See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/245384064

Real-Time Kinematic GPS for Cadastral Surveying

Article  in  Survey Review · October 2009

DOI: 10.1179/003962609X451582

CITATIONS READS

14 3,082

6 authors, including:

Atınç Pırtı Niyazi Arslan

Yildiz Technical University Cukurova University
48 PUBLICATIONS   159 CITATIONS    32 PUBLICATIONS   153 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Balkı Deveci
Near East University
3 PUBLICATIONS   22 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Modelling of ionospheric disturbances from different sources View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Atınç Pırtı on 05 February 2020.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 REAL-TIME KINEMATIC GPS FOR CADASTRAL SURVEYING

A. Pirti, N. Arslan, B. Deveci, O. Aydin, H. Erkaya, R. G. Hosbas

Department of Geodesy and Photogrammetry Engineering, Yildiz Technical University, 34349

Yildiz, Istanbul, Turkey
e-mail: atinc@yildiz.edu.tr

ABSTRACT
Real-Time Kinematic surveys with the Global Positioning System (RTK GPS) have been used for a
variety of different surveying applications. Its use for cadastral work is becoming commonplace. A case
study was conducted to investigate the use of the RTK GPS technique for boundary surveys. For this
purpose, measurements were performed in the city of Sakarya, Turkey, on 30-31 May and 1 June 2006.
One hundred and twenty points were selected in both normal and difficult measurement conditions in
the project area. The analyses were made in three steps. In the first step, the results obtained on
different days with three different reference points were compared; in the second, total station
measurement results were compared with each other; in the third, the GPS measurement results were
compared with total station measurement results. The results showed differences of up to 100
millimetres between the coordinates derived from the two survey methods in the obstructed areas. We
conclude that the RTK technique competes well with the traditional surveys methods in terms of
accuracy except in obstructed areas. Also, the RTK method complies easily with survey standards
specified by current legislation.

INTRODUCTION

The use of the Global Positioning System (GPS) is becoming commonplace in most
large surveying applications and surveyors are taking on this new technology. GPS is
being used commonly for large detail and contour surveys as well as for a variety of
engineering applications. RTK GPS techniques have become more reliable, cheaper
and productive with ongoing research and development which make this technique
more attractive for a range of surveying applications. Until the mid-1990s, post-
processing of the GPS data was the only method available to determine survey-grade
positions. A new method was introduced, namely Real Time Kinematic (RTK), with
the advancement of the GPS technology. RTK GPS is a technique where the carrier
phase measurements of a reference station are sent via a data link to a rover receiver in
the field. Together with its own measurements the rover calculates its position in real-
time with an accuracy at the centimetre level. RTK is a tool for real-time positioning
with an accuracy of about 2 cm for horizontal and 4 cm for vertical positions. The
positions of the points are determined instantaneously during the data collection. There
are two primary survey tasks for which RTK systems are used. One application is the
precise positioning of existing features (topography, mapping, and as-built surveys).
Another powerful application of RTK is navigating to features with known
coordinates. This is done when recovering boundary marks or while transferring
design features that exist electronically to marks in the ground (setting out in
construction) [5], [8], [10], [11].

The quality of the RTK GPS measurements is influenced by many factors. These
factors are due to the GPS system itself, the choice of RTK equipment, the
measurement environment, the care of the user and the measurement procedure. Built-
up areas and woodlands limit RTK GPS applications because they prevent the
visibility of satellites from the receiver. If the RTK GPS is accurate and viable enough
except for the mentioned drawbacks, the question arises, whether this new technology
can be used instead of total station methods for boundary surveys [5], [6], [10]. This

1
study investigates the achievable accuracy and repeatability of RTK under different
satellite configurations and site conditions for cadastral applications. In order to
determine the suitability of the RTK technique for cadastral applications, a case study
survey was conducted. First, the results obtained by RTK GPS on three different days
were compared. Second, the results obtained by total station were compared with each
other. In the last phase, the RTK GPS results were compared with those of the total
station measurements.

