Journal Pre-proof

Temperature-compensated fiber-optic gas flow speed sensor based on

the ‘Hot-wire’ principle

Zhen Li, Jiqiang Wang, Xiaoxing Zhong, Tongyu Liu, Yanong Ning,
Moyu Hou, Lin Zhao, Guofeng Dong, Yuan Liu, Jinyu Wang, T. Sun,
Kenneth T.V. Grattan

PII: S0030-4026(20)31925-2
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijleo.2020.166118
Reference: IJLEO 166118

To appear in: Optik

Received Date: 20 September 2020

Revised Date: 3 December 2020
Accepted Date: 4 December 2020

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Temperature-compensated Fiber-Optic Gas Flow Speed Sensor based on the

‘Hot-wire’ Principle

Zhen Li1,2, Jiqiang Wang1,2*, Xiaoxing Zhong3*, Tongyu Liu1,2, Yanong Ning1,2, Moyu Hou1,2, Lin Zhao1,2, Guofeng
Dong1,2,Yuan Liu1,2, Jinyu Wang1,2, T. Sun4 and Kenneth T. V. Grattan4
1
Laser Institute, Qilu University of Technology (Shandong Academy of Sciences), Jinan, Shandong, China 250103;
2The Key Laboratory of Optical Fiber Sensing Technology of Shandong Province, Jinan, Shandong, China 250103;
3Key Laboratory of Gas and Fire Control for Coal Mines (China University of Mining and Technology), Ministry of Education, Xuzhou,
Jiangshu, China 221116 ;
4School of Mathematics, Computer Science & Engineering, City, University of London, London, EC1V 0HB, United Kingdom;

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Corresponding authors: Jiqiang Wang and Xiaoxing Zhong.

E-mail addresses: jiqiang.wang@sdlaser.cn (J Q. Wang); zhxxcumt@163.com (X X. Zhong).

Abstract

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Compared with the use of other types of sensors, there are significant advantages in making measurements of low speed gas flows by using a
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fiber-optic ‘hot-wire’ sensor. Measurements of this type using intrinsically safe fiber optic technology play an important role in industry,
especially in coal mine gas clearance, roadway ventilation and fire safety warning. However, the ‘line-diameter ratio’ of the fiber-optic ‘hot-
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wire’ wind speed sensor described in previous work is far smaller than that for the traditional electronic hot-wire sensor and this requires
investigation and optimization. To do that necessitates considering the combined influence of factors such as forced convection, natural
convection, radiation heat transfer and heat conduction on the operation of the sensor probe, especially on the heat transfer between the sensor
element and the base, when analyzing the performance of the fiber-optic ‘hot-wire’ gas flow speed sensor and in modelling its characteristics.
Based on the results of the model of electronic hot-wire sensor created, this paper presents a method to improve and indeed further enhance the
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performance of the sensor, having a focus on the proportion of convective heat transfer to the total energy dissipation under different ambient
and different wind speed conditions, as well as the influence of different ambient temperatures on the sensor probe. The results of the numerical
simulation and the experimental verification carried out show that the measurement error was less than ±0.2 m/s, when used within the gas flow
speed range of 0-6 m/s. Compared with the situations before the compensation was applied, the measurement error in the use of the sensor is
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reduced and the sensor performance significantly improved.

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Keywords: Fiber-optic; Hot-wire anemometer; Heat transfer model; Temperature compensation.

1. Introduction

Wind (or gas flow) speed is an important parameter that needs to be measured and monitored regularly both in scientific
research and in many areas of industry. Effective gas flow speed measurement plays an important role in achieving better coal
mine ventilation, which is important for fire safety in light of the inflammable gases present. Considerable research has been
carried out over recent years into optimizing the design and performance of various gas flow sensors, applying a range of
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transduction techniques, such as fiber optic-based methods [1], volumetric measurement, turbines, differential pressure monitoring,
ultrasonic measurements and electromagnetic flow meters [2-6]. Optical fiber sensing technology offers several important features
for the measurement, including intrinsic safety, low optical power consumption, immunity from electromagnetic interference and
remote on-site measurement. These features allow a sensor system of this type to be deployed at sites where flammable gases are
present and explosion hazards can occur, such as in mines [7].

