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TAJUK AMALI

UJIKAJI 4 : AM AND FM MODULATION

DISEDIAKAN OLEH:

NAMA NO. MATRIK

NUR ANATI BINTI ZOLKIFLY DB130260

NUR FATIN AMILIA BINTI HASNI DB130061

SHAMSUHAILAH BINTI MAT ISA DB130033

MOHD FAEZ EZAZ BIN ABDULLAH DB130208

NURUL FAZA HADAINA BINTI ZULFAHM DB130125

PENSYARAH:

DR. SAIFULLIZAM BIN PUTEH

 EXPERIMENT 11: MODULATION INDEX AND POWER CONSIDERATIONS

OBJECTIVE:

1. Demonstrate the various characteristic of AM modulation measuaring techniques

2. Investigate the power efficiency in an AM spectrum

EXPERIMENT EQUIPMENT

a) Oscilloscope
b) Spectrum Analyzer

THEORY

The modulation index of an amplitude modulated signal refers to the ratio of the amplitude of
the carrier as compared with that of the message signal.

The modulation index or the percentage of modulation is an important part of the modulation
process. An under-modulated AM signal is not an efficient means of transmitting information
due to power considerations. At a modulation index of 1, both the upper and lower sidebands
have amplitudes which are half of that of the carrier amplitude. Over modulation occurs with
a modulation index of greater than one. Over modulation causes distortion at the receiver as
well as interference with other stations due to the undesired sideband frequencies that are
generated. Ideally, a modulation index of one is desirable. In practice, however, the envelope
should be slightly under modulated to make allowances for diode clipping losses during the
demodulation process.

The modulation index can be determined from the envelope itself which will be displayed on
the oscilloscope. As the amplitude of the message signal is increased, extra lobes appear in
the envelope. These lobes indicate over modulation. As the amplitude of the message signal
is decreased below 100% modulation, measurements of the maximum and minimum
envelope amplitude yield the modulation index:

V max−V min
m=
Vmax +V min

The modulation index is defined as:

modulating signal amplitude

carrier signal amplitude
The percentage of modulation may be found by multiplying the modulation index by 100.
The modulation index may also be determined from the frequency spectrum by measuring the
difference in dB between the amplitude of the carrier and the amplitude of the sidebands.
This difference is then used to calculate the modulation index:

m = 2/ 10[(carrier dB - sideband dB)/20]

Amplitude modulation is not an efficient means of transmitting voice and music information.
At a modulation index of one, AM modulators are only 33% efficient. This is due to the
sidebands only containing one third of the total power. The other two thirds are used up by
the carrier, which carries no useful information. Other more efficient methods such as Double
Sideband which suppresses the carrier and even Single Sideband which suppresses the carrier
and one sideband are sometimes used. The inherent problem with these two methods is the
complexity of the receivers necessary to demodulate the signals. Amplitude modulation
remains a popular modulation technique because the simplicity of the receivers involved
renders them inexpensive and small in size.

The total power contained within an AM signal is the addition of the sideband power and the
carrier power, both in mW:

PT = PUSB + PLSB + PC

The transmission efficiency is a comparison of the useful power contained in the sidebands to
the unused power contained in the carrier. The transmission efficiency may also be
determined from the modulation index m. At:

u = m 2 /(2 + m2 ),

and with a modulation index of 1, the maximum efficiency

u = 12 /(2 + 12 ) = 1/3 can be calculated

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit illustrated in Figure 11-1.

