Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Utilization potential of fly ash and copper tailings in concrete as partial

replacement of cement along with life cycle assessment
Rahul Dandautiya, Ajit Pratap Singh ⇑
Civil Engineering Department, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani 333031, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Fly ash (FA) and copper tailings (CT) both are, anthropogenic wastes, spread all over the globe due to
Received 28 March 2019 rapid growth in thermal power plants and progressive increase in the demand of copper. This study
Revised 13 July 2019 examines the feasibility of combined utilization of FA and CT in concrete as a partial replacement of
Accepted 23 August 2019
cement by assessing compressive strength, cost, and environmental impact. Morphology and constituent
Available online 29 August 2019
minerals of FA and CT have been identified to understand the utilization potential. Subsequently, the con-
crete has been designed for 30 MPa target strength as per IS 10262:2009 for different mix proportions of
Keywords:
FA and CT. Improvement (up to 8.27% compared to the control mix) in the compressive strength has been
Copper tailings
Environmental impacts
observed at combined replacement of 10% FA and 5% CT. The cost of concrete can also be reduced up to
Fly ash 16% without compromising its compressive strength. The environmental impact assessment of the mod-
Life cycle assessment ified concrete mix proportions has also been performed using life cycle assessment (LCA) as per ISO
Sustainable utilization 14040:2006. Effect of all raw materials, electricity, and water consumption have been considered from
their cradle to grave approach. One cubic meter concrete has been taken as a functional unit in LCA.
Notable reduction has been observed in the chosen midpoint categories up to 38% in climate change,
up to 32.6% in human toxicity, up to 33.6% in ozone depletion, up to 31.9% in agriculture land occupation,
water depletion up to 34.3%, fossil depletion up to 34.8%, particulate matter up to 35.4%, and metal deple-
tion up to 25.2%.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Concrete, at the micro level, considered as a heterogeneous
mixture of cement, sand, aggregate, and water (Gagg, 2014;
Sadowski and Mathia, 2016) and second largest global per capita
consumed material after water. Due to the serious need of growth
in infrastructure, the developing nations are investing exponen-
tially, and the developed countries are putting their efforts to
upgrade their existing aged infrastructure to make them more sus-
tainable and cope up with the current structural requirement.
Cement is the most essential ingredient in a concrete mix that
binds and solidify the aggregates in the presence of water
(Hewlett, 2003). In the manufacturing of cement, the limestone
and clay need to be heated up to 1450 °C, and a large volume of
CO2 (900–1000 kg/ton of cement production) has been released,
which is estimated at about 5–7% of the total global emissions
(Monteiro et al., 2017; Andrew, 2018; Benhelal et al., 2013). With
about 280 million ton of yearly cement production (Indian
Bureau of Mines, 2018), India ranked second largest cement
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: aps@pilani.bits-pilani.ac.in (A.P. Singh).
producer around the globe, and a significant portion of this con-
tributed to greenhouse gas emission, thus, requiring a sustainable
approach of production of cement.
Copper is extensively used in different industries due to its high
electric and thermal conductivity and less corrosive property
(Mardones et al., 1985). It is well known for its ability to make
alloys and high malleability. Being the most used metal, its
demand has been increasing with the increase in population. This
everlasting and increasing demand escalated the manufacturing of
copper, which accounts to be 19.7 million tons of purified copper
globally in 2017 (Ober, 2018). CT is one of the major wastes gener-
ated (@ 128 ton/ton production of purified copper) during the
manufacturing of copper, which is produced at the floatation and
concentration stage in the process of copper extraction (Gordon,
2002; Beniwal et al., 2015). CT generally composed of different
compounds made of iron, silica, aluminum, magnesium, zinc, lead,
cadmium, different oxides, hydroxide, and other materials, which
may adversely impact the environment and human health at the
vicinity of the dumping site (Yang et al., 2013; Kundu et al.,
2016). Many researchers (Castilla, 1996; Dudka and Adriano,
1997; Rösner, 1998; Sharma and Al-Busaidi, 2001) have high-
lighted the ill effects of CT on the surface and groundwater, sur-