The optical fiber based ‘hot-wire’ anemometer (OHWA) is an important device design for such measurements, one that has
previously been extensively investigated [8-10]. It can be described as an optical analog of the electrical hot wire (EHWA)
anemometer device and has been shown that it can be used to measure wind speed in difficult measurement situations. The essential
operational principle of the OHWA is similar to that of the EHWA, in that when a heated active sensing element (for the EHWA
a small electrically-heated wire) is placed in the gas flow, the heat in the wire will be carried away by the gas and thus the
temperature of the sensing element will be reduced. So, by measuring the temperature variation that occurs, it is then possible to

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determine the flow rate of the gas over the sensing element (the ‘hot wire’). After calibrating the device against a standard gas

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flow speed meter, the wind (gas flow) speed can then be calibrated against the temperature change. Due to the small size of the
sensing element, the device can be very sensitive to the low gas flow speeds which often are experienced in coal mines, further
emphasizing its value for use in this difficult environment.

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Research on the principle of the OHWA using optical fiber (rather than electrically-heated wire) has been reported over a
number of years. In an OHWA, the sensing element is small piece of optic fiber, of low mass and configured with an embedded
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FBG temperature sensor. The sensing element is connected to a pump laser source through an optical fiber. When the sensing
element is illuminated by light from the pump laser source (via the optic fiber), the optical energy from the laser source is converted
into heat and thus the temperature of the sensing element will increase. However, when the sensing element is placed in the gas
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flow, its temperature will be reduced by the gas flowing over it taking away the heat in the wire; the faster the wind speed, the
larger the temperature drop experienced. Hence by measuring the temperature variation, the gas flow speed can be determined,
this being based on a prior calibration of the device. Previous studies have mainly concentrated on improving the conversion
efficiency from light energy to heat by using various means, such as modification of the fiber sensing element geometry, where a
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Long Period Grating (LPG) and a Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) combined were employed as the sensing element, or by introducing
a mismatched fusion of different types of fibers to form a Fabry-Perot (FP) cavity, or by using two FBGs between which is
sandwiched a section of cobalt-doped optical fiber (CDF) to build a FBG-CDF-FBG sensing element[11-14]. In the FP-based
structure, its resonance peak position changes as a result of the temperature change. Since the FBG spectrum can be recovered by
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fitting the FP spectrum to a model which includes a representation of the change of the ambient temperature, a self-calibrated
sensor can be realized[15]. By adjusting the pump laser power through a feedback control loop, a fiber-optic constant temperature
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anemometer based on laser-heated silicon Fabry-Perot interferometer (FPI) was thus constructed[16].

In order to enhance the design and thus create a better and more effective fiber optic ‘hot wire’ sensor, an analysis based on
a simple, yet effective thermodynamic model of the sensor system has been developed, in order to improve the design of the key
sensing element of the probe. Comparing the sensing element size of a conventional EHWA with that of an OHWA, the length-
to-diameter ratio of the OHWA was shown to be only ~10, which is far less than the factor of 300 which is typical of a conventional
EHWA. Thus the infinite flow field model[17,18] that is regularly applied to the analysis of the EHWA is no longer applicable to
the OHWA design. In order to build a mathematical model capable of analyzing the most important features of the sensing element
of the OHWA, it is necessary to consider the various heat transfer modes for an OHWA placed in the gas flow and take into account
the influence of the ambient temperature on the measurement accuracy that could be achieved from the sensor. Thus in this paper,
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a modified sensing mechanism that can be used in an OHWA is reported, this then being verified by use of a mathematical model
involving numerical simulation and backed up by experimental investigations and system calibration.

2. Sensing principle and mathematical model

The experimental setup used in the sensor and its design is shown in Figure 1(a), where the sensing element was connected
to the pump laser source through a piece of optic fiber, via a WMD coupler. In this arrangement, the reflected light from the
sensing element was detected and demodulated with the use of a grating interrogator. The sensing element consists of two FBGs,
the first of which is termed a Sensing-FBG (SFBG) (which is placed in the gas flow), with the second being a Reference-FBG
(RFBG) placed close to the SFBG and shielded from the gas flow using a heat insulator, all of which is shown in Figure 1 (b). The
SFBG is used to measure the temperature of the wire that is affected by the gas flow, while the RFBG to monitor the temperature
that is not affected by the flowing gas. In this arrangement, the pump laser source operates at a wavelength of 1480nm, with a
laser power of 100mW. With the use of a commercial fiber grating interrogator, the two different wavelength shifts created in the

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sensor can be measured: the first, which is monitored by the SFBG arises from a combination of any ambient temperature change
and that due to the gas flow; the second is the ambient temperature-induced wavelength shift alone, monitored by using the RFBG.
The difference of these two wavelength shifts, Δλ, can be then measured and related to the gas flow, independently of any ambient
temperature change.