2. Double-click the AM Source. Select Carrier Frequency = 100 kHz, Modulation
Frequency = 800 Hz and Modulation Index = 0.6.
3. Double-click the Oscilloscope to view its display. Set the time base to 1 ms/Div and
Channel A to 10 V/Div. Select Auto triggering and DC coupling.
4. Double-click the Spectrum Analyzer to view its display. Select Set Span and select
Span = 10 kHz, Center = 100 kHz and Amplitude = Lin. Press Enter.
5. Start the simulation and double-click the Oscilloscope to view its display. Measure
vmax which is represented by the maximum peak-to-peak amplitude of µ = P P + P
USB LSB T 52 Understanding RF Circuits with Multisim the carrier in the modulated
waveform. Measure vmin which is represented by the minimum peak-to-peak
amplitude of the carrier in the modulated waveform. Calculate the modulation index
and compare it with value of the AM Source modulation index. Record your results in
Table 11-1.
6. Double-click the Spectrum Analyzer to view its display. Move the red vertical marker
over the carrier frequency and measure its amplitude in dB. Measure the number of
decibels of one of the sidebands using the same method. Calculate the modulation
index and record your results in Table 11-1. Calculate the amplitude of the
modulating signal and record your results in Table 11-1.
7. Repeat for a modulation index of 0.33.
8. Double-click the AM Source and set the Carrier Amplitude = 20 V, Carrier Frequency
= 100 kHz, Modulation Frequency = 500 Hz and the Modulation Index = 0.5.
9. Restart the simulation and observe the envelope on the Oscilloscope and the
spectrum on the Spectrum Analyzer. Using the Spectrum Analyzer, move the red
vertical marker to each side band and the carrier, noting and recording the voltage
 levels. Calculate the power of each, then the total power PT. Determine a measured
value of µ.
10. Set the AM Source modulation index setting to 0.5 in order to determine a calculated
value of the efficiency. Record your results in Table 11-2.
11. Change the modulation index to 0.7 and repeat. Record your results in Table 11-2.
Repeat the procedure outlined above for a modulation index of 0.8 and 1. Record your
results in Table 11-2

EXPECTED OUTCOME
RESULT

V max V min m Carrier dB Sideband mmeasured mexpected %m

=measured dB
m=0. 32 V 8V 0.6 20 10 0.63 0.6 60
6
m=0. 36V 13V 0.23 18.8 3.2 0.33 0.33 33
33

Measured Value Calculated Value

m- 0.5 0.172 0.11
m=0.7 0.213 0.197
m = 0.8 0.251 0.24
m= 1 0.341 0.33

m= 0.6
m=0.33
DISCUSSION

As a conclution the modulating signal voltage ,Vm must be less than the carrier voltage Vc,
therefore the relationship between the amplitude of the modulating signal and the amplitude
of the carrier signal is important. The relationship as the modulation index is the ratio
(m=Vm/VC). Thease are the pick value of the signal and the carrier voltage is the modulated
value.

For the sideband and frequency domain are modulated by an information signal, new signal
at difference frequency are generated as part of the process. The sideband occur at
frequencies that are the even and difference of the carrier and modulating frequencies. When
signals of more than are frequency make up a waveform, it is often better to show the AM
signal in the frequency domain rather than in the time domain.

The upper sideband fuse and lower side sideband fLSB are :

( fUSB = fc + fm and fLSB = fc – fm)

Fc= carrier frequency

Fm= modulating frequency

When we measured the value of efficiency, amplitude modulation remains a porpular

modulation technique because the simplicity of the receivers involve in small size.

The transmission efficiency is comparison of usful power contained in the sidebands to the
unused power contained in the carrier. The efficiency modulation index

µ =m2 / (2+m2)

Maximum efficiency :

µ = I2 / (2+12) = 1/3
EXPERIMENT 12: AM SIGNAL DEMOLDULATION TECHNIQUES

OBJECTIVE

At the of this experiment student able:

1. To understand the Amplitude modulation

2. To calculate the modulation index for various modulating voltage
3. To evaluated the modulated Am wave.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT

a) Oscilloscope
b) Multimeter
c) Regulator Power Supply
d) Conecting Wire
e) Computer

THEORY

Demodulation is the process by which the original information bearing signal, i.e. the
modulation is extracted from the incoming overall received signal. The process of
demodulation for signals using amplitude modulation can be achieved in a number of
different techniques, each of which has its own advantage. The demodulator is the circuit, or
for a software defined radio, the software that is used to recover the information content from
the overall incoming modulated signal. The terms detection and demodulation are often used
when referring to the overall demodulation process. Essentially the terms describe the same
process, and the same circuits. Terms like diode detector, synchronous detector and product
detector are widely used. But the term demodulation tends to be used more widely when
referring to the process of extracting the modulation from the signal.