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.08.036
0956-053X/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101
rounding soil, vegetation, and aquatic life, which further lead to
affect the other living bodies adversely. The groundwater aquifers
become susceptible to contamination due to leaching action of
such products along with other anthropogenic sources and their
hydrogeochemical processes (Bhakar and Singh, 2019). Many pos-
sibilities have been investigated, and solutions are proposed by the
researchers to make the tailings productive. Onuaguluchi and Eren
(2012) replaced cement with CT to make high conductivity con-
crete and recommend it for making easy ice removable roads.
Gupta et al. (2012) tested the clayey soil stabilization property of
CT and suggested that a mixture of 30% CT and 70% clayey soil give
good bearing capacity. It is also used as a partial replacement of
fine aggregates in concrete in some studies (Beniwal et al., 2015;
Gupta et al., 2016). Besides this, the feasibility of utilizing it as a
partial replacement of cement is studied in a few of the research
works (Ahmari and Zhang, 2012; Kundu et al., 2016;
Onuaguluchi and Eren, 2016).
ASTM C 618 classified FA into two categories (i.e., Class C and
Class F). Both are enriched with SiO2, Al2O3 and Fe2O3 with nearly
50% in Class C and around 70% and higher in Class F fly ash. India
alone generates about 170 million tons of class F coal FA from
the thermal power plans annually (Central Electricity Authority
Report, 2017). Utilization of FA as a pozzolanic additive in concrete
has been commenced in early 1914 (Halstead, 1986). FA is used
broadly in the cement manufacturing process and has been utilized
extensively in partial replacement of cement in concrete. It is also
proven for its application in soil stabilization (Dermatas and Meng,
2003), as landfill liner (Mollamahmutoğlu and Yilmaz, 2001; Cokca
and Yilmaz, 2004; Çoruh and Ergun, 2010), manufacturing of bricks
(Reidelbach, 1970; Cultrone et al., 2004; Shakir et al., 2013), as an
adsorbent (Sen and De, 1987; Rio and Delebarre, 2003; Banerjee
et al., 2005; Kuncoro and Fahmi, 2013; Li et al., 2017), backfilling
of mines and road subbase (Shen et al., 2009; Yao and Sun,
2012), enhancement of soil properties in agriculture (Ukwattage
et al., 2013; Ram and Masto, 2014) etc. Wang et al. (2016) used
FA in concrete along with coal gangue (as aggregate) and suggested
a notable reduction in the permeability when this modified con-
crete utilized in farmland drainage ditches. High volume fly ash
concrete has been compared with natural aggregate concrete and
recycled aggregate concrete by Tošić et al. (2018) for the applica-
tion in the reinforced concrete beam. Kurda et al. (2018) also uti-
lized high content fly ash along with recycled concrete aggregate
with different proportions and found that at low water binder ratio
both shows better result compared to higher water binder ratio.
Although it is being used widely for many applications, a signifi-
cant amount of it, which is being disposed in valuable land, led
to various kinds of pollution (Fulekar and Dave, 1986; Borm,
1997; Walia and Mehra 1998; Ribeiro et al., 2014; Dandautiya
et al. 2018; Zhang et al., 2018).
In the concrete, subsequent to the addition of water to cement,
exothermic hydration reaction will initiate and will lead to the
release of lime. This lime imparts porosity to the structure and
responsible for the development of microcracks, leads to degrada-
tion in bond strength and results from an adverse effect on the con-
crete durability (Deschner et al., 2012). Though Hewlett (2003)
experimented and confirmed that pozzolanic materials (FA) reacts
with excessive lime and improves the strength of the concrete, but
the combined effect of FA and CT on the strength of concrete by
partial replacement of cement is a matter of investigation. This
has motivated authors to explore the performance of concrete for
said purpose.
The optimal utilization of FA and CT is not only useful to reduce
cement requirement in the construction industry and infrastruc-
ture development but also beneficial for the surroundings
(Schuhmacher et al., 2004). About 40% of the greenhouse gases
are released through the development of the built environment
91
(Vieira and Horvath, 2008; BED, 2011). Life cycle assessment
(LCA) method demonstrates very proven results in relation to the
quantification of these adverse environmental impacts (Bhakar
and Singh, 2018). It facilitates a diverse, accurate, and quick esti-
mate of the environmental impact of material while considering
all its constituent associated with the process of procurement,
transportation, manufacturing, utilization, and disposal. Nisbet
et al. (2000) and Corinaldesi (2010) have defined life cycle invento-
ries for different kinds of Portland cement concrete and performed
LCA analysis. Knoeri et al. (2013) have studied the effect of individ-
ual of concrete production units using LCA from transportation,
manufacturing, utilization, and demolition. The LCA analysis of
magnetized fly-ash compound fertilizer was assessed systemati-
cally by Wang et al. (2017). The study clearly demonstrates how
nonrenewable energy depletion becomes one of the highest
affected category. Li and Wang (2018) investigated the severe
impact on the environment due to the utilization of flue gas desul-
furization gypsum in soil improvement through LCA combined
with Technique for Order Preference by Similarity (TOPSIS) and