CASE STUDY FIELDWORK

The work was performed in Sakarya, Turkey. The site chosen for the survey is
located on the town’s outskirts and consists of twenty-five lots covering about 8.1
hectares; see Figures 1 and 2 [4]. Two methods were performed, one using a Topcon
Hiper Pro RTK field unit and base station with a radio link and the other using a
Topcon GTS 701 total station (Figures 3 and 4). The Hiper Pro RTK GPS field unit
provides up to 6 kilometre of coverage with the internal 1 Watt radio modem available
with all European frequencies. The performance specifications of the Topcon Hiper
Pro RTK GPS are 10 mm+1.0 ppm for horizontal and 15 mm+1.0 ppm for vertical
positioning. They may be degraded in regions of high multipath and high values of the
Precision of Dilution of Position (PDOP) as well as during high ionospheric activity.
Robust checking procedures are highly recommended in a location of extreme
multipath or under dense foliage.
Istanbul
Izmit
Project area
R3
R1

Sakarya
Marmara
Sea R2 Project area
N

Fig 1. Project area

ISTA
H2430073
(R 2)
N

~ 128 km
S=
13
85
İ

.4

Project Area
ES
m

34
LG
9

m
BÖ
.20

A
82

AM
18

L
GU
S=

H2430070
UY

(R 3)

95 m
781.2
H2430072 S= 1
(R 1)

Fig. 2. GPS network in the project area

Three tests were carried out in order to evaluate the performance of the RTK method
for the cadastral boundary project. For this project, three reference points (R1, R2 and
R3) were selected in the project area (Sakarya region of Turkey, see Figures 1 and 2).
A static GPS survey was conducted in order to determine the coordinates of these three
reference points. The measurements in this primary network were performed with at

2
least 5 hours of observation time. The minimum elevation cut-off angle and the sample
rate were 10 degrees and 10 seconds, respectively [4]. All measurements were carried
out using Topcon GPS receivers, see Figure 3. The data processing and network
adjustments were conducted using the Bernese 4.2 Software. In the adjustment
procedure, the ITRF 2000 coordinates of ISTA (an International GPS Service (IGS)
reference station in Istanbul, Turkey) were held fixed (Table 1). IGS is an organization
that collects, archives GPS observation data sets continuously from active IGS
reference stations, distributed all over the world. Also these data sets are processed to
generate or improve GPS satellite ephemerides, Earth rotation parameters, IGS
tracking station coordinates and velocities, GPS satellite and IGS tracking station clock
information and International Terrestrial Reference System (ITRS). This station forms
a part of the global network of GPS stations world wide, the coordinate of this station
is known to millimetre accuracy in ITRF 2000 reference frame. These archived data
sets and products are used in wide range of scientific studies and engineering
applications [7], [10], [14].

The objective of the tests was to assess the RTK achievable accuracy and to the
check the repeatability of the results under different satellite configurations by using
three different reference points (R1, R2 and R3). So, the RTK software and survey
performance were evaluated in a boundary survey, under varying site conditions and
where problems due to signal blockage were expected. The accuracy and repeatability
assessment of the RTK survey was carried out by comparing the coordinates of a
group of points (120 points). RTK GPS survey was performed according to no of
points [4].

Table 1. Coordinates and their standard deviations of the three reference points

Point XITRF St.dev. YITRF St.dev. ZITRF St.dev.