AM amplitude modulation demodulation principle

The term detection is the older term dating back to the early days of radio. The term
demodulation is probably more accurate in that it refers to the process of demodulation, i.e.
extracting the modulation from the signal. That said both terms can be used equally well,
although modern terminology tends to err towards the use of the words demodulation and
demodulator.

AM DEMODULATION TECHNIQUES

There are a number of techniques that can be used to demodulate AM signals. Different types
are used in different applications to suit their performance and cost.

 Diode rectifier envelope detector:   This form of detector is the simplest form, only
requiring a single diode and a couple of other low cost components. The performance
is adequate for low cost AM broadcast radios, but it does not meet the standards of
other forms of demodulation.   Read more about  diode envelope detector.

 Product detector:   It is possible to demodulate amplitude modulated signals with a

receiver that incorporates a product detector of mixer and a local beat frequency
oscillator or carrier injection oscillator. In its basic form, the local oscillator is not
synchronised to the incoming signal carrier.

 Synchronous detection:   Synchronous detection provides the optimum performance.

It uses a mixer or product detector with a local oscillator signal that is synchronised to
the incoming signal carrier. This provides many advantages over the other methods of
AM demodulation.   Read more about synchronous detector.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit components illustrated in Figure 12-1.
2. Double-click the Oscilloscope to view its display. Set the time base to 1 ms/Div and
Channel A to 10 V/Div. Select Auto triggering and DC coupling
3. Double-click the AM Source to change its parameters. Set the carrier amplitude = 10
V, the carrier frequency = 100 kHz, the modulation index = 0.6 and the modulation
frequency = 800 Hz.
4. Start the simulation and measure the frequency of the demodulated waveform and
compare it with its expected value. Record your results in the Data section of this
experiment.
5. Double-click on the resistor to change its value. Select a 500 kΩ resistor. Run the
simulation again. Draw the waveform associated to a time constant which is too large.
Next, replace the 500 kΩ resistor with a 10 kΩ resistor. Run the simulation and draw
the waveform associated to a time constant which is too small.
6. Re-design the detector in order to provide optimum detection for a 500 Hz modulating
signal. Replace the components, re-set the AM Source modulating frequency
parameter and run the simulation.
7. Connect the circuit components illustrated in Figure 12-2. Connect both Oscilloscope
channels as shown. Set the time division to 500 µs/Div, Channel A to 500 mV/Div
and Channel B to 5 V/Div. Set the AM Source as indicated in Figure 12-2. Run the
simulation. Note your observations.
EXPECTED OUTCOME

RESULT

Envelope Detector
Waveform of an RC time constant which is Too Large
Waveform of an RC time constant which is Too Small

Redesign 500 Hz
Procedure 7

DISSCUSSION
An AM signal, once received by a receiver, is subjected to several stages in the demodulation
process. Figure 12-1 illustrates the final detection and filter stage using a simple diode
detector. Other more complex detectors that use the popular PLL (phase-lock-loop) circuitry
allow, together with AGC (automatic gain control) circuitry, modulation indexes of close to
one.

Because the circuitry involved in the detection process is fixed, a fundamental requirement
for a signal at the detector's input is that the sidebands are situated on either side of a fixed
frequency. This fixed frequency is called the IF or intermediate frequency and is produced by
the mixing of a local oscillator frequency with the RF spectrum which has been filtered in the
RF stage of the demodulation process. The fixed value of the intermediate frequency is 455
kHz. This IF signal is applied to the input of a highly selective IF amplifier.

The local oscillator (LO) frequency in the popular superheterodyne receiver is adjusted
through the tuning control to 455 kHz above the RF carrier, fLO = fc + fIF. Why is the LO
necessary? Remember that the detector requires the message signal to be frequency translated
to either side of a fixed intermediate frequency. Injecting the RF spectrum and the local
oscillator frequency through a mixer will produce the sum and difference of the frequencies
involved. It is the difference frequencies that produce the IF spectrum required. Consider a
carrier frequency of 1050 kHz carrying a 5 kHz message signal.