found that the water consumption and soil toxicity are most
impacted categories. Zhang et al. (2018) evaluated the environ-
mental impact of Yimin opencast coal mine (China) using LCA con-
sidering 100 tons of coal as a functional unit and concluded that
the dust is most serious category than the other selected cate-
gories. Although wide ranges of studies have also been conducted
to investigate the feasibility of utilization of FA and CT, most of the
studies are confined to assess the effectiveness of individual waste
material. FA is extensively used as a replacement of cement, and
various standards have recommended maximum replacement
limit of 30% of cement in concrete (Thomas, 2007). Also, with a
production of 280 million ton (Choudhary et al., 2019) of cement
annually, India ranked second largest cement producer in the
world and this cement production responsible for the release of
150 million ton of CO2 emissions annually (Andrew, 2018). Hence
the utilization of CT along with FA with partial replacement of
cement in concrete will cut a massive amount of CO2 releasing into
the atmosphere during the cement manufacturing process and also
help to reduce the adverse environmental impact caused by the
heaps of FA and CT worldwide. In the current research work, LCA
has been applied in all the mix proportions of concrete, and their
environmental impact has been assessed along with the compres-
sive strength and cost analysis.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Methodology
FA, CT, Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), fine aggregate and
coarse aggregate have been used in this study to prepare concrete
along with admixture. Tricalcium silicate (C3S ? 3CaO.SiO2),
dicalcium silicate (C2S ? 2CaO.SiO2), tricalcium aluminate
(C3A ? 3CaO.Al2O3) and tetra calcium alumino ferrite (C4AF ?
4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2O3) are the chief mineral phases found in the OPC
(Struble et al., 2011). The hardening process of OPC takes place
as a result of the reaction between these compounds with water.
In the processes of hydration, lime is released which is a surplus
and not utilized in the hardening process (Sharma and Pandey,
1999). This excess lime causes an adverse impact on the durability
of the hardened concrete due to the formation of microcracks and
weakened the bonding with concrete (Massazza, 1998). Addition of
pozzolanic material will act as a solution to this problem because
such material will react with surplus lime and provide similar
binding property as given by cement. Thus, in present study, focus
has been given to introduce the optimal quantity of pozzolanic
material so that the strength of concrete can be improved/main-
92 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101
tained especially when such pozzolanic material reacts with resid-
ual lime.
The materials (FA and CT) were collected and characterized to
assess the feasibility of the samples as per the ASTM requirement.
The subsequent sections explain more inside about the steps
adopted in the proposed study.
2.2. Sampling and process
The samples of FA were collected from the disposal site
(29°100 31.37100 N and 73°590 21.06600 E) from Suratgarh Super Ther-
mal Power Plant with the capacity of 1500 MW located near Surat-
garh, district Sri Ganganagar, Rajasthan, India (Fig. 1). The plant has
produced about 169.25 megatons of coal FA from the combustion
of 509.46 megatons of coal in the year 2016-17 (Central
Electricity Authority Report, 2017).
The CT samples were taken from CT pond (Fig. 1) near Khetri
Copper Complex, Hindustan Copper Limited (HCL) district Jhun-
jhunu, Rajasthan, India. The sampling site (27° 490 590 ’ N, 75° 460
00 ’ E) is located in the hot semi-arid region of Aravalli fold of west-
ern India majorly having older alluvial soil (Ground Water
Brochure, 2008). The ores in the region are enriched with gold
(Au), silver (Ag), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), uranium (U) and rare earth
elements along with Cu (Sarkar and Gupta, 2012).
Both FA and CT samples have been stored in an airtight con-
tainer, and as they were in uniform powder form, hence no further
milling is required. The average specific gravity of samples were
measured as 2.1 and 3.2 for FA and CT respectively.
Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) of grade 43 complying with IS
8112 (2013) and specific gravity 3.15 has been used as a binder.
River sand (specific gravity 2.74) confirming to Zone-I as pre-
scribed in IS 383:2016 has been used as fine aggregate. The
crushed stone (specific gravity 2.74) with the proportion of 2:3
of 10 mm and 20 mm size has been used as coarse aggregate that
is complying with the IS 383 (2016). To increase the workability
along with the reduction in water content in the mix design of con-
crete, ULTRACON 58 HP admixture (specific gravity 1.24) has been
used as per IS 9103 (1999).
From the literature and standards, it has been suggested that
the maximum replacement limit of cement with FA should be
30% of cement (Thomas, 2007). This replacement marginally
increases the compressive strength of concrete, and beyond 30%
replacement of cement, the strength of concrete has been found
to reduce. Optimum partial replacement of CT suggested by
Kundu et al. (2016) is 10% of cement in concrete to attain accept-
able compressive strength and suggested that beyond 10% replace-
ment, the compressive strength reduces gradually with addition of