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In order to prevent the sensing element from damage in field use, the probe has been designed in such a way that the sensing
element is fully encapsulated and thus protected from the environment using a piece of stainless steel tube. Here the tube length
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was 10-12 mm, with a diameter of 0.4mm and thickness of 0.1 mm. The tube used was filled with silicone grease to improve the
thermal conductivity and thus heat flow to the SFBG. The use of the stainless tube at the outside of the sensing element not only
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increases the heat exchange area, but also increases the heat conductivity of the sensing element. The probe has been designed to
incorporate the SFBG and the RFBG, where the grating holder was constructed using a plastic material and a stainless steel shell.
This had two large openings in the section where the SFGB was located, to allow the gas being monitored to pass through.
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(a) (b)

Fig. 1 (a) Schematic of the fiber-optic ‘hot-wire’ sensing system showing the laser pump, the demodulator/FBG interrogation system and the probe placed in the
wind tunnel for testing and evaluation; (b) schematic of the structure of the probe itself showing the two different FBGs (SFBG and RFBG) used

The surface-to-volume of the sensing element was relatively large due to the fact that the size of the sensing element was very
small and thus the thermal efficiency inside the sensing element is relatively large, greater than that of the gas outside where the
temperature difference between the inside and the surface of the sensing element was relatively small. The thermal resistance of
the tube was far less than the convective thermal resistance of the tube surface in the gas, and thus the temperature of the whole
 4

conductor would equalize in time. The ratio of heat conduction resistance in the solid to the heat exchange resistance on the surface
area, Bi, is indicated by Equation (1)[19].

kw (1)
Bi
1h

where Bi is the Biot number, kw is the thermal conductivity of the tube, γ is the characteristic length of the tube and h is the
heat transfer coefficient between the tube surface and the air (in the range of 3-500W/m2K). The ration, γ/kw, is the thermal
conductivity resistance of the tube in unit area. Taking into account that the diameter of the fiber is 0.125mm, the core temperature
is almost equal to the surface temperature of the fiber[20]. The tube is made of stainless steel (of diameter of 0.4 mm), with a wall
thickness of 0.1 mm and it is filled with silicone grease. It can be noted that the thermal conductivity of stainless steel and silicone
grease are 40 W/mK and 4-6 W/mK, respectively. Assuming a close contact and thus that the silicone grease connects the optical
fiber and the tube seamlessly, the effective thermal conductivity coefficient of the tube is 4 W/mK< kw < 40 W/mK. According to

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Yang et al[19], the characteristic length of the multi-layer cylinder is γ = R2 * ln (D2 / D1) = 0.23mm (where R2 is the radius of

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tube (=0.2mm), D2 is the outer diameter of tube (=0.4mm) and D1 is the outer diameter of optical fiber (=0.125mm). 1/h is the
heat transfer resistance per unit area of the tube, given by 2 10 3 m2 K / W 1 / h 0.33m2 K / W . Inserting the value of the above
parameters into Equation (1), the value of Bi (<<0.1) can easily be obtained. This indicates that there is no transverse temperature

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gradient inside the sensing element and the temperature of the SFBG could be regarded as the same as that of the tube surface.
Based on the above description, the axial heat transfer model of the sensing element could then be regarded as similar to that of a
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short cylinder with an internal heat source. When the probe is placed in the gas flow, four different types of heat transfer modes
can be used to describe the heat exchange between the sensing element and the air: forced convection, natural convection, radiation
heat transfer and heat transfer between conductor and base, as shown schematically in Figure 2. For the case of the EHWA, only
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the influence of the convective heat dissipation is important, but the influence of the radiative heat transfer and the heat transfer
between the conductor and the base are not considered. However, for the case of the OHWA, the influence of the radiative heat
transfer and the heat transfer between the conductor and the base can seriously affect the accuracy of the measurement made,
especially at low gas flow speeds. Taking into account energy conservation and the heat transfer analysis model appropriate to the
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hot-wire/film anemometer[21], a heat equilibrium equation can be established for a cylinder element dx, as shown below:

dQ dQconv dQcond dQrad dQsto (2)

where dQ is the rate of laser heat generation; dQconv is the rate of convection heat transfer; dQcond is the rate of conductive heat
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transfer; dQrad is the rate of radiation heat transfer and dQsto is the rate of thermal storage.
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Fig. 2 Analysis of heat transfer of the sensing structure

The above formula can be expressed as:

2
Tw
p0 dx dhc (Tw Te )dx k w A dx
x2 (3)
4 4 Tw
d (Tw Te )dx Cw A dx

where p0 indicates the photothermal coefficient of the laser light in the doped optical fiber; Tw is the temperature of tube
surface; Te is the ambient temperature; hc is the heat transfer coefficient of the tube surface; d and x are the diameter and length of
the tube respectively; σ is the blackbody radiation constant; ε is the emissivity of stainless steel; ρ is the steel density; Cw is the
specific heat of stainless steel and A is the cross-sectional area of tube used.