The IF filter features steep roll off characteristics which reject all frequencies other than the
IF frequency translated spectrum. The output of the filter constitutes the input to the detector.
The envelope detector of Figure 12-1 is designed to subject the signal to a half wave
rectification process. The RC time constant should be such that the charge time is fast and the
discharge time is slow. This will ensure that the detector follows the amplitude variations of
the envelope. The RC time constant of the envelope detector should be designed such that:
Not shown in Figure 12-1 is the AGC circuitry which helps to control the level of the input to
the detector. One of the main drawbacks of the envelope detector is the effect of the diode
voltage drop Vd. This 0.7 V drop represents a delay between the point where the signal
reaches the input and where the capacitor is able to allow the output to react to the input. This
ultimately results in power lost because the modulation index is restricted from reaching its
optimum level of one. The detector of Figure 12-2 will detect modulation signals over a range
of frequencies with the particular low pass filter portion supporting a cutoff frequency of 2
kHz for purposes of demonstration.

CONCLUTION

From the experiment we can concluded that:

i. Noise performance of a coherent detector is always better than that of a noncoherent

detector
ii. Due to the frequency shifting property of analog multiplier, it can be used to
implement each AM modulator and demodulator
iii. Low-pass filter is used in each detector, its duty is to suppress the highfrequency
output
iv. The product detector is capable of restoring the message signal carried by each AM
modulation scheme
v. Until the carrier is available at the detector, there is no need for the transmission of
carrier at least at a high power level. Recall: Transmission of carrier is a waste of
power since it does not carry information except its phase and frequency.

EXPERIMENT 13 : DOUBLE SIDEBAND ANALYSIS

OBJECTIVE

At the end of this experiment student able to demonstrate the characteristic of Double Sideband
(DSB) transmission .

LIST OF EQUIPMENT

i. Osiloscope
ii. Spectrum Analyzer
iii. Resistor: 1 kΩ
iv. Multiplier (found in the Control Function Blocks parts Family)
v. AC Voltage Source (2)
vi. AM Modulator

THEORY

Double sideband (DSB) is one of the easiest modulation techniques to understand, so it is a good
starting point for the study of modulation. A type of DSB, called binary phase-shift keying, is used for
digital telemetry. Amplitude modulation (AM) is similar to DSB but has the advantage of permitting a
simpler demodulator, the envelope detector. AM is used for broadcast radio, aviation radio, citizens’
band (CB) radio, and short-wave broadcasting.

A message signal x (y) can be DSB modulated onto a carrier with a simple multiplication. The
modulated carrier y (t) can be represented by

Where (fc) is the carrier frequency. The Fourier transform Y (f) of the modulator output is related to
the Fourier transform X (f) of the message signal by

The signal content that lies in the frequency domain below fc is the lower sideband. The signal
content that lies in the frequency domain above (fc) is the upper sideband. This is the origin of the
term double sideband.

When studying and testing analog modulation schemes, it is convenient to use a sinusoid as the
message signal. This is a good choice for several reasons. First, when testing a system in the
laboratory, it is desirable to use a periodic signal since a stable oscilloscope display with continuous
signal capture is then possible. Second, the mathematics are usually simpler with a sinusoidal message
signal. Third, a sinusoid is easy to generate in the laboratory. After a communication system goes into
the field and becomes operational, the message signal would not ordinarily be sinusoidal, of course
This last expression indicates that when a carrier is DSB modulated by a message sinusoid, the
modulated carrier is equivalent to the sum of two sinusoids: one having the difference frequency (fc-
fm) and the other with the sum frequency (fc + fm) . In the frequency domain there is signal content
lying on both sides of the carrier frequency. When x (t) is a sinusoid, each sideband is one discrete
spectral line (on the positive half of the frequency axis). In the general case where x (t) is real but not
a sinusoid, each sideband is more complicated than a single discrete spectral line. However, it is still
true that there are two sidebands: a lower and an upper. In the time domain, a carrier that is DSB
modulated by a message sinusoid looks like this:

A DSB modulated carrier is normally demodulated with a synchronous detector. This means that the
modulated carrier is multiplied by a local oscillator and the product is then sent to a lowpass filter.
With synchronous detection the frequency and phase of the local oscillator are important. Its
frequency must match that of the carrier. The local oscillator phase must approximately match that of
the carrier.
PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit components illustrated in Figure 13-1.

