SPESSARTITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Ruvuma: Likombe Mbinga
Morogoro: Kisitwi Kilosa, Kihunza, Mngazi valley, Uluguru Mts,
Tanga: Mlola Lushoto, Kilinga Handeni.
RHODOLITE GARNET BACKGROUND

Rhodolite Name History: The name derived from Greek words, rhodo, rose and lithos, meaning
stone. Geologically, rhodolite is a mixture of Almandite and Pyrope garnets.

Color Ranges: predominantly purple but also occur in a range of light to dark purplish red
through reddish purple.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.750 to 1.780

Specific gravity (SG): 3.84 to 3.88
Inclusions: Low relief crystals, needle inclusions, zircon crystals with strain halos.
Hardness: 7.25 to 7.50 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Synthetic ruby and Glass

Confuse with: Topaz, Almandite, Pyrope, Spinel, Zircon, Tourmaline, Ruby.

RHODOLITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Manyara: Lelatema kiteto
Morogoro: Uluguru mts, Mngazi
Ruvuma: Likombe
PYROPE GARNET BACKGROUND

Pyrope Name History: In Greek language, pyropos means fiery eyed. The gem was called
pyropos (fiery-eyed) because of having glowing red color. Sometime in market is called
Bohemian garnet.

Color Ranges: The color ranges from medium to dark reddish orange to purplish red.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.730 up to 1.750

Specific gravity (SG): 3.78
Inclusion: needle-like, crystals and irregular rounded crystals.
Hardness: 7 to 7.5 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Synthetic ruby and Glass

Confuse with: Topaz, Almandite, Rhodolite, Pyrope, Spinel, Zircon, Tourmaline, and Ruby.

PYROPE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Tanga: Mlola Lushoto and Kilinga Handeni
Dodoma: Tambi Mpwapwa
Morogoro: Kisitwi, Kihunza, Mngazi and Uluguru mts.
Ruvuma: Likombe Mbinga
ALMANDITE GARNET BACKGROUND

Almandite Name History: The Almandite was named after the town of Alabanda in Asia which
was a center for trading and faceting gemstones from different places.

Color Ranges: The color range from orange red through red to reddish purple. It is mostly
fashioned as hollowed cabochons to increase color intensity- more reddish.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.781 to OTL

Specific gravity (SG): 4.05
Inclusion: zircon crystals having strain halos, high or low relief crystals and Needle-like
inclusions.
Hardness: 7 to 7.5 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Garnet- and- glass doublet

Confuse with: Hessonite, Spessartite, Rhodolite, Pyrope, Spinel, Tourmaline, Ruby.

ALMANDITE GARNET DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Tanga: Mlola Lushoto and Kilinga Handeni
Morogoro: Kisitwi, Kihunza, Mngazi and Uluguru mts.
Ruvuma: Likombe Mbinga
OPAL BACKGROUND

Opal Name History: Opal is the most colorful of gems. Its splendid play of color is
unsurpassed, and fine examples can even be more valuable than Diamond. The play of color
consists of iridescent color flashes that change with the angle at which the stone is viewed. This
phenomenon is often called opalescence. The play of color may consist of large, individual
flashes of color (known as schillers), or may be of tiny, dense flashes. The intensity and
distribution of the color flashes is a deterextractive industry factor in the value of an Opal.

Color Ranges: White, Colorless, Blue, Red, Green, Yellow, Orange, Brown, Pink, Purple, Gray,
Black, Banded, and Multicolored.

TYPES OF OPAL:

Opals are classified into two types; Precious Opal and Common Opal.

Opals displaying play of color are known as Precious Opals, and opals lacking play of color are
known as Common Opals.

Varieties of Opal: There are many varieties of both precious and common Opals.

Black Opal: Is the most desired and beautiful form of opal. It is opal with a dark blue, dark
green or black background with a strong play of color.
White Opal: Opal with a light colored body color (white, yellow, cream, etc.) with strong play
of color.