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When the gas flow speed is a constant and in the steady state, the derivative of temperature, with respect to time, is 0. Thus the
above formula can be transformed to give the following equation:

2
kw A dh p0 0 (4)
x2

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The excess temperature, θ, in the formula represents the difference between the tube surface temperature and the ambient
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temperature, which is given by θ = Tw - Te. In order to describe the heat transfer relationship more fully and to simplify the
calculation, the radiative heat transfer coefficient, hr, has been introduced in this paper. The radiative heat transfer formula can be
transformed into the Newton cooling formula by using the following equation:
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4 4
d (Tw Te )dx dhr (Tw Te )dx (5)

Assuming the composite heat transfer coefficient h,

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dh p0
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h hc hr , m , p
kw A kw A

Equation (5) can be obtained and is given by:

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2
m2 p (6)
x2
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Considering that the length of the tube used in this design is only 10 mm and the thermal conductivity of stainless steel is
high, h can be regarded as the average convective heat transfer coefficient of the tube. Equation (6) can then be integrated with
the following boundary conditions, as discussed below.

The coordinates at the intersection of the tube and the base are given by x = 0, where the temperature was set to Tw0; θ0=Tw0-
Te and the whole length of tube was set to x = l. Therefore, the axial temperature distribution, θ, of the tube surface can be obtained
as shown below:

p
0
2 ml
e mx e( 2l x)m
(7)
1 e m2
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Integrating along the tube surface, the average temperature can be given by:

l
dx (2e ml e 2 ml 1)
0 0 (8)
l 1 e 2 ml l

At the junction of the tube and the base, the temperature is given by Tw0. The thermal flux dissipated through the heat
conduction of the base can be expressed as follows:

d k w A e 2 ml
q k w A( )x 0 (9)
dx 2e ml e 2 ml 1
According to heat transfer theory and the analysis shown in Fig. 2, when the speed of the gas flow is in a constant and steady
state, it is obvious that the heat transferred to the base through the interface between the tube and the base is equal to the heat

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transferred from the base to the environment by convection. Since the base is an insulating material and has a certain, known,

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length the temperature at the other end then tends to the ambient temperature, Te . Therefore, there is a temperature gradient
distribution in the axial direction for the base. For the convenience of the analysis, it can be assumed that the average temperature
of the base surface is θ’ and hd is set as the heat dissipation coefficient of the base. In this way, the heat conduction, q, from the

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tube to the base can be expressed in the form of convective heat transfer, given by q’=hdAcθ’ and combined with the form of
convective heat transfer of the tube, the effective convective heat transfer coefficient of the OHWA can be given by the following:
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k w A e 2 ml
hd Ac ' (10)
2e ml e 2 ml 1
where Ac is the heat dissipation area of the base surface.
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Further, the entire thermal transfer of the sheathed probe can be equivalent to two parts, where one is hs (including the
heat loss of convection and radiation) and the other is the hdAcθ’ (transmitted through the bottom).
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To simplify the calculation, the base convection heat transfer can be expressed by the following:
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hd Ac ' hs (11)

where s is the heat dissipation area of the tube surface. Here, both the proportion, β, and the convective heat transfer coefficient,
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h, are composite functions of the gas flow speed and the ambient temperature. However, it is difficult to solve the equations and
obtain them separately, so therefore, Equation (11) can be transformed into the following relationship:
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Q （1 ）hs Hs (12)

where H is an effective composite convective heat transfer coefficient and Q is the total heat dissipation of the probe.

According to the definition of the Nusselt Number, Nu, and the Reynolds Number, Re[22、23]:

Hd
Nu a bRe n
k air (13)
u d
Re
v
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where kair is the thermal conductivity of the air and d is the diameter of the tube; u is the speed of the air; v is the kinematic viscosity;
a, b and n are the correction coefficients of the different fluids, which are related to the sensor probe structure and the physical
properties of fluids.