2. Double-click the first AC Source and set the carrier amplitude = 10 V and the carrier frequency =
1.1 MHz. Double-click the second AC Source and set the modulating frequency amplitude = 8 V and
the modulating frequency = 10 kHz.

3. Double-click the Oscilloscope to view its display. Set the time base to 20 µs/Div and Channel A to
50 V/Div. Select Auto triggering and DC coupling.

4. Double-click the Spectrum Analyzer to view its display. Select Set Span. Select Start = 980 kHz,
End = 1.2 M Hz, Range = 20 V/DIV, Resolution Frequency = 3.906 kHz and Amplitude = LIN. Press
Enter.

5. Start the simulation and double-click on the Oscilloscope to view the DSB output and verify its
waveform with that of Figure 13-3.
 6. Double-click on the Spectrum Analyzer to view the associated frequency spectrum. Measure the
frequency of each of the sidebands by moving the red vertical marker over each sideband and noting
its frequency in the Spectrum Analyzer window. Verify that they are the same as your expected
values. Record your data in Table 13-1.

7. Note the voltage levels of the sidebands analyzed above. Calculate the power of each sideband.
Record your data in Table 13-2.

8. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 13-2. This is an AM Modulator. Set the modulation index = 1.
This will represent the best power efficiency possible for this modulator. Confirm that all other AM
modulator circuit parameters are the same as Figure 13-1.

9. Double-click the Spectrum Analyzer. Set Span = 100 kHz and Center = 1.1 MHz. Press Enter.

10. Run the simulation and measure the voltage of each sideband. Calculate the power of each and
compare with your DSB data. Tabulate your results in Table 13-2. Comment on your observations.

RESULT

Expected Outcome

Measured value
Frequency of lower sideband 758.360mV
Frequency of upper sideband 970.497mV

LSB(V) USB(V)
DSB 758.360mV 970.497 Mv
AM 193.775mV 173.226mV
RESULT OF ADDITIONAL CHALLENGE
DISCUSSION
 As discussed previously, the purpose of the RF carrier frequency is to carry the information to
its destination, radio receivers within its restricted physical transmission perimeter. In order to
accomplish this in AM transmission, both sidebands are sent together with the carrier frequency.
Since the carrier uses 2/3 of the total power necessary to send the signal to its restricted area, and
power costs money, the suppression of the carrier frequency is a cost effective means of transmitting a
signal. In Double Sideband transmission, this suppressed carrier is then reconstructed and re-inserted
in the receiver. It should be noted that Single Sideband (SSB) transmission suppresses both the carrier
and one sideband before transmission. The problem with both DSB and SSB is the required
complexity of the receivers necessary to demodulate the signals. Because the phase of the
reconstructed carrier frequency must be the same as the phase of the suppressed carrier, a pilot carrier
is used in DSB transmission. In our analysis, a modulating signal and a carrier will be applied to a
multiplier which will be used to simulate a suppressed carrier output.

EXPERIMENT 14 : INTRODUCTION TO FM MODULATION AND DETECTION

OBJECTIVE:

At the end of this experiment students will able to:

a. Demonstrate the characteristics and operation of a simple frequency modulator.

b. Demonstrate the characteristics and operation of a simple frequency detector.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT

i. Oscilloscope
ii. Function Generator
iii. Resistors: 50 Ω, 220 Ω, 1 kΩ, 50 kΩ
iv. Capacitors: 35 nF, 51 nF, 1.5 µF, 15 µF, 20 µF, 30 µF
v. Inductors: 12 µH, 30 µH, 3 Mh
vi. Ideal Crystal
vii. Ideal Diodes
viii. FM Modulator

THEORY

In any radio that is designed to receive frequency modulated signals there is some form of
FM demodulator or detector. This circuit takes in frequency modulated RF signals and takes
the modulation from the signal to output only the modulation that had been applied at the
transmitter.