CT due to its low reactiveness.
A total of 14 different mix design proportions have been pre-
pared for a target strength of 30 MPa as per IS 10262, 2009
(detailed in Table A1 of the appendix). These mix proportions have
been considered for the casting of 126 cubes of 150 mm size (@ 9
cubes per mix proportion) for two different water-cement (w/c)
ratios (i.e. 0.45 and 0.5) according to the guidelines given in IS
456 (2000). For each of the w/c ratio (out of all mix proportions)
one control specimen mix has also been prepared. Considering
the view of earlier findings of the researchers and code provisions,
FA has been replaced with cement from 10%, 20% and 30% by
weight of cement combined with 5% and 10% CT respectively.
These mix proportions were labelled as M1 (FA 10% and CT 5%),
M2 (FA 10% and CT 10%), M3 (FA 20% and CT 5%), M4 (FA 20%
and CT 10%), M5 (FA 30% and CT 5%), and M6 (FA 30% and CT
10%) for two different w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5. All mix specimens
have been immersed in the water tank for curing purpose for the
prescribed duration as the specified code provision. As the com-
pressive strength has been used extensively in the literature to
define the strength of concrete, it has been measured for all-
above specimens after 7, 28, and 56 days using universal testing
machine (Aimil AIM-653, 1000 kN).
The chemical compositions of FA and CT have been found out by
X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) using Panalytical Epsilon-5 available at
Instrumentation Research Laboratory in Jawaharlal Nehru Univer-
sity, New Delhi. The samples in XRF analysis are prepared by ini-
tially pressing the material to make uniform powder, and then
binder (boric acid) is added to form pellets using cylinder type dies.
The analysis of these prepared samples was done at 25 kV of volt-
age and 0.5 mA of current. The form shape and structure of cement
were studied by using the Scanning Electronic Microscope (SEM)
through FEI Apreo-S instrument at Birla Institute of Technology
and Science Pilani, Rajasthan, whereas, for FA and CT, it was done
at Instrumentation Research Laboratory in Jawaharlal Nehru
University, New Delhi using Zeiss EVO40. All three materials are
non-conductive; hence, before SEM analysis coating of silver was
applied to the samples, and the instrument was operated at accel-
erating voltage of 15 kV and the working distance of 12.5 mm.
2.3. Life cycle assessment (LCA) analysis
To perform LCA analysis, cradle to grave approach has been used
to understand the possible environmental impact of the replace-
ment of FA and CT in concrete. ISO 14040:2006 has been considered
as a guideline for the analysis. LCA process is divided into four-part:
(a) defining the goal and scope of the analysis; (b) inventory analy-
sis; (c) impact assessment of the process, and (d) analysis of the
results. The goal is to assess the environmental impact of the partial
replacement of cement with FA and CT in concrete at different pro-
portions and compare them with the control mix. UMBERTO NXT
tool has been used to perform LCA analysis. The software helps to
calculate the potential impact on the environment due to a different
stage of a product. Graphical modeling is performed with the help
of software for -analyzing the life cycle of the material. This helps
to analyze, acquire, and visualize the environmental impact in the
form of different midpoint and endpoint selected categories. Ini-
tially, the life cycle model is drawn in the form of a process map
then the specification of the processes and activities are required
to be defined. The attached data set in the software is used to eval-
uate the energy and material flow and corresponding impact assess-
ment on the environment. The outcome of this analysis is
represented in the form of tables and graphs. Cradle to grave
approach is a primary generic LCA approach that includes extrac-
tion of raw materials, quantification of energy utilized, production
of material, utilization, recycling and finally disposal which is suit-
able for the analysis of concrete as recommended in the literature
(Rebitzer et al., 2004). Climate change (kg of CO2 equivalent),
human toxicity (kg of 1,4 dichlorobenzene (DCB)), ozone depletion
potential (CFC-11 equivalent), agriculture land occupation (m2 area
annual crop equivalent), water depletion (in m3), fossil depletion
(kg of oil equivalent), particulate matter (kg of PM2.5 equivalent)
and Metal depletion potential (kg of Fe equivalent) are considered
as midpoint categories in the LCA analysis of modified concrete.
Eco inventory 3.0 dataset available with the UMBERTO NXT tool
has been used to consider inventory data for cement, gravel, sand,
water, inert waste, and electricity production. Both FA and CT have
been considered as the inert material. It has been assumed that the
density of the concrete remains uniform and the whole mass of it is
considered as inert waste after its service life. In all the calculations,
one cubic meter concrete is taken as the functional unit. The analy-
sis is performed for all mix proportions (M1-M6 and control mix)
and each of the w/c ratio (0.45 and 0.5). The Life cycle inventory
(LCI) model for the LCA analysis is shown in Fig. 2. This framework
is divided into three sections, viz. raw material, manufacturing pro-
cess, and waste disposal. In the raw material section cement, sand
R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101 93