The equivalent relationship for the gas flow speed can be obtained by incorporating the corrected Equations, (12) and (13) , as
follows:

ae
u be (14)

Qvn avn 1
In the above equation, ae , be and are characteristic coefficients of the sensor. The numerical
sbd n 1k air bd n n

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values of the three parameters mentioned above can be obtained by experiments, this avoiding the need for a complicated analytical

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solution of the function and taking into account the influence of the different heat transfer modes seen with the sensor.

2. Simulation of the model under different ambient temperatures

The thermodynamic model of the optical fiber sensor-based device combines the effects of the forced convection heat transfer;

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the natural convection heat transfer; the conduction heat transfer and the radiation heat transfer. According to the results of the
analysis carried out, it can be seen that the change of temperature has a particular influence on the sensing model, as would be
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expected. In practical engineering applications, the environmental temperature of the sensor is likely to change frequently (a
different situation from that in the laboratory where the environmental temperature can readily be stabilized) and this could cause
measurement errors in such practical applications.
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In this paper, the results of a simulation of the sensor probe (whose design has already been presented here) has been carried
out with the use of the Finite Element Analysis software package, COMSOL. The analysis has been based on the heat transfer
coupling characteristics of a multi-physical field on the probe surface. The relationship between the probe surface average
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temperature and the gas flow speed, under different ambient temperatures, has been analyzed and the results discussed[22].
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In the simulation carried out, the steady-state calculation of three-dimensional (3-D) compressible Navier-Stokes equations
has been undertaken by using the realizable laminar conjugate heat transfer model. The temperature-speed coupled simplex
algorithm has been used to solve the governing equations. The inflow gas speed was determined by using the boundary conditions
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at the entrance to the flow chamber and the properties of the wall are based on the non-slip boundary conditions[23]. The outlet
pressure was set to atmospheric pressure as the pressure outlet boundary condition. In order to improve the speed of operation of
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the simulation (and thus of obtaining the solutions), the overall model was treated as a symmetry model and a multi-layer thermal
resistance approach was used for heat transfer of the base, with the use of a sweeping grid in the gas flow far from the sensor probe,
enabling the overall number of grids needed to be reduced. Meanwhile, a tetrahedral grid was established in the area near the
sensor probe and refined to ensure the accuracy of the solution obtained.

As shown in Fig. 3, the initial gas flow velocities were set to be 0.05, 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 10 m/s and the air temperatures
to -20, -10, 0, 10, 20, 30 and 40℃ respectively. The results of the simulation carried out with different gas velocities and
temperatures are illustrated in Fig 3.
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Fig.3 Proportions of convection heat transfer in the probe Fig. 4 Relationship between the probe surface temperature
at different ambient temperatures and velocities and the gas flow speed at different ambient temperatures

The numerical simulation results show that at the same gas flow speed, for different ambient temperature values, the percentage

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or ratio of the heat transferred due to the convective heat transfer over the total heat transfer of the sensor probe is also different.

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On the other hand, for a given ambient temperature, the ratio of the convective heat transfer to the total heat transfer of the sensor
probe is also different, with respect to the gas speed and the ratio of convective heat transfer at low gas speed is smaller than that
at high gas flow speeds, as shown in Figure 3. In this case, it is necessary to take the heat transfer and radiation into account in the

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heat transfer mode, in addition to the convective heat transfer.

The average surface temperature of the sensor probe at different gas flow speeds can be obtained through the simulation carried
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out, using Equations (3) and (14). The results of the simulation are shown in Figure 4. The characteristic coefficients of the sensor
at different ambient temperatures can be obtained by use of an iterative method, with the results obtained shown in Table 1,
illustrating various parameters at different ambient temperatures.
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Table 1

Various parameters at different ambient temperatures (℃)

-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
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ae 257.19 253.30 255.67 254.22 252.92 251.50 250.01

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3 7 9 4 9 1 7

ξ 1.4856 1.4941 1.4972 1.4999 1.5013 1.5025

1.4903
9 4 2 6 8 2

be 1.202 1.133 1.208 1.215 1.223 1.231 1.238

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From Table 1, it can be seen that the simulated correction coefficients, ae, be and ξ change as the ambient temperature changes.
This results in two important points which should be noted:

(1) If the value of each coefficient is obtained through the calibrations carried out at different temperatures, for different
applications, the workload is huge and this approach is simply not practical.

(2) However, if the parameters are only calibrated at certain specific experimental temperatures, this will introduce
considerable error in the result.