FM demodulation principle

In order to be able to demodulate FM it is necessary for the radio receiver to convert the
frequency variations into voltage variations. It is necessary to have a response that is as linear
as possible over the required bandwidth.
 Frequency demodulator S response curve

The response that is normally seen for an FM demodulator / FM detector is known as an "S"
curve for obvious reasons. There is a linear portion at the centre of the response curve and
towards the edge the response becomes very distorted.

Types of FM demodulator

There are several types of FM detector / demodulator that can be used. Some types were
more popular in the days when radios were made from discrete devices, but nowadays the
PLL based detector and quadrature / coincidence detectors are the most widely used as they
lend themselves to being incorporated into integrated circuits very easily and they do not
require many, if any adjustments.

 Slope detection:   This is a very simple form of FM demodulation and it relies on the
selectivity of the receiver itself to provide the demodulation. It is not particularly effective
and is not used except when the receiver does not have an FM capability.
 Ratio detector:   This type of detector was one that was widely used when discrete
components were used in transistor radios.
 Foster Seeley FM :   In the days when radio used discrete components, this was the
other main contender for the FM demodulator in radios.
 Phase locked loop demodulator:   It is possible to use a phase locked loop to
demodulate FM. The PLL FM detector provides excellent performance and does not
require many, if any adjustments in manufacture.
 Quadrature detector:   The quadrature FM detector is now widely used in FM radio
ICs. It is easy to implement and provides excellent levels of performance.

These FM demodulators are used in different applications. Although the PLL FM detector
and the quadrature detectors are most widely used, the Foster Seeley and ratio FM detectors
are still used on some occasions.

PROCEDURE
1. Connect the circuit as illustrated in Figure 14-1.

2. Double-click the Function Generator to set its parameters. Select Triangle Wave,
Frequency = 500 Hz, Duty cycle = 50 %, Amplitude = 6 V and Offset = 7 V.

3. Double-click the Voltage Controlled Sine wave generator to set its parameters. Set the first
Control Array selection = 12 with an associated Frequency Array = 25000. Set the second
Control Array selection = 0 with an associated Frequency Array = 200.

4. Start the simulation and observe the frequency modulated signal in the time versus
amplitude domain. Draw the associated output waveform in the Data section of this
experiment.

5. Connect the circuit as illustrated in Figure 14-2.

6. Double-click the FM Modulator to set its parameters and set Voltage Amplitude = 20 V,
Carrier Frequency = 8 MHz, Modulation Index = 5 and Signal Frequency = 10 kHz.

7. Double-click the Oscilloscope to view its display. Set the time base to 100 µs/Div and
Channel A to 100 µV/Div. Select Auto triggering and DC coupling. Run the simulation
noting the frequency of the sine wave at the output of the detector. Compare this freq

RESULT
VCO Detection

FM Demodulator
ADDITIONAL CHALLENGE
Connect the circuit as illustrated in Figure 14-3. In this configuration, the VCO is controlled
by your operation of the potentiometer which will be simulating a low frequency message
signal. Run the simulation and, while observing the output on the Oscilloscope, highlight the
potentiometer and press the “A” key continuously. You can also, hover your cursor over the
potentiometer and drag the slider bar that appears. Observe the simulated frequency
modulated output that results.
DISCUSSION

In amplitude modulation we observed the amplitude of the modulated wave vary with
changes in the message signal. In frequency modulation (FM), increases in the carrier
frequency result when the modulating signal amplitude is increased. The FM modulator used
in this experiment is made up of Multisim’s Voltage Controlled Sine Wave Oscillator. This
sine wave generator acts as a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO). This generator is driven by
a 500 Hz modulating frequency which is supplied by the Function Generator as shown in
Figure14-1. The Voltage Controlled Sine wave parameters are set such that a zero volt
control voltage produces an output frequency of 200 Hz. A control voltage of 12 V will result
in an output frequency of 25 kHz. The detector circuit of Figure 14-2 is an example of a
simple FM demodulator which makes use of a crystal found in the miscellaneous section of
the parts bin. This circuit will provide basic demodulation for a signal provided by
Multisim’s FM modulator and will output a much lower amplitude version of the original
modulating signal. This signal normally would be amplified by an audio amplifier for
practical purposes.
EXPERIMENT 15 : FREQUENCY MODULATION