Fig. 1. Location and topography of the study area.

Fig. 2. Framework of LCA approach used in the study.

94 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101
(fine aggregate) and gravel (coarse aggregate), used to produce con-
crete, are defined through process T1, T2 and T3 as shown in Fig. 2.
P1, P4 and P7 (represented with 1green circle) show the input for ini-
tial phase of the processes T1, T2 and T3. P3, P6 and P9 are the end of
the process and show the fraction of disposal of wastes during the
above processes. Fly ash, copper tailings and the admixtures are con-
sidered as inert material which are essential component of the raw
material section (shown by P10, P11, and P12). Next step in the model
is the manufacturing section where ‘‘T” represents the concrete man-
ufacturing process in which appropriate raw material quantity is
mixed with water as per the mix design of concrete. Process for water
is defined by T4 and electricity consumption for mixing is shown as
T5. The consumption of electricity is uniform as it has been used only
for the mixing of concrete with equal mixing time for all mix propor-
tions. Final produced concrete is shown in the manufacturing section
denoted as P22. After the completion of service life of concrete, it has
been treated as an inert waste which is shown as process T6 in the
waste disposal section.
3. Result and discussion
3.1. Material characterization
The results of XRF show the chemical composition of OPC, FA,
and CT as given in Table A2 of appendix. Both FA and CT are made
of pozzolanic materials (SiO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3) with a small
amount of CaO, MgO, and other compounds.
The combined weights of pozzolanic materials are found as
86.93% and 96.1% of their weights in CT and FA respectively. They
are considerably higher than the recommended value (70%) given
in ASTM C618-19 (2019). The values of loss on ignition and moisture
have also been found below the ASTM C618-19 guidelines which
makes them suitable to use in concrete by replacing cement partially.
The SEM images of FA, CT and cement provide a detailed mor-
phology of the materials as presented in Fig. A1 of the appendix.
The particles of FA are spherical in shape, behaves like a ball bear-
ing, which gave a greasy effect in concrete. It makes concrete more
workable and easier to pump as these spherical particles reduced
the friction between the ingredients of concrete. Replacing cement
with the same weight and lesser density of FA leads to a reduction
in concrete bleeding due to less water requirement and a higher
volume of fine particles.
The shape of particles of CT is not flaky, which may exhibit a
higher interlocking capability, increase in the density of concrete
and impart additional strength when it combines with the cement
and FA particles. Thus, these materials, having nearly the same order
of particle size, can be used effectively as cement replacement.
3.2. Compressive strength of the material
The deformation and stresses developed in the casted cubes,
after 7, 28 and 56 days, during the compressive strength test, have
been measured for all the mix proportions. These results are pre-
sented in six graphs, as shown in Fig. 3. Each graph shows stress-
strain curves after the specific time interval corresponding to the
different w/c ratios. These stress-strain curves show non-linear
behaviour for all mix proportions, which may be due to non-
homogeneity in concrete mass, and leads to the differential
moment between binding material and aggregate.
The elastic modules have been defined as secant modulus in the
study. The values presented in Table A3 of appendix shows a com-
prehensive overview of all the mix proportions with regard to
1
For interpretation of color in Fig. 2, the reader is referred to the web version of
this article.
durability. It is also observed that with the increase in w/c ratio,
the strength of the concrete decreases and may result to develop
cracks due to excess in shrinkage. The cubes of mix proportions
M1 to M6 (w/c ratio 0.45) show relatively higher strength than
cubes of w/c ratio of 0.5. Stress-strain ratio for cubes of mix M1
(w/c ratio 0.45) have been found for different duration concrete,
which increases with increase in time duration of concrete (i.e.
stress-strain ratio at 56 days > stress-strain ratio at 28 days > -
stress-strain ratio at 7 days), which have a similar gradient pattern
as found in the control mix of w/c ratio of 0.45. A similar pattern
has been observed in the case of w/c ratio of 0.5 also.
It has been observed that mix M1 and mix M2 have a greater
disparity in compressive strength at both w/c ratio of 0.45 and
0.50 unlike the rest of the concrete mixes. From the results of
secant modulus, it has been seen that, though both M1 and M2
have similar content/quantity of FA (i.e., 10% of cement), the
amount of CT varies as 5% of cement in mix M1 and 10% of cement
in M2 which is the leading cause of disparity in the compressive
strength at different w/c ratio.
7-days, 28-days, and 56-days compressive strength of six differ-
ent FA and CT mix combinations, presented in Fig. 4, have been com-
pared with the compressive strength of the respective control mix
samples. The standard deviations (detailed in Table A4 of the appen-
dix) of compressive strength results are very less dispersive. The
results exhibit standard deviation of 0.18 N/mm2 to 1.4 N/mm2 for
7-days compressive strength, 0.19 N/mm2 to 1.27 N/mm2 for 28-
days compressive strength and 0.12 N/mm2 to 2.22 N/mm2 for 56-
days compressive strength. 7-days compressive strengths of mix
M1 at 0.45 w/c ratio is the highest among the other mix samples.
It reduces gradually for the other mix design samples, except control
mix (C-Mix), which is slightly lower than M1. The 28-days compres-
sive strength results indicate nearly similar trends as of 7 days, but
the strength of M1, M2, M3, and M4 at 0.45 w/c ratio are higher than
the target strength. It is to be noted that all mix design samples are
unable to achieve 28-days target strength at 0.5 w/c ratio except
control mix (C-Mix) which closely approaches the target strength
as evident from Fig. 5. On the other hand, the results of the 56-
days unconfined compression test are very encouraging to demon-
strate combined utilization of CT and FA to replace cement in con-
crete partially. In 56-days results, the compressive strength of all
specimens with water cement ratio of 0.45 is higher than the target
strength except for M6. For 0.5 w/c ratio, the compressive strength
of M1, M2, and M3 are significantly higher than the target strength
and M4 and M6 are merely close to the target strength. The compres-
sive strength of M1 has been found about 8.27% and 1.75% higher
than the control mix at 0.45 and 0.5w/c ratios, respectively.
Although the compressive strength of M2 and M3 is relatively lower
than the control mix but higher than the target compressive
strength (30 MPa) for both the w/c ratios.
The test results also reveal that the compressive strength of mix
M1 at 0.45 w/c ratio for 28-days and 56-days compressive strength
is higher than those of control mix under similar conditions.
The increase in compressive strength is mainly due to certain
reactions taking place in the modified mixes of cement and poz-
zolanic material (FA, CT), which can be described as follows
(Papadakis, 1999):
hydration
C 3 S þ H ƒƒƒƒƒ! C  S  H þ CaOH
reaction between lime and
silica from pozzolanic material
CaOH þ S ƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒƒ! C  S  H
In the current work, it has been observed that the replacement of
cement with FA beyond 20% combined with CT of 10%, has an
adverse effect on the compressive strength of concrete (Mallisa
 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101 95