Fire Opal: Opal with a transparent to translucent deep-orange red. Mostly fire opal does not
show play of color. If Fire Opal displays play of color, it is then called Precious Fire Opal.

Opal Doublets and Triplets

Opal Doublets: Are thin slices of precious opal glued onto a base with any material to increase
hardness of opal.

Black layer glued onto a base.

Opal Triplets: Are like opal doublets but coated with a thin layer or dome of clear Quartz on top
of cabochon to make them more resistant to scratches. (Glued on bottom and on Top covered
with thin layer of other transparent materials)

Black layer onto a base and thin transparent on top glued

Crazing Problem: A condition whereby opal shows cracks internally or on the surface when
opal loose moisture. It is advised to keep opal away from excessive temperature. But not all
opals are affected by crazing.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.450

Specific gravity (SG): 2.15
Inclusion: patches or dots of play of color. The pattern maybe in terms of small dots (pin fire),
large patches (flash) or distinct patches known as harlequin.
Hardness: 5.5 to 6.5 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS:

Gilson synthetic opal or other synthetic opal, under magnification they show snakeskin-like
structure or known as chicken wire pattern. Synthetic opal also can show columnar structure
vertically.

OPAL DEPOSIT IN TANZANIA

Kigoma: Buhoro, Nyakitonto and Makere
MALACHITE BACKGROUND

Malachite Name History: The stone's name derives from Greek molochitis lithos, "mallow-
green stone”. The mineral was given this name due to its resemblance to the leaves of the
Mallow plant.

Color Ranges: green, bluish-green or greenish blue with bands

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): AGG 1.655 to OTL (use birefringence blink method)
Specific gravity (SG): 3.95
Inclusion: distinctive green banded appearance
Hardness: 3.5 to 4 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/

Imitation: Glass, plastic

Confuse with: Turquoise, Jadeite, Nephrite

MALACHITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Dodoma: Winza
Rukwa: Mpanda
Mara: Kamba Hill Tarime
Mtwara: Masasi Ntaka
 FLUORITE BACKGROUND

Fluorite Name History: Latin meaning flow.

Color Ranges: It ranges from yellow, green, blue and purple. Purple or blue are mostly banded
with colorless bands.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.43

Specific gravity (SG): 3.18 NET
Inclusion: Color Zoning or Bands, it might be also parti-colored, all inclusions
Hardness: 4 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Since fluorite has every color, it confuse with any gemstone.

FLUORITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Mbeya: Chunya, Tukuyu
Rukwa: Mpanda
MOONSTONE BACKGROUND
Moonstone Name History: It is called moonstone because it has a white shimmer like
moonshine. That optic effect is called adularescence. It can also show asterism (star effect)

Color Ranges: It is colorless to white with a whitish-silvery to bluish sheen called adularescence
(bluish sheen against colorless body.)But can be orange, yellow or brown.

Varieties: There are two moonstone varieties, Moonstone Orthoclase and Moonstone
Labradorite

Moonstone Orthoclase – blue sheen with colorless body while

Moonstone Labradorite – sometime called rainbow moonstone, it has strong blue or multi-color
sheen.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR/AGG 1.518 to 1.526

Specific gravity (SG): 2.58
Inclusion: centipede like inclusions
Hardness: 6 to 6.5 Moh‟s scale

Confuse With: Blue chalcedony and glass imitation

MOONSTONE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Morogoro: Kilosa Gairo
Dodoma: Mkoyo and Zoisa Kondoa
SUNSTONE BACKGROUND
Sunstone Name History: The name refers to the color and glitteriest of the gemstone which
look-like the sun.