OBJECTIVE:

At the end of the experiment student will able to:

1. Demonstrate the characteristic Frequency Modulation

2. Demonstrate the operation of Frequency Modulation using Multisim’s Frequency
Modulator.

LIST OF EQUIPMENT

i. Oscilloscope
ii. Spectrum Analyzer

THEORY

Frequency modulation is a process of changing the frequency of a carrier wave in accordance

with the slowly varying base band signal. The main advantage of this modulation is that it
can provide better discrimination against noise.

Frequency modulation (FM) is the standard technique for high-fidelity communications as is

evident in the received signals of the FM band (88-108 MHz) vs. the AM band (450-1650
KHz). The main reason for the improved fidelity is that FM detectors, when properly
designed, are not sensitive to random amplitude variations which are the dominant part of
electrical noise (heard as static on the AM radio). Frequency modulation is not only used in
commercial radio broadcasts, but also in police and hospital communications, emergency
channels, TV sound, wireless (cellular) telephone systems, and radio amateur bands above 30
MHz. The basic idea of an FM signal vs. an AM signal is shown in Fig. 1. In an FM signal,
the frequency of the signal is changed by the modulation (baseband) signal while its
amplitude remains the same. In an AM signal, we now know that it is the amplitude (or the
envelope) of the signal that is changed by the modulation signal. The FM signal can be
summarized as follows
1. The amplitude of the modulation signal determines the amount of the frequency
change from the center frequency.

2. The frequency of the modulation signal determines the rate of the frequency change
from the center frequency.

3. The amplitude of the FM signal is constant at all times and is independent of the
modulation signal. Mathematically, an FM signal is written as:

V = Asin ωc t + mf sinω m ( t)

where A = the amplitude of the signal

ωc = center frequency (frequency for no modulation signal)

ωm = modulation frequency

mf = FM modulation index = δ/fm

where δ = maximum frequency shift caused by the modulation signal

fm = frequency of the modulation signal.

The spectrum of an FM signal is quite complicated and is dependent on mf. Actually,

it follows a Bessel Function (you will study this in a senior-level math course) and is given
by:
Where J0 (mf) J1 (mf) etc. are in volts, and are the levels of the frequency components of the
FM signal for A = 1 V.

PROCEDURE

1. Connect the circuit as illustrated in Figure 15-1.

2. Double-click the FM Modulator to set its parameters. Set Voltage Amplitude = 10 V, Carrier
Frequency = 100 kHz, Modulation Index = 5 and Signal Frequency = 10 kHz.

3. Double-click the Oscilloscope to view its display. Set the time base to 20 us/Div and Channel A to
10 V/Div. Select Auto triggering and DC coupling.

4. Start the simulation and observe the frequency modulated signal in the time versus amplitude
domain. Draw the associated output waveform in the Data section of this experiment.

5. Double-click the FM Modulator and change the Modulation Index to 3.

6. Double-click the Spectrum Analyzer to view its display. Select Set Span. Set Span = 125 kHz and
Center = 100 kHz. Press Enter. This will allow us to view the carrier frequency along with several
sideband sets. Calculate and note the expected frequency deviation.

7. Observe the frequency spectrum. Use the red vertical marker to locate the carrier frequency of 100
kHz. Verify that the upper and lower sideband frequencies correspond with fc - 3fm, fc - 2fm, fc - fm,
fc, fc + fm, fc + 2fm, fc + 3fm etc. Move the red marker over the carrier to determine its position.
8. Noting the amplitude of each spectral line, find the highest line to the right of the carrier. Note its
amplitude and count the number of spectral lines to the right of the carrier which are no more than 20
dB down from the highest line. Calculate the bandwidth W in the Data section of this experiment.