7 days , w/c = 0.45 7 days , w/c = 0.5

40 40

32 32

Stress (N/mm2)
Stress (N/mm2)

24 24

16 16

8 8

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Strain Strain
M-1 M-2 M-3 M-4 M1 M2 M3 M4
M-5 M-6 C-Mix M5 M6 C-Mix

28 days , w/c = 0.45 28 days , w/c = 0.5

40 40

32 32
Stress (N/mm2)

Stress (N/mm2)
24 24

16 16

8 8

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain Strain
M1 M2 M3 M4 M1 M2 M3 M4
M5 M6 C-Mix M5 M6 C-Mix

56 days, w/c = 0.45 56 days, w/c = 0.5

40 40

32 32
Stress (N/mm2)

Stress (N/mm2)

24 24

16 16

8 8

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Strain Strain
M1 M2 M3 M4 M1 M2 M3 M4
M5 M6 C-Mix M5 M6 C-Mix

Fig. 3. Stress-strain behavior for all the mix proportions.

and Turuallo, 2017). It may be due to non-availability of lime as all
the extra lime released during the hydration process has been opti-
mally utilized (Papadakis, 1999). For FA and CT there will not be any
lime available beyond above limits of replacement due to the chem-
istry of concrete pore solution leading to reduced reaction with the
pozzolanic materials and thus reduction in strength (Urhan, 1987).
3.3. Economic viability
The economic feasibility of the concrete made by partial
replacement of cement with FA and copper tailings has been
assessed. The rate of each material has been taken from the sched-
ule of rates followed in district Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, India for
the year 2018 (detailed in Table A5 of appendix) and calculated for
each kg of raw materials. The final cost of all the proposed combi-
nations (detailed in Table A6 and A7 of appendix) is compared with
the cost of the control mix. It is observed from the cost analysis
that the partial replacement of cement with CT and FA results a sig-
nificant reduction in the cost of concrete, as shown in Fig. 5. The
production cost of one cubic meter of concrete as compared to con-
trol mix is reduced by about 6.72%, 8.81%, 11.36%, 13.44%, 16%, and
18.08% for M1, M2, M3, M3, M4, M5, and M6 respectively at a w/c
ratio of 0.45. Similarly, the reduction in production cost has been
found about 6.50%, 8.51%, 10.97%, 12.98%, 15.45% and 17.46% for
mix composition M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, and M6 respectively than
the control mix at a w/c ratio of 0.5.
96 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101