(m) (mm) (m) (mm) (m) (mm)
ISTA 4208830.275 fixed 2334850.326 fixed 4171267.254 fixed
R1 4207275.048 10 2447222.134 9 4108687.210 15
R2 4205992.582 10 2447341.239 10 4110062.967 15
R3 4206155.504 10 2448478.228 9 4109287.054 16

R1 R2 R3
Fig. 3. Base unit GPS receivers on the three reference points (R1, R2 and R3) in the project area

R2
Fig. 4. TOPCON GTS 701 total station shown on reference point R2

3
 As explained above, two different survey methods were used to coordinate a group
of 120 points, marked on the ground. Figure 5 illustrates the distribution of the tested
points. The maximum distance between the points in the North-South direction was
about 400 m. In the East-West direction the maximum distance was about 200 m.
R2

Forest

Forest

P 126

Triangulation point
Benchmark point
Cadastral Boundaries

Forest 0 1 cm
P 127

33 m

Fig. 5. The distribution of the test points in the project area

RTK GPS SURVEY RESULTS AND COMPARISONS

Horizontal Accuracy

To evaluate the RTK GPS repeatability, three independent RTK surveys using three
different reference points were carried out, each time occupying all of the test points.
The surveys were conducted on consecutive days and at different times of the day from
R1 (30 May 2006, 9:00 – 12:30 h local time (LT)), R2 (31 May 2006, 12:40 – 15:40 h)
and R3 (1 June 2006, 16:00 – 19:00 h) with changed satellite configurations to ensure
the independence of the results. The reference station R1 was about 0.5 km away from
the RTK GPS measurement site, R2 about 0.1 km and R3 about 0.5 km, see Figure 2.
The satellite visibility was 6-8 satellites in open areas and the recorded PDOP average

4
values were between 1.5 and 2.8. A total of 360 point observations for the 120 test
points were obtained over the three days. In the analysis step, the differences of the
coordinates of the 120 test points obtained from R1, R2 and R3 were calculated, such
as R1 - R2, R1 - R3 and R2 - R3, respectively. Figure 7 shows the differences and their
means and standard deviations for the 120 points. The analysis of the three tests for the
RTK results shows that the discrepancies of the horizontal coordinates are a few mm to
3 cm. The discrepancies of the height coordinates were a few centimetres to about 5
cm (Figure 7). Points 1, 2 and 3 have poor lines of sight to the satellites because of the
forested area, see Fig. 6. The results for the Points 1, 2 and 3 in Figure 7 (first 3 data
points on left) show that the RTK positioning was degraded by the tree canopies as
they frequently blocked the signals of the low satellites and affected the radio signals
between base and rover stations. It should be pointed out that obstructions along the
propagation path between base and rover stations, such as buildings and terrain,
attenuate the transmitted signal, which leads to limited signal coverage [5], [12].

Point 1
Point 2
Point 3

Fig. 6. Point 1, 2 and 3 in the project area

Fig. 7. Comparison of the coordinates of the test points using R1, R2 and R3 as reference points

5
 The trees and bushes caused severe obstruction of almost 50% of the sky for these
three points (Figure 6). Even though several satellites were shaded by the trees and
bushes, they can be still tracked by the receiver. Five satellites were visible in this
period. The PDOP value was between 4 and 4.8 for all three tests. This does not mean
that RTK GPS is only useful in areas with a wide-open view of the sky. The critical
factor is to be able to observe, at any given time, to enough satellites to accurately and
reliably compute a position when most satellites (5-10) are visible. Accurate and
reliable positions can be determined from five satellites well-distributed throughout the
sky (not clustered in one part of the sky) [10], [12], [14]. Due to the above mentioned
reasons, the RTK GPS measurements on Points 1, 2, and 3 took a very long time on
three days. The ambiguity resolution time was approximately 45 minutes for these
three points. The differences for the horizontal coordinates of Points 1, 2 and 3 were
greater than 2 cm for the RTK GPS measurements of the first, second and third day
RTK GPS measurements, and see Figure 7. The first day’s measurements, using the
reference point R1, yielded the greatest coordinate differences of the three days, see
Figure 7. This may be partially due to the fact that the measurements were taken in the
morning of 30 May 2006, when the satellite configuration was not favourable,
resulting in a poor accuracy of Points 1, 2 and 3 in the obstructed area.