Color ranges: The sunstone has different varieties but the common one is orange.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR/AGG 1.539 to 1.547 (sunstone Oligoclase)

1.518 to 1.526 (sunstone Orthoclase)

Specific gravity (SG): 2.65/2.58 (sunstone Oligoclase/ sunstone Orthoclase)

Inclusion: Reddish to Golden metallic platelets
Hardness: 6 to 6.5 Moh‟s scale

Varieties: There are two varieties of Sunstone. Sunstone Oligoclase and Sunstone Orthoclase

Confuse with: Glass imitation, Plastic imitation

SUNSTONE DEPOSIT IN TANZANIA

Morogoro: Mtimbila Mahenge and Kilosa Gairo
Tanga: Mtae Hill Lushoto
Kilimanjaro: Ugweno Mwanga
 AMAZONITE BACKGROUND

Amazonite Name History : comes from amazone forest where it is believed to be mined for the
first time commercially.

Color Ranges : Green to Greenish- blue

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): AGG 1.522 to 1.530

Specific gravity (SG): 2.56 to 2.58
Inclusion: mottled coloring with grid-like patterns
Hardness: 6 to 6.5 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Chalcedony, Chrysoprase, Serpentine and Turquoise

AMAZONITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Tanga : Luguruni handeni

Morogoro : Kilosa Gairo

LABRADORITE BACKGROUND

Labradorite Name History: It was first discovered in Labrador, Canada and named after that
area.

Color Ranges: Labradorite is a member of the Feldspar family with remarkable play of color,
known as Labradorescence. The color usually ranges from gray-green, dark gray, black or
grayish-white. Labradorite is composed in aggregate layers that refract light as iridescent flashes
of peacock blue, gold, pale green or coppery red. The predominant blue varies within the light,
displaying hues from deepest blue to various shades of pale, almost blue-green.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): AGG/DR 1.559 to 1.568

Specific gravity (SG): 2.70
Inclusion: Black-needle like inclusions, metallic looking platelets which cause Labradorescence
and repeated twinning.
Hardness: 6 to 6.5 Moh‟s scale

Confuse with: Rainbow moonstone

LABRADORITE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Kigoma: Kidahwe, Nyakitonto
 QUARTZ BACKGROUND
Quartz is among abundant gemstones on earth. The abundance of quartz is due to its formation, it
is made by silica and oxygen (silicate oxide - SiO2). Since silica and oxygen are found
everywhere on earth, quartz is also found everywhere.The formation of quartz varieties depends
on the size of the silica (clay) which combines with oxygen in presence of favorable temperature
and water. The silicate crystallizes either in macro or micro depending on the silica size.
Therefore, quartz varieties are divided into two groups; Macro – crystalline quartz and Micro –
crystalline quartz.NB: All quartz varieties are Uniaxial positive; Might show a bull’s eye or Airy’s spiral optic figure. Quartz also shows
brazil-law twinning under crossed polarizing filters.

Macro- Crystalline Quartz Micro – Crystalline Quartz

Rose quartz, Chalcedony ;
Citrine  Chrysoprase
Amethyst  Chrysocolla-in- chalcedony
Rock Crystal  Onyx, Carnelian
Smoky quarts  Agate ,Iris agate, Fire agate, Dendritic agate
Aventurine quartz  Bloodstone
 Jasper

ROSE QUARTZ BACKGROUND

Name History: It is called rose quartz simply because, the color looks like rose flower.

Color Ranges: The color of rose quartz ranges from very light to medium dark pink.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.544 to 1.553

Specific gravity (SG): 2.66
Inclusion: look cloudy due to fracture, never transparent (semitransparent to translucent)
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale
SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Glass and Plastic

Alternatives: Topaz, Spinel, Tourmaline, Ruby.

ROSE QUARTZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Kigoma: Mbirira Kasulu .Dodoma: Winza Mpwapwa
CITRINE QUARTZ BACKGROUND
Citrine Name History: The name citrine is related to citrus fruit‟s color.

Color Ranges: The color of citrine ranges from light golden yellow to reddish yellow. Most
people confuse citrine with topaz of similar color.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.544 to 1.553

Specific gravity (SG): 2.66
Inclusion: Color zoning, negative crystals, two and three phase inclusion, twinning
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Glass and Plastic

Synthetics: Synthetic hydrothermal quartz, Synthetic sapphire, Synthetic Spinel

Confuse with: Topaz, Spessartite, Orange Sapphire, Carnelian, Amber, Chrysoberyl, and
Tourmaline.