7 Days 28 Days
42 42

Compressive Strength in N/mm2

Compressive Strength in N/mm2

36 36
30 30
24 24
18 18
12 12
6 6
0 0
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 C-Mix M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 C-Mix
FA and CT Mix Praportion FA and CT Mix Praportion
w/c ratio 0.45 0.5 w/c ratio 0.45 0.5

56 Days
42
Compressive Strength in N/mm2

36
30
24
18
12
6
0
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 C-Mix
FA and CT Mix Praportion
w/c ratio 0.45 0.5

Fig. 4. Compressive strength test results of all proportions.

w/c 0.45 w/c 0.5

3700 3700
-6.72%
Cost of 1 m3 of concrete (in Rs)

Cost of 1 m3 of concrete (in Rs)

-8.81%

-11.36%

3500 3500
-13.44%

-6.5%

-8.51%

-10.97%

3300 3300
-12.98%
-18.08%
-16%

--15.45%

-17.46%

3100 3100

2900 2900

2700 2700

Type of mix Type of mix

Fig. 5. Cost reduction in percentage in different category mix with respect to control mix.

From the bar charts presented in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5, it can be sum- Fig. 6, Fig. 7, and Fig. 8. A successive reduction in the point scale
marized that mix M1 at w/c ratio 0.45 can be the best alternative in has been observed in the raw material part of both, midpoint
terms of both cost and better compressive strength of concrete. M2 and endpoint result due to a notable decrease in the cement con-
and M3 mixes may also be taken into consideration as a more eco- sumption. The results of endpoint values (Fig. 6) show a fairly
nomic concrete without compromising on compressive strength. reduction in the adverse impact on the quality of the ecosystem,
human health, and resources with the successive replacement of
3.4. Environmental impact assessment cement by FA and CT due to raw material. As for as ecosystem is
concerned, the impact reduces from 20.6 points and 19.7 points
Results of environmental impact assessment analysis using LCA for M1 at w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5 respectively to 17.1 points and
technique have been summarized in the bar charts as shown in 16.5 points for M6 at w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5 respectively compared
 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101 97

Ecosystem Quality
25
20

Points
15
10
5
0

C-Mix

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

C-Mix

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6
W/c = 0.45 W/c = 0.5
Mix type
Raw Manufacturing Disposal

Human Health
80
60
Points

40
20
0
C-Mix

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

C-Mix

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6
W/c = 0.45 W/c = 0.5
Mix type
Raw Manufacturing Disposal

Resources
6
5
4
Points

3
2
1
0
C-Mix

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

C-Mix

M1

M2

M3

M4

M5

M6

W/c = 0.45 W/c = 0.5

Mix type
Raw Manufacturing Disposal

Fig. 6. Endpoint environmental impacts for w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5 for a different mix of concrete.

to 22.7 point and 21.6 points for C-Mix at w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5.
For human health endpoint category, the impact reduces from
23.5 points and 21.6 points for M1 at w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5 respec-
tively to 17.3 points and 16.1 points for M6 at w/c ratio 0.45 and
0.5 respectively compared to 27 point and 25 points for C-Mix at
w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5. In case of resources category, the impact
reduces from 4.8 points and 4.4 points for M1 at w/c ratio 0.45
and 0.5 respectively to 3.6 points and 3.4 points for M6 at w/c ratio
0.45 and 0.5 respectively compared to 5.5 point and 5.1 points for
C-Mix at w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5. This variation is observed as at 0.5
water-cement ratios relatively less value for all mix proportions
because the designed cement content is less as compared to w/c
ratio 0.45.
There is no notable variation observed due to the manufactur-
ing process on the endpoints results with respect to w/c ratios of
0.45 and 0.5. In ecosystem quality, its value is 0.1 points; in human
health, it is 0.36 points; and in resources, it is 0.07 points; for both
w/c ratio 0.45 and 0.5. Use of equal amount of energy in the man-
ufacturing (mixing of ingredients) for all the mix proportions is the
main reason behind similar trends. The disposal of material is also
not much affected by this replacement (ecosystem quality 4.9
points; human health 68 points; resources 2.0 points for both w/
c ratio).
The detailed midpoint results, shown in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 sum-
marize the effect on climate change, human toxicity, ozone deple-
tion, agriculture land occupation, water depletion, fossil depletion,
particulate matter and metal depletion due to the modified con-
crete mixes. The variation is observed chiefly in the raw part of
all categories.
Out of these categories, climate change and human toxicity are
most influenced by the replacement of cement with FA and CT. In
the control mix, the effect on climate change is observed as
445.64 kg of CO2 equivalent and 408.92 kg of CO2 equivalent for
0.45 and 0.5 w/c ratio respectively in the raw section. But in the
98 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101