Vertical Accuracy

GPS is based on a three dimensional coordinate system. That means that both
horizontal (X, Y) and the vertical coordinates (H) are required for the points. The
required accuracy of the heights at the points depends on the task. To apply the RTK
method for cadastral surveys, it is necessary to achieve a high horizontal accuracy,
whereas it is sufficient for the determination of the H coordinate to use a height from a
topographical map. All 120 points are also used for technical tasks, which often require
a high accuracy of the H coordinate. An analysis of the first, second and third day
measurements at the project area clearly demonstrates that the differences are greater
(~ 5 cm) for the vertical coordinates for the Points 1, 2 and 3, see Figure 7. The first
day measurements (reference point R1) yielded the greatest coordinate differences of
the three days. The increase of the differences along the vertical direction is due to the
reasons given above. For the other points, the height differences were at the level of a
few centimetres, see Figure 7. In these experiments, the baselines were typically quite
short where the effect of the troposphere is less significant. The height determination
by RTK GPS, when averaged, meets, in general, the guidelines for GPS derived
ellipsoidal heights, developed for surveys requiring an ellipsoidal height accuracy of 2
cm and 5 cm [20]. The British Columbia Guidelines for RTK GPS Surveys [3] provides
guidelines for GPS Real Time Kinematic (RTK) surveys conducted within BC. The
document was developed to provide the information and guidance necessary to achieve
horizontal and 3D absolute accuracies at the centimetre level using real-time GPS
technology. This document describes general techniques and accuracy issues for RTK
surveying. Likewise, it describes the specific RTK application of working within a
Municipal Active Control System area. RTK techniques are suitable for topographic /
detail / layout surveys, and can also be used for survey control establishment in
support of specific projects. The accuracy expectation for RTK is typically a few-
centimetres horizontal and perhaps 1.5 times worse in the vertical. Accuracy values are
expressed at the 95% confidence level in this document.

6
 TOTAL STATION MEASUREMENT RESULTS AND COMPARISONS

In the second step of the test, the 120 point coordinates were determined by a
calibrated total station. For most electronic instruments the main instrumental errors
can be determined by the user using on-board routines. This procedure is called
calibration. The on-board routines of the Topcon GTS-701 were used to calibrate the
horizontal collimation error, the index errors of the vertical circle and level sensor. The
instrument should be calibrated regularly by the user (calibrated once every six months
thereafter and as needed during the course of the survey, whichever comes first). If
EDM equipment is carefully adjusted and precisely calibrated, instrumental errors
should be extremely small. To assure their accuracy and reliability, EDM instruments
should be checked against a first-order baseline at regular time intervals. EDM
calibration was performed in order to determine the instrument errors (additive
constant (correction for zero or index error), scale error, cyclic error (short periodic
error)). Zero error results from changes in the instrument/reflector constant due to
ageing of the instrument and as a result of repairs. Scale error in EDM instruments are
largely due to the fact that the oscillator is temperature dependent. All distances
measured by a particular EDM/reflector combination are subject to a constant error.
Cyclic error is a function of the internal phase measurement of an EDM. Error in the
internal phase measurement is caused by unwanted feed through the transmitted signal
onto the received signal. The additive constant or zero/index correction is added to
measured distances. For a total station, EDM instruments should be checked not only
directly to the calibrated baseline itself, but also in conjunction with the methods that
will be used to perform the survey such as with a data collector and downloading the
data into a survey processing surveying program. The primary purpose for comparing a
total station’s EDM over a calibrated baseline is to make sure whether it is performing
within the manufacturer’s stated accuracy. Secondly, it is to determine the instrument
constants. The constants should be applied to measured distances only after a sufficient
history of baseline comparisons have been made. This assumes the optical plummets
and plate levels of the equipment are in good adjustment. The calibration of Topcon
GTS 701 was performed in calibration laboratory in Yildiz Technical University and
equipment manufacturer. The calibration bench is 30 m long. The calibration bench is
used to determine the zero and cyclic errors of EDM instrument/reflector pairs. The
zero error, or the offset between the distance measured by the instrument and the true
distance, is first determined. The instrument prism is then moved along the bench and
distances are measured by the EDM. These distances are compared to simultaneously
measured interferometer distances. The obtained results are a typical EDM calibration
curve. Careful calibration and adjustment is inevitable for accurate measurements but
doesn’t guarantee them. In addition when high precision measurements are required, it
is strongly recommended that two face measurement techniques are used. Two-face
measurements eliminate most of the instrument errors (also inaccurate determined
instrument errors) through averaging the measured angles [16].