CITRINE QUARTZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Morogoro: Rubeho Kilosa
Dodoma: Winza Mpwapwa
AMETHYST QUARTZ BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: The Amethyst color is purple. The finest amethyst color comes from Africa.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): SR 1.544 to 1.553

Specific gravity (SG): 2.66
Inclusion Negative crystals, liquid, color zoning, two and three phase.
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

Imitation: Glass, Purple synthetic corundum, Synthetic Spinel triplets

Synthetics: Hydrothermal

Confuse with: Topaz, Spinel, Tanzanite, Sapphire, Tourmaline, Iolite, Rhodolite garnet.

AMETHYST QUARTZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Kigoma: Mbirira Kasulu
Morogoro: Rubeho Kilosa and Tungi
Dodoma: Winza Mpwapwa
ROCKY CRYSTAL QUARTZ

Rocky Crystal Name History: It is called rocky crystal because it looks like colorless crystal.
The colorless, transparent variety of Quartz, free of any impurities, is known as "Rock Crystal".
Flawless and very large cuts may be cut from Rock Crystal.

Color Ranges: It is colorless quartz.

Name History: The name citrine is related to citrus fruit‟s color.

Color Ranges: The color of citrine ranges from light golden yellow to reddish yellow. Most
people confuse citrine with topaz of similar color.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): DR 1.544 to 1.553

Specific gravity (SG): 2.66
Inclusion: needles, two and three phase inclusions, liquid crystals.
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

-No information at present

ROCKY CRYSTAL QUARTZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Morogoro: Rubeho Kilosa
Dodoma: Winza Mpwapwa
Kigoma: Mbirira Kasulu
 SMOKY QUARTZ BACKGROUND

Smoky Quartz Name History: Smoky Quartz is the brown "smoky" variety of Quartz. It ranges
in color from light brown to black.

Color Ranges: It ranges in color from light brown to black.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): 1.544 to 1.553

Specific gravity (SG): 2.66
Inclusion: crystals, two and three phase inclusion, needles,
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

-No information at present

SMOKY QUARTZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Quartz is one of the most common and varied minerals on earth, and its abundant
throughout the country. Quartz is extremely common and is found in numerous
localities throughout the world.
 AVENTURINE QUARTZ BACKGROUND
venturine Quartz Name History: The name reflects the phenomenon effect caused by chrome
mica inclusions which cause appearance of glittering spots of color-Aventurescence.
A

Color Ranges: It is almost green but rarely yellow, gray and brown.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): 1.544 to 1.553

Specific gravity (SG): 2.66
Inclusion: chrome mica inclusions (tiny, disk-like, flakes or platelets randomly distributed)
which cause Aventurescence phenomenon.
Hardness: 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

-No information at present

AVENTURINE QUARTZ DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Quartz is one of the most common and varied minerals on earth, and its
abundant throughout the country. Quartz is extremely common and is found
in numerous localities throughout the world.
 CHRYSOPRASE BACKGROUND

Chrysoprase Name History: the name comes from Greek language, meaning gold leek.

Color Ranges: It is almost yellowish green.

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH

Refractive Index (RI): AGG 1.530 to 1.540

Specific gravity (SG): 2.60
Inclusion: Not diagnostic
Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Moh‟s scale

SYNTHETICS/SIMULANTS/IMITATION/ALTERNATIVES

-No information at present

CHRYSOPRASE DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Dodoma: Chamwino, Itiso-Haneti
CHALCEDONY VARIETIES

GEM IDENTITIES AND GEOMETRY OF ROUGH;

Refractive Index (RI): 1.530 to 1.540

Specific gravity (SG): 2.5 to 2.6
Inclusion: curved, straight bands or layers.
Hardness: 6.5 to 7 Moh‟s scale

CHALCEDONY DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA:

Dodoma: Haneti – Itiso Hill.
Kigoma: Kasulu.
 AGATE BACKGROUND

Color Ranges: All colors banded with curved or straight lines.