The fluid medium (the flowing gas) discussed in the specific application in mind (monitoring in mines) is atmospheric air,
necessitating an operation within a temperature range -20℃ to 40℃, where here 0℃ is used as the baseline calibration temperature
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in the experiment and ae = 255.679 and be = 1.208 are used to calculate the relationship between the characteristic coefficient of
the sensor, ξ, and the ambient temperature, Te, using Equation (14). The results thus obtained are shown below in Figure 5:

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Fig. 5 Relationship between refractive index, ξ and environmental temperature

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Based on the above results, a functional relationship for the equivalent correction coefficient, ξ , can be obtained, where:

2 3 m
B0 B1Te B2Te B3Te ... BmTe (15)

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Taking data seen in Figure 5 and substituting into Equation (15), the values of B1, B2 ... Bm can be obtained, giving from Equation
(15):
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2
-4 10 6 Te 4 10-4 Te 1.4942
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3. Experimental evaluation of the model

Based on the results of the above analysis, a fiber-optic ‘hot-wire’ sensor probe designed according to the above was built
and its performance was evaluated. The sensor has been tested on the experimental platform, shown in Figure 6.
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(a) (b)

Fig.6 Schematic of the sensor probe (left), the FBG wavelength change with heating (red) and cooling (blue) (top) and a photograph of the sensor probe showing
its small size and compact packaging. (a) schematic and (b) experimental device in the laboratory environment

The experimental setup used is shown in Fig. 6(b). The two inputs of the 1480/1550nm WDM are respectively connected to
the 1480nm pump laser and the interrogator, while its output is connected to the sensor probe. The laser radiation at 1480nm from
the pump source was absorbed and converted into heat by the co-doped fiber used, into which the SFBG was written. The
interrogator was used to receive and record the wavelength changes reflected by the signals from the SFBG and RFBG. An external
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air compressor, gas tank and flow controller were used to provide a steady, controlled flow of air. In addition, a high-precision
thermostat placed where the outlet pipeline of the flow controller is coiled was used for control, in this way to provide a stable
temperature field for calibrating the system, monitoring the wavelength variations of the two Fiber Bragg Gratings (FBGs) used in
the sensor device, this being done over a temperature range of 0℃ to 50℃. The temperature homogeneity of the setup, using the
thermostat as a controller, is typically <0.5℃. For each temperature step of 5℃ used, the wavelength variations of the two FBGs
(forming the Sensing FBG (SFBG) (which is placed in the gas flow) and the second Reference FBG (RFBG) are measured and
recorded. As the temperature increases, the measured wavelengths shift toward the longer wavelengths. The measured
wavelengths at the different temperatures studied are shown in Figure 7. The coefficient of the wavelength variations, monitored
as a function of temperature for both the SFBG and the RFBG, are similar (as would be expected), at 9.1 pm/°C.

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Fig.7 Temperature Coefficients of the two Gratings pr Fig.8 Variation of the Wavelength Drift with gas flow speed,
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used in the work: SFBG and RFBG for SFBG at Different Ambient Temperatures

The linear fitting equations resulting and which represent the relationship between the temperature, T e, and output wavelengths
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of the gratings used were are given as follows:

SFBG 0.0091Te 1549.843

(16)
RFBG 0.0091Te 1539.781
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From Equation (16), the variation of the wavelength of the FBG due to the temperature change is given by Δλ=9.1Δθ. Using
the optical fiber hot-wire sensor probe in the sensor design shown in Figure 8, the wavelength changes of the RFBG and the SFBG
were monitored by using a commercial FBG demodulator, with in addition a knowledge of the ambient temperature, Te, and the
average surface temperature, T, of the sheathed probe, calculated using Equation (16). From the data obtained, the temperature
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difference (T - Te) then provides an indication of the heat transfer characteristics of the sensor, when used to monitor the effect at
different gas flow speeds. During each of the experiments carried out, the pipeline was heated by use of a thermostatically-
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controlled bath to maintain a constant temperature and the gas (air) flow controller was adjusted to change the gas flow speed, u,
to be in the range 0 – 6m/s. The relationship between the wavelength change of the SFBG and the gas flow speed was obtained by
use of Equations (14) and (15) where:

f Te
ae ae
u be be (17)
9.1
Two important conclusions can be obtained from the experimental data that have been obtained. First, the wavelength change
monitored using the SFBG in the sensor device decreases exponentially with the different wind speeds used and secondly, the
wavelength change of that grating (SFBG) is different when the same wind speed but different ambient temperatures are used. The
 11

above phenomena are consistent with the results of the theoretical analysis of the sensor design previously carried out and they
also show the necessity of including within the sensor ‘package’ appropriate environmental temperature compensation, as can be
seen from the data illustrated in Fig. 8. The data obtained are then incorporated into Equation (17) for iterative processing to be
carried out and thus the effective correction coefficients i.e ae = 6.37, be = 0.6 and ξ of 2.44025, 2.62911, 2.80797 and 3.38094
can be obtained, monitored at the different temperatures used.