9. Change the modulation index to 5, run the simulation and observe the spectrum. Change the
modulation index to 1.5 and describe what you are observing.

EXPECTED OUTCOME

RESULT

Assoociated output waveform

Question 6

M = ∆ f / fm

∆ f = M(fm)

= 5(100K)

= 500KHz

Question 7

UPPER CALCULATION LOWER CALCULATION

SIDEBAND SIDEBAND
fc+fm 209.814KHz fc – 3fm 62.5KHz
fc+2fm 220.145KHz fc – 2fm 29.96KHz
fc+3fm 229.959KHz fc – fm 9.814KHz

CALCULATION:
fc = 100K

UPPER SIDEBAND

i fc+fm = 100KHz + 109.814KHz

= 209.814KHz

ii fc+2fm = 100KHz + 120.145KHz

= 220.145KHz

iii fc+3fm = 100KHz + 129.959KHz

= 229.959KHz

LOWER SIDEBAND

i fc – 3fm = 100KHz -37.500KHz

= 62.5KHz

ii fc – 2fm = 100KHz – 70.041KHz

= 29.96KHz

iii fc – fm = 100KHz – 90.186KHz

= 9.814KHz

Question 8

Calculate the bandwidth

The highest to the right of the carrier is +3fm

W = 11(3)fm

=33(100k)

= 3.3 M

FIGURE RESULT EX 15:

-3FM
-2FM

-FM
FM

+FM
+2FM

+3FM
DISCUSSION

In frequency modulation (FM), variations in the frequency of the modulated wave are observed with
changes in the message signal. Amplitude modulation is easily affected by noises in the atmosphere as
well as any other interference from sources of close proximity that generate frequencies in the range
of the modulating signal. These spurious frequencies ride upon the modulated signal even after
demodulation and appear as static. Noise also amplitude modulates FM signals but since the
modulating relationship results in frequency variations, not amplitude variations, the interference has
virtually no affect and is easily removed in the demodulation process. Even when the noise falls
between the sine waves of the carrier, thus potentially affecting the frequency, almost complete noise
suppression is possible by ensuring a large carrier deviation.

Frequency deviation is the amount that the frequency deviates from that of the carrier frequency. FM
broadcasting limits the maximum frequency deviation to 75 kHz. A large amplitude modulating signal
results in a large maximum frequency deviation. A low amplitude modulating signal results in a small
maximum frequency deviation. The amplitude of the modulated wave is not affected by the amplitude
of the message signal. The modulation index m is established by the maximum frequency carrier
deviation divided by the frequency of the modulating signal which produces the deviation m = ∆f/fm.
Since amplitude variations directly affect frequency deviation in FM, it follows that a lower frequency
modulating signal will cause a slower rate of frequency deviation since the FM signal will be
subjected to less message signal amplitude variations per second than that of a higher frequency
message signal. Hence, it is important to note that the rate of frequency deviation is dependant upon
the frequency of the message signal.

FM broadcasting regulations limit the maximum audio frequency to 15 kHz. The bandwidth W of an
FM signal is dependant on the number of sideband pairs which are not more than 20 dB down from
the height of the highest spectral line. These sideband pairs are the most significant and represent
approximately 98% of the total power. The number of sideband pairs is dependant on the modulation
index and its value is predictable. For example, for a modulation index of 3, six significant sideband
pairs are expected. Associated time domain variations can be observed using the oscilloscope. Recall
that in the frequency spectrum of an AM wave, two sideband frequencies are produced for every
modulating signal. One sideband frequency is equal to fc - fm and is below the carrier frequency. The
other sideband is equal to fc + fm and is above the carrier frequency. In FM, however, in addition to the
basic pair of sideband frequencies produced by a single modulating signal, an infinite number of
sideband frequencies are also produced. fc - 3f m, fc - 2fm, fc - fm, fc, fc + fm, fc + 2fm, fc + 3fm are only a
few of the spectral lines that are observed in the frequency domain. The spectral lines decrease in
power as they move further from the center frequency. As the modulation index is increased, the
power is distributed over more spectral lines.
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