Varieties: moss agate, fire agate, dendritic agate, iris agate

FIRE AGATE

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60
DENDRITIC AGATE

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

IRIS AGATE

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

MOSS AGATE

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60
ONYX

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

SARD

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

SARDONYX

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60
CARNELIAN

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

CHRYSOCOLLA - IN - CHALCEDONY

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

JASPER BACKGROUND

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60

BLOODSTONE

Refractive index (RI): AGG 1.53 to 1.54

Specific Gravity (SG): 2.60
PEARL BACKGROUND

Pearls are among the most ancient decorations used by human being.

Natural Pearl - Pearl that is formed from calcium carbonate secretions that forms naturally
within a mollusk without any human intervention. This term is distinguished from the more
common Cultured Pearls which are produced with human intervention.

Cultured Pearl. Cultured Pearls are produced by inserting a foreign substance known as a
nucleus within the body of an oyster or mussel, which in turn causes the organism to grow a
pearl around the nucleus. Oysters are cultivated and harvested in mass numbers for the purpose
of growing Pearls within them. Almost all Pearls currently available on the gemstone market are
of Cultured Pearl.

VARIETY OF PEARLS.

Freshwater Pearl - Pearl that grew in a non-saline environment in a freshwater mussel with a
habit of forming in irregular “potato” like shapes. The most abundant form of Pearls because
each mussel can produces up to 50 Pearl while saltwater oysters produce only one to three Pearls
per oyster.

Saltwater Pearl - Pearl produced by a mollusk such as an oyster in a body of saltwater such as
the ocean.

Akoya Pearl: Cultured Pearls with a white color and a consistent round shape and a mirror- like
metallic luster. Sometimes are treated to look black or a very dark blue.

South Sea Pearls: Pearls with large size, white and golden color

Tahitian Pearl: Also known as “Black Pearl.” They range in color from green to blue, red, gold
and black.

Abalone Pearl These pearls are often an iridescent blue color and commonly horn-shaped
Overtone: Although Pearls are characterized by body color, they also have an “overtone.”
Overtone is the word used to describe the glint of a Pearl in various lighting. Overtones are most
apparent in saltwater pearls. Although Freshwater pearls have an overtone, it is not as prominent
or exact as those found in saltwater pearls.

PEARLS DEPOSITS IN TANZANIA

Along the Indian Ocean in Mainland and Zanzibar RARE BLUE STONES THAT LOOK LIKE

LAPIS LAZULI

Lapis Lazuli is a deep blue opaque gemstone with pyrite sparkling.

Refractive Index (RI): 1.50 to 1.67
Specific gravity (SG): 2.40 to 2.90

SODALITE

White streak/ irregular white lines

Refractive Index (RI): 1.483 to 1.487
Specific gravity (SG): 2.20 to 2.30
SUGILITE

Refractive Index (RI): 1.607 to 1.610

Specific gravity (SG): 2.75 to 2.80

CHAROITE

Refractive Index (RI): 1.55 to 1.56

Specific gravity (SG): 2.50 to 2.80

AZURITE

Refractive Index (RI): 1.73 to 1.84

Specific gravity (SG): 3.75 to 3.95
 Reference

1. GIA Lab Manual

2. Gemstones of the World By

3. GIA Gem Reference Guide

4. Gemstones Guide by Shazmin,2000

5. Gems Picture credits: Google gemstones picture

6. Gemstones Processing Steps by Eng. Gilay Shamika,2010

7. http://www. Minerals.net

8. http://www.realgems.org

9. http://www.gst.go.tz

10. http:// www.tmaa.go.tz

11. Philosophy of Gems Business by Eng.Gilay Shamika,2013