A knowledge of the errors in these measurements is important and these were analyzed using two different approaches:

(1) one of the four coefficients mentioned above is used for ξ, and four groups of data respectively, are calculated

(2) ξ is represented as a function of the air temperature Te. The difference between the measured gas speed values using the
fiber-optic ‘hot-wire’ sensor probe and those using a comparative air flow meter (to allow a comparative calibration to be obtained)
were determined. The results of the use of the two different methods are shown in Figures 9(a) and (b) respectively below:

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(a) (b)

Fig. 9 Error in the measurement of gas flow (wind) speed error (a) direct calculation; (b) using an exponential fitting approach
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The above figures show that the errors obtained when using the first method are relatively large, but the errors measured can be
effectively reduced when the second method is used. The calibration coefficient of the sensor is obtained at the temperature of the
fluid medium used, which is 20 ℃. With the increase of the difference between the actual temperature of the fluid medium and
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the base temperature (20℃) at the time of calibration, the measurement error seen in the wind or gas flow speed determination
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gradually increases. It can be seen from Fig. 9(a) that the measurement error is greater than 0.7m/s when the wind speed is 6m/s,
which is larger than ±10% u (for the maximum value of u = 6 m/s) . However, when the temperature compensation method given
by Equation (15) is used, the measurement error in the wind speed determined using the sensor, with different fluid medium
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temperatures, then falls to ± 0.15m/s, which is less than ±2.5% u (for the maximum value of u = 6 m/s).

4. Conclusions
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In this paper, a mathematical model of a fiber-optic hot-wire gas flow sensor has been presented and used to describe the
relationship between the gas speed monitored at the sensor head and the temperature measured of the sensor itself. By using the
technique where the sensing temperature changes are measured with respect to a reference temperature, the wind or gas flow speeds
can be determined. The expression for the heat transfer coefficient used in this model has been optimized for the conditions where
the ‘diameter-to-length ratio’ of the fiber-optic-based, hot-wire gas flow speed sensor was smaller than that of the equivalent
electronic hot-wire gas sensor. Also in the model developed, the influence of the convective heat transfer, the radiative heat
transfer, the conductive heat transfer and the ambient temperature change on the sensor are considered and incorporated. A
temperature compensation method has been proposed and incorporated to establish the relationship between the ambient
 12

temperature and gas flow speed. The results of the numerical simulation and the experimental verification undertaken show that
the measured gas flow speed error is less than ± 0.15m/s (within the range of 0 to 6 m/s considered). With the use of the
compensation scheme discussed, it is important to note that the error in the measurement of the wind speed is reduced and thus the
sensor performance thus improved. This simple optical fiber-based sensor method developed in that way provides a highly
effective gas flow measurement method for remote monitoring, applicable in a range of engineering applications and including
safety critical situations where the use of optical methods is to be preferred when measurements are made with explosive gases, as
for example in the mining industry[24].

Conflict of interest statement

We declare that we do not have any commercial or associative interest that represents a conflict of interest in connection with the
work submitted.

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Acknowledge

The authors gratefully acknowledge the support by the National Key Research and Development Program of China (No.

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2017YFC0804400), Ministry of Education Research for the Open Fund (No.GFCKF-201803) , the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (Grant No.62005138), the Key Program of Natural Science Foundation of Shandong Province (No.
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ZR2019MF028), and the Key Research and Development Program of Shandong Province (No.2019GSF111039), and Key R &
D plan of Shandong Province（2019GSF111041）. The support of the Royal Academy of Engineering for Sun and Grattan is much
appreciated.
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Author Biography

Zhen Li received a M.S. degree in mechanical engineering from Shandong Agricultural University, in 2014.
In 2015, he engaged in the Laser Institute of the Shandong Academy of Sciences, mainly on the development
and application of optical fiber flow sensor. He has published 5 articles and 6 patents and has participated in
scientific research work on a number of national and provincial projects.

Jiqiang Wang received the Ph.D. degree in precision instrument and mechanics from Beihang University,
Beijing,China, in 2010. And then, he joined Laser Institute of Shandong Academy of Sciences, where he has
been working on the development of optical fiber sensors for safety monitoring. His research focuses on
various safety monitoring issues raised by industry, e.g. warehouse environmental monitoring,

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ventilation safety monitoring, pipe leak identification, using optical fiber sensing technologies.