The R2 reference point and the P126 and P127 benchmark points were taken as
control points for the total station surveys (Figures 2 and 5). The coordinates of P126
and P127 were determined in static GPS technique (measurement time 60 minutes) by
fixing the reference point R2. The sequence of terrestrial measurements was the same
with the RTK GPS survey. In order to compute the coordinates of the 120 points,
horizontal direction, zenith angle and slope distance were recorded with Topcon GTS-
701 (angle accuracy: ± 2”, distance measurement accuracy: 2 mm + 2ppm). In order to
minimize the errors introduced by curvature and refraction, sight distances should be

7
restricted to less than 300 metres [16], [19]. It showed that the maximum distance to
discriminate was 300 metres in this study. The total station measurements were carried
out in two faces (FL, FR) since the manufacturer’s accuracy specification refer to the
mean of measurements taken in two faces. Three reflector/tripod sets were available.
Tripods were used for the reflector set-ups on the cadastral points. Each point was
observed using a reflector mounted on a tripod which was optically plumbed over the
point. Point heights were estimated by subtracting the reflector heights above the
points [4]. The test points (120) were observed from R2, P126 and/or P127 points
depending on their visibility in the terrestrial survey. Of all boundary points, 18 of
them were surveyed from one reference point only, 82 of them were surveyed from
two reference points, and 20 of them were surveyed from three reference points. Points
1, 2, 3 were observed from two reference points (R2 and P126). It took about 90
minutes to survey the 40 points from R2 and about 300 minutes to survey the 116
points from P126, about 210 minutes to survey the 86 points from P127. Figure 8
shows the two to three coordinate sets of cadastral points obtained by the total station
to demonstrate the precision of the ‘ground truth’. In the analysis step, the differences
of the coordinates of the test points obtained from R2, P126 and P127 were calculated,
such as R2-P126, R2-P127 and P126-P127, respectively. Figure 8 shows the
differences and their means and standard deviations for the test points. The analysis of
the three tests for the total station results shows that the discrepancies of the horizontal
coordinates were a few millimetres. The discrepancies of the height coordinates were a
few millimetres to 1 centimetre.

Fig. 8. Comparison of the coordinates of the test points obtained by the total station using R2, P126 and P127

8
 COMPARISON OF RTK GPS MEASUREMENT RESULTS WITH TOTAL STATION
MEASUREMENT RESULTS

In the third step of the test, the RTK derived coordinates of the test points were
averaged and compared to their coordinates as precisely determined using a total
station. The total station survey was carried out to check the performance of the RTK
GPS. Cadastral surveys establish property corners, boundaries and areas of land
parcels. GPS overcomes the drawbacks of this conventional method. RTK GPS can be
used depending on the project requirements, location, and other factors. The RTK
surveying method seems to be most suitable in unobstructed areas. This is mainly
because of its ease of use and the availability of the results while in the field.
Inaccessible locations or obstructed areas can be surveyed with an integrated system
such as a GPS/total station. There are several advantages of using GPS for cadastral
surveying. The most important one is that intervisibility between the points is not
required. The accuracy obtained with GPS is consistent over the entire network and
users can be supported by an unlimited number of rover receivers [7]. RTK does not
handle all kind of survey problems as other survey techniques do. RTK is only suitable
for environments with reasonably good GPS tracking conditions (limited obstructions,
multipath, and radio frequency noise) and with reliable communication from the GPS
base to the rover [18].