Fig. 7. Midpoint lifecycle assessment of different concrete mixes at w/c ratio 0.45 with different proportion of FA, CT, and Cement.

modified mix it decreases to 382 kg of CO2 equivalent in M1 to
275.9 kg of CO2 equivalent in M6 for 0.45 w/c ratio and
350.85 kg of CO2 equivalent for M1 to 254 kg of CO2 equivalent
for M6 for 0.5 w/c ratio. In the case of Human toxicity, it has been
observed as 1543.19 kg of 1,4 DCB equivalent and 1436.6 kg of 1,4
DCB equivalent for 0.45 and 0.5 w/c ratios respectively for the raw
section of control mix. However, it decreases to 1354.47 kg of 1,4
DCB equivalent in M1 to 1039.16 kg of 1,4 DCB equivalent for w/
c ratio of 0.45 and 1264.4 kg in M1 to 976.6 kg in M6 for 0.5 w/c
ratio. As the production of cement is one of the major contributors
of CO2 emission, being a major greenhouse gas, it depletes the
ozone layer, resulting in an adverse effect on climate and human
along with global warming potential (GWP). The inert concrete
waste disposal has no severe impact on midpoint attributes except
particulate matter and metal depletion. Equal consumption of elec-
tricity in concrete preparation is also not giving any variation in
midpoint environmental impact for all the mix proportions.
However, the reduction of the quantity of cement in the raw
material results in a very significant decrease in ozone layer deple-
tion, climate change, and a reduced human toxicity effect. This
variation in climate change further leads to a decrease in the water
and fossil fuel depletion and the occupation of agriculture land.
4. Summary and conclusions
This study examines the feasibility of combined utilization of CT
and FA as an alternative to partially replace cement in concrete by
assessing compressive strength, cost, and environmental impact.
FA and CT were initially characterized, and their suitability for par-
tial replacement of cement in concrete is identified through XRF
and SEM. Various mix design proportions are synthesized for the
partial replacement, and specimens are prepared. The performance
of modified concrete proportion is evaluated in terms of strength,
 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101
Fig. 8. Midpoint lifecycle assessment of different concrete mixes at w/c ratio 0.50 with different proportion of FA, CT, and Cement.
economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability. The conclu-
sive remarks drawn from this study is presented below:
 The Pozzolanic compounds found in FA and CT are above the
ASTM requirement. Hence both can be used as a replacement
of cement in concrete.
 Replacing FA up to 20% with CT up to 5%, at w/c ratio 0.45, the
56-days have given higher compressive strength than the target
strength. Beyond this limit, there is a reduction in compressive
strength, which is due to the absence of cementing material
available to react with pozzolanic compounds.
 This replacement is also helped in reducing the cost of concrete
production from 6.5% to 18.08%. It is found out that for better
compressive strength and comparative economic, 10% FA
replacement and 5% CT of cement at a w/c ratio of 0.45 is most
favorable. 20% FA and 5% CT replacement with the cement is
found a most economical mix without compromising compres-
sive strength.
99
 The results of LCA analysis obtained through the extensive
inherent data set in LCA tool shows a notable reduction in
greenhouse gas emission which positively impacted and
reduced the endpoint environmental impacts (ecosystem qual-
ity, human health, and resources).
 The reduction in CO2 emission by lowering the cement con-
sumption leads to a progressive decrement in global warming
potential (GWP). As in the midpoint, environmental impact
assessment climate change, human toxicity, ozone layer deple-
tion, etc. all are lowered with the higher replacement of cement
with FA and CT.
Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to BITS Pilani, India, for providing the nec-
essary facilities to carry out this research work. Special thanks are
due to Prof. K. S. Sangwan and Flexible Manufacturing Systems
100 R. Dandautiya, A.P. Singh / Waste Management 99 (2019) 90–101
Laboratory, BITS Pilani for giving access of UMBERTO NXT software
which has been used in this research. The support given by the
research staff of the laboratory is fully acknowledged. Authors
are grateful to Hindustan Copper Limited located in Khetri,
Rajasthan, India for allowing to take sufficient samples of copper
tailings and Ultra Tech Limited, Mumbai for providing admixture
to perform this research. The references cited in this manuscript
are also fully acknowledged. Authors express their sincere thanks
to the anonymous reviewers and editors for their valuable sugges-
tions and efforts.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Appendix A. Supplementary material
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2019.08.036.
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