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Xiaoxing Zhong is the professor of Safety Science & Engineering at China University of Mining and
Technology, the deputy director of the Key Laboratory of Gas and Fire Control for Coal Mines of China

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Education Ministry and the vice executive secretary of China Mine Ventilation Professional Committee. He
works in the field of prevention and control of coal spontaneous combustion. To date, he has published more
than 80 papers and been selected in several talent engineering projects including the China National Special
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Support Program for High-level Personnel .

Tongyu Liu received the Ph.D. degree in materials science from Brunel University London, U.K., in
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1999. After 14 years of study and work in U.K., he joined Laser Institute of Shandong Academy of Sciences
in 2004, undertaking research in novel optical fiber sensor development for physical and gas sensing. His
recent research interests have been focused on fiber optic sensors for safety monitoring in coal mine,
petrochemical, and power industries. He has authored and co-authored more than 150 journal and
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conference papers and more than 20 patents.

Yanong Ning gained his PhD in Measurement and Instrumentation from City, University of London, UK.
He held research fellowships at the University of Kent and City London University respectively. Dr. Ning
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currently is a Senior Research Fellow of Laser Institute, Qilu University of technology (Shandong Academy
of Sciences). He has had a wide range of careers in R&D of optic fiber sensors technologies and their
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industrial applications/business, the management of optical fiber sensor manufacture, sales, marketing and
business development in the optical sensor industry. Dr. Ning has extensive experience in fiber optical sensor technology
development, industrial application and commercialization in China, Asia and UK.

Moyu Hou graduated inin signal and information processing from Shandong University with a M.S in
2011.He joined the optical fiber sensing group, Laser Institute of Shandong Academy of Sciences in 2011.
His research interests include algorithm improvement and software design of various kinds of industrial
environment monitoring systems based on fiber optic sensors.
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Lin Zhao received the M.S. degree in computer application technology from Harbin Engineering University
in 2009.Since 2008, he has been working on the development of optical fiber sensing technology in the Laser
Research Institute of the Shandong Academy of Sciences. His main research direction includes the
development and application of optical fiber temperature sensor.

Guofeng Dong received the M.S. degree in optics from Fudan University in 2015. In 2017, she joined Laser
Institute of Shandong Academy of Sciences. Her research interests include the development and application
of optical fiber sensors.

Yuan Liu received the M.S. degrees from the China University of Petroleum (Huadong) in 2007 and then
worked in the Laser institute of Shandong Academy of Science.She mainly on distributed temperature

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sensing and systems based on Raman scattering, using the Raman scattering principle to analyze the precision

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of temperature monitoring and researching into mathematical methods to improve the spatial resolution and
the accuracy of its positioning.

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Jinyu Wang received the M.Sc. degree in Detection Technology from Shandong University in 2007.
Afterwards, she became an assistant research fellow in optical fiber sensing with Laser Institute of Shandong
Academy of Science until the end of 2016. She is currently an associate research fellow with Laser Institute,
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Qilu University. Her research interests are in the field of optical fiber sensors, SERS substrate, and molecular
recognition.
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Tong Sun received the Ph.D. degree in applied physics from City University of London, U.K., in 1999.

She was an Assistant Professor at Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, from 2000 to 2001, before
she rejoined City University of London, she was promoted to a Professor in 2008 at City University of London.
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She has been leading a research team focused on developing a range of optical fiber sensors for a variety of
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industrial applications, including structural health monitoring, early fire detection, homeland security, process monitoring,
food quality, and automotive emission monitoring. She is a member of the Institute of Physics and of the Institution of
Engineering and Technology, and a Chartered Physicist and a Chartered Engineer, U.K.
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Kenneth T. V. Grattan received the Bachelor’s degree in physics from Queen’s University, Belfast,
U.K., in 1974, and the Ph.D. degree from the same University in 1978. In the same year, he became a
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Post-doctoral Research Assistant at Imperial College London, London, U.K. His research during that
period was on laser systems for photophysical systems investigations, and he and his colleagues
constructed some of the first of the then new category of excimer lasers (XeF, KrF) in Europe in 1976. He
joined City University of London in 1983 after five years at Imperial College, undertaking research in novel optical
instrumentation, especially in fiber optic sensor development for physical and chemical sensing. To date, he has authored
more than 1000 Journal and Conference papers.

Professor Grattan is a Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering in the UK currently is the Dean of the City Graduate
School, City University of London.