Fig. 9. Comparison of the coordinates of the 120 points in the project area between total station and three days of
RTK GPS (R1 (1st day), R2 (2nd day) and R3 (3rd day)) surveys

In this test, the accuracy and repeatability assessment of the RTK survey was carried
out by comparing the coordinates of a group of points (120 points) obtained from R1,
R2 and R3 with the coordinates determined by the total station from R2, P126 and
P127. The term ‘geodetic’ is used to loosely refer to bearings and coordinates related

9
to the European Datum 1950 (ED50). The total station survey was reduced onto the
ED50 system for the comparison of the two methods, as the RTK measurements are all
done on the ED50 system. Figure 9 gives the coordinate differences between the RTK
and the traditional survey. GPS ellipsoidal heights were converted to orthometric
heights using the TG-99A geoid model at the reference sites. TG-99A is the regional
geoid model used for geoid heights in Turkey [9]. Orthometric heights (ED50) were
used for the total station survey. A refractive index of k = 0.13 was used for the height
computations (by the Topcon GTS 701).

The comparison of the results of the RTK GPS and total station surveys shows that
the variations were greater in height and smaller in horizontal coordinates. The
standard deviation of the horizontal coordinate differences was about 1 cm on the first
day and 0.7 cm on the second and third days. The standard deviation of the height
differences was 2.2 cm on the first day, 1.5 cm on the second day and 1.6 cm on the
third day. As shown in Figure 9, the three-day mean differences between the RTK
survey and the total station survey were less than 1 cm for the horizontal coordinates
and less than 2 cm for the vertical coordinates. Again, the largest variations in
horizontal and vertical coordinates were recorded for Points 1, 2 and 3, see Figure 9.
The variations were about 5 cm in the X-Y coordinates and about 10 cm in the H
coordinates. We see that we are likely to encounter significant differences in the
horizontal and vertical coordinates at difficult points. Our results are consistent with
those of many other groups that made similar tests. The accuracy values quoted by
other authors for good conditions are: 10 mm + 1-2 ppm for plane coordinates and 15-
20 mm + 2 ppm in height [1], [2], [5], [8], [11], [13], [18], [20].

In [2], [5] and [18] the RTK derived coordinates of the test points were averaged and
compared to the total station mean results. The average differences between the RTK
survey and traditional survey were less than 2 cm for the horizontal plane coordinates
and less that 3 cm along the vertical direction under good conditions. The reduced
precision of RTK GPS measurements in obstructed areas was demonstrated in [1], [5],
[13] and [17]. The average differences between the RTK GPS and traditional surveys
were less than 5 cm for the horizontal plane coordinates, and less that 15 cm along the
vertical direction in obstructed environments. In [15] the results clearly show that the
RTK technique is a stable system, and the cm level of accuracy is generally obtainable
under various operational conditions except that the points are near the forest and
building environments. Apart from the points which are very close to the forest and
urban environment, when comparing the RTK results of the tests, the horizontal
coordinates of the test points as separately determined by these tests seems very
consistent, with changes ranging between a few millimetres up to 3.5 cm. The height
component was less consistent, and sometimes differed up to 5 cm at the same point
between the RTK sessions. However, the maximum differences of the horizontal and
vertical coordinates are about 10-20 cm in the experiment because these points are
very close to the forest and urban environment [15]. The horizontal and vertical
accuracy in clear and obstructed areas discussed in this paper are in agreement with
those of the other authors.

To check the compatibility of the RTK GPS technique with the total station
technique, the horizontal misclosure vectors were computed as

mn  (YTn  YRTKn ) 2  ( X Tn  X RTKn ) 2 (1)

10
 Horizontal Misclose Vector

Misclose vector [m]

Points 1, 2 and 3

Point Number
Fig. 10. Horizontal misclose vectors for all 120 points in the project area.

where n is the point number (1 to 120), m is the misclosure vector (in metres) for the
nth point, YTn and XTn are the easting (Y) and northing (X) coordinates (in metres) of
the nth point from mean total station coordinates, YRTKn and XRTKn are the easting and
northing coordinates of the nth point from mean RTK coordinates [18]. Figure 10
shows the horizontal misclose vectors for the three tests. The plane coordinates
(Easting and Northing) were generally good with a standard deviation of less than 1
cm on the average. The horizontal miscloses between the RTK and the total station
surveys range from 2 mm to 46 mm, with an average misclose of 7 mm and a standard
deviation of 10 mm. Except for the changing geometry of satellites within a forest
environment (Points 1, 2 and 3, see Figure 10), the results clearly show that the RTK
technique is a stable method and a cm level of accuracy is generally obtainable under
various operational conditions. Particularly where a centimetre level horizontal
accuracy is required, the RTK method is problem free. This study shows that the RTK
method can replace other survey methods in cadastral applications which require the
above mentioned accuracy. The RTK method becomes more efficient when compared
to traditional total station surveys as the jobs become larger. The technique of RTK
GPS is able to deliver results equivalent to those expected from a traditional total
station survey. Another conclusion is that the RTK method does not give a vertical
accuracy, which can be used for those types of levelling tasks that are usually carried
out by geometric levelling (millimetre accuracy).

CONCLUSIONS

The sites in RTK GPS applications should be selected not only for perfect suitability
for positioning but also for the type of engineering applications. This means that, in
some cases, significant obstacles close to a GPS antenna cannot be avoided. GPS
signals are noisier, weaker and therefore more likely to be subject to multipath and
diffraction. In this study, it has been shown that the accuracy obtainable in engineering
applications using RTK GPS is mainly limited by these signal diffraction effects
caused by trees. The surveyor should be aware that positions may not be accurate
despite quality indicators pointing to good solutions. In cases of signal blockages, such
as in forest areas, RTK GPS needs to be aided by a total station.

The RTK method is compatible with total station surveys. The RTK derived
horizontal coordinates from different days were very consistent with each other,
whereas the height component was less so. For the short reference-to-rover distances

11
considered in this experiment, the average differences between the RTK and the total
station surveys were less than 1 cm for the horizontal plane coordinates and less than 2
cm in height. However, discrepancies between the estimated heights from the three
RTK sessions for the same points were as little as a few millimetres. For the points 1, 2
and 3 (multipath environment) the horizontal plane coordinates differed up to 5 cm and
the heights approximately 10 cm. So, special attention should be paid to the selection
of the working area. It appears that in difficult GPS environments measurements with
1 cm accuracy cannot be guaranteed on all situations.

In this paper, we have shown that RTK GPS can be used for cadastral surveying,
although a common obstacle, the sky blockage, will hinder its full effectiveness. But
this problem can be overcome supplemented by conventional survey techniques.
Despite the accuracy problems in obstructed areas, the RTK method is a very efficient
replacement for difficult total station survey situations. In this study, RTK GPS
method by using only one reference point took approximately 3-4 hours to complete
120 cadastral points survey in the field. Total station method took approximately 5-6
hours to survey 120 cadastral points in the field. The RTK GPS took about 15 minutes
in the office (Data transfer and processing). Total station took about 30 minutes in the
office (Data transfer and processing). It can be seen from the various comparisons
between the two methods presented in this study that the accuracy of the RTK method
is compatible quite well with that of the total station survey. In addition, less ground
control points are required for cadastral surveys when using RTK GPS.

References

1. Bilker, M., Kaartinen, H., 2001. The Quality of Real Time Kinematic GPS Positioning, Reports of the
Finnish Geodetic Institute 2001:1, Kirkonummi
2. Boey, S. S., Coombe, L. J., Gerdan, G. P. and Hill, C. D., 1996. Assessing the Accuracy of Real Time
Kinematic GPS Positions for the Purposes of Cadastral Surveying, The Australian Surveyor, 41.(2), pp.
109-120
3. British Columbia 2005 Guidelines for GPS RTK surveys, including operating within a Municipal Active
Control System Area – Release 1.0, Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Sustainable Resource
Management, Base Mapping & Geomatic Services, Victoria, BC, May
4. Deveci, B. 2007. Comparison of RTK GPS method with total station method in Cadastral Surveying (RTK
GPS tekniği ile Total Station yönteminin Kadastral Ölçmelerde Karşılaştırılması), Msc. Thesis, Yildiz
Technical University, Istanbul –Turkey (in Turkish)
5. El-Mowafy, A. 2000. Performance Analysis of the RTK Technique in an Urban Environment, The
Australian Surveyor, 45 (1), June 2000, pp. 47-54
6. El-Mowafy, A., El-Maghraby M., and Issa M., 1997. “Using Semi-Kinematic GPS Techniques for
Establishing and Densifying Horizontal Control Networks in Egypt”, Proceedings of International
Symposium on Kinematic Systems in Geodesy, Geomatics and Navigation (KIS) Banff, Canada, June 3-6
7. El-Rabbany A., 2006. Introduction to GPS: The Global Positioning System, Second Edition, Artech House,
pp. 159-160
8. Fuhlbrügge, J. H., 2004. Untersuchungen zur Prüfung von GPS-Echzeitsystemen als Beitrag zur
Qualitätssicherung im Vermessungwesen, Inaugural-Dissertation zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
Doktor-Ingenieur, Nr. 91, Bonn
9. General Command of Mapping (of Turkey), 2002. Turkish National Fundamental GPS Network-1999A,
(Türkiye Ulusal Temel GPS Ağı, TUTGA-99A). Harita Dergisi. Special Issue. No: 16 (in Turkish)
10. Hoffmann-Wellenhof, B., Lichtenegger H., and Collins J., 2001. GPS Theory and Practice 5th revised
edition, Springer-Verlag Wien-New York, 382 pages
11. Langley, R., 1998. RTK GPS, GPS World, 9. (9), September, 1998, pp. 70-76
12. Lemmon, T.R., and Gerdan G. P., 1999. The Influence of the Number of Satellites on the Accuracy of RTK
GPS Positions, The Australian Surveyor, 44 (1), June 1999, pp. 64-70
13. Lin, L.S., 2003. Integrating of GPS RTK and Total Station for Land Surveying of Urban Region, 1st Taipei
International Conference on Digital Earth, Chinese Cultural University, Taipei, Taiwan, November 18-19,
and No. C1-12, pp1-10
14. Parkinson, B.W., Spilker, J.J., 1996. Global Positioning System, Theory and Applications, Volume 1,
Chapter 15, Foliage Attenuation for Land Mobile Users, Stanford University and Telecom, Stanford,
California, pp. 569-583

12
 15. Pirti, A. 2007. Performance Analysis of the Real Time Kinematic GPS (RTK GPS) Technique in a Highway
Project (Stake-out), Survey Review, Vol. 39, No. 303 January
16. Schofield, W., 2001. Engineering Surveying: Theory and examination problems for students, 5th Edition,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 521 pages
17. Subari, M. D., Anuar, K., 2004. Experiencing the Use of GPS-RTK for Cadastre Surveys in Malaysia, 3rd
FIG Regional Conference TS 14 – Positioning and Measurement – GNSS Applications, Jakarta, Indonesia,
October 3-7
18. Veersema A., 2004. RTK GPS for Cadastral Boundary Surveying in New South Wales, Final year thesis
project, School of Surveying and Spatial Information Systems, University of New South Wales
(http://www.gmat.unsw.edu.au/currentstudents/ug/projects/Veersema, Date of viewing: 16.04.2006)
19. Wolf, P. R., Ghilani, C. D. 2002. Elementary Surveying, An Introduction to Geomatics, 10th Edition,
Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 887 pages
20. Zilkoski, D., D’Onofrio J.D., and Frakes S.J., 1997. Guidelines for Establishing GPS-Derived Ellipsoidal
Heights [standard: 2 cm and 5 cm], Version 4.1.1. National Geodetic Survey, Rockville, MD

13

View publication stats