J Coast Conserv (2008) 12:11–17
DOI 10.1007/s11852-008-0023-x
Geosynthetics in protection against erosion for river
and coastal banks and marine and hydraulic construction
A. Koffler & M. Choura & A. Bendriss & E. Zengerink
Received: 13 March 2008 / Accepted: 4 September 2008 / Published online: 25 September 2008
# Springer Science + Business Media B.V. 2008
Abstract Geosynthetic products offer owners, engineers,
and contractors a safe and economical solution to everyday
engineering challenges and construction requirements. Used
as replacements to natural materials, geosynthetic products
include a wide range of functions such as filtration, drainage,
separation and reinforcement requirements. The wide range
of geosynthetic use includes landfill caps and base liner
applications, environmental protection under roads and
railways, containment structures, dams, canals, ponds, rivers
and lakes, coastal and offshore protection. However, their
potential in other applications is only limited by convention.
With the use of geosynthetics, most geotechnical structures
can be improved and the design lifetime can be dramatically
increased. Additionally new modern design approaches are
often only possible with the use of geosynthetics. Because of
the strong development of the various industries all around
the world the development and challenge of the use of
geosynthetics in geotechnical, hydraulic, coastal and off-
shore engineering should be of special interest. Based on
engineering approaches and installed projects, this paper will
cover the state-of-the-art of geosynthetics use in environmen-
tal applications, as well as in hydraulic, coastal protection
and offshore engineering structures and also discuss the
benefits of geosynthetics to modern building technology.
A. Koffler : A. Bendriss : E. Zengerink
Ten Cate Geosynthetics Europe,
Paris, France
M. Choura (*)
URGMC-National School of Engineers, University of Sfax,
Sfax, Tunisia
e-mail: chouramed@yahoo.fr
Keywords Geosynthetics . Reinforcement .
Environmental protection . Coastal protection .
Offshore engineering
Introduction
The use of geotextile in civil engineering applications is
large and has expanded very rapidly worldwide especially
during the last decade. Supported by the technological
boom, geotextiles have invaded a large variety of domains
and won trust and esteem around the world because of
the advantages they guarantee in terms of easiness and
flexibility of use, softness (as compared to monolithic and
rock constructions), rapidity of installation and long-term
efficacy. As the use of geotextile fabrics has expanded,
there has been the introduction of geotextile composites
and the development of products such as geogrids and
meshes.
Surveying some types of geotextile and related products
and their application in concrete sites in different parts of the
world provides a better idea about the product and its
applicability to various areas of civil and marine engineering.
Erosion in marine and hydraulic engineering
Geosynthetics appeared as early as in 1953 after the
collapse of protection dykes of the Netherlands shore;
which led to a great material loss as well as the death of a
big number of people. To avoid recurrence of such a
disaster, the Netherlands hydraulic engineers thought of new
methods and materials to build a solid coastal protection
among which was introduced the use of geosynthetics. The
first generation of woven geosynthetics was developed as a
12 A. Koffler et al.

contained soil. According to field applications, these

envelopes take one of the following geometrical shapes:
– A tubular long structure, filled through injection on
site, or geotube
– A submarine structure with a large volume installed
with a split bottom hopper barge with a very large-
sized geotextile bag or geocontainer
– Bags of a small volume or geobag

Fig. 1 Geotube equipped by a scour apron Tubular structure or geotube

A tubular structure is a structure in the form of a tube made

means of filtration to reinforce the soil and fight erosion for of a highly-resistant geotextile woven envelope filled with
the sake of coastal structure protection. Innovative solutions materials. Sand is the best filling material, mostly thanks
have continued during the past twenty years especially to its incompressibility; but other types of pumpable inert
targeting erosion problems caused by waves actions, tides, materials can also be used.
streams, and all other types of water movements (French The structure is built on site and filled through hydraulic
2001, 141–164). pumping of local materials inside the envelope. Geotubes
The consequence of erosion can range from simple loss allow the creation of a structure that is flexible, monolithic,
of coastal areas to scouring and break down of structures. continual, and very resistant to water forces.
As a reaction to the great danger of this natural phenom- The tube is made of a special geotextile produced to suit
enon, a variety of preventing measures are used to reduce specific types of applications. The geotextile has small pores
the power of water which acts on erodable structures. These capable of retaining the injected materials and allowing, due to
measures are mostly: a great permeability, the flow out of water during the pumping
phase. In addition, the geotextile, as well as the seam, is highly
– Geometric measures where the form of the structure is
strong, to resist the high tensions occurring during the
modified to reduce the power of water below a
hydraulic filling and maintain its geometrical shape.
minimum level.
The tubes are custom-made and supplied in various sizes
– Stability measures, where the exposed structure is
and lengths to suit design and installation requirements,
protected against erosion through the stabilization of
with a great variety of diameters and lengths according to
the erodable soil. Revetment by means of geosynthetics
specific applications. The structure is normally dimen-
filters can serve as a good example for this measure.
sioned by the theoretical diameter, the circumference and
– External measures, where the exposed structure is
the length. The theoretical diameter of the tube normally
preserved against erosion with a protection construction
ranges from 1.50 m to 5 m. Each tube is produced according
placed at a specific location depending on its response.
to the technical properties of the sewing technology which
Some examples are submarine breakwaters, groins,
dykes, dams, artificial islands, etc (Dean and Dalrymple
2002, 406–407).
This paper considers principally the last type of
measures. Field applications are described and conclusions
concerning the economical, environmental and technical
benefits of geosynthetics are drawn.

The use of geosynthetics for soil confinement

The woven geosynthetics, most of the time made of

polypropylene, are used for the confinement of soils in a
variety of marine and hydraulic structures (Reiffsteck 2003
33–37, 81–96). In this type of technique, the local soil,
generally sand, is placed in a geosynthetic envelope which
procures an external protection avoiding the loss of the Fig. 2 A split bottom hopper barge dropping a geocontainer
Geosynthetics in protection against erosion for river and coastal banks and marine and hydraulic construction
Fig. 3 Aerial view of the artificial islands under construction
guarantees that the envelope is strong enough all along its
area. Filling is carried out on site through a series of inlet
ports placed on a regular basis along the tube.
The various projects carried out by TENCATE NICOLON
during the last decade led to the deduction that after filling,
the structure does not reach the same height as the theoretical
diameter; but a maximum height of 60 to 70% of the di-
ameter, depending on filling methods and whether filling
occurs below or above water surface. In special cases where
a greater contact area between the tube and the ground is
needed, only partial filling is carried out.
This structure can also be equipped by a scour apron
(Fig. 1). The scour apron protects the base of the tube and
reinforces its stability on ground. The scour apron may be
placed under the tube and on both sides or just on one side,
depending on the type of structure and the placement site. It
is placed before settling the tube structure then two little
anchor tubes are installed on both sides and filled hydrau-
lically to serve as a ballast at the edge of the scour apron.
Different types of pumps are used to carry out the filling,
ranging from unsophisticated sinkable pumps to huge
dredging pumps according to the needs. The type of
pumping system depends on the importance and complexity
of the project and the specificity of the site. The hydraulic
pump is connected to local inlet ports placed along the tube.
Fig. 4 Cross section of a geotube containment dyke
13
Fig. 5 Installation of a geotube
A mixture of sand and water is pumped into the tube. The
sand settles inside the geotube and the water “bleeds” from
the pores of the geotextile and the filling progresses. So, the
inlet ports that are not used during the filling operation
should be left open to allow the evacuation of excess water.
When the tube is filled to the required height, the inlet ports
are seamed.
Envelope or “geocontainer”
Envelopes are large-sized geotextile bags containing a great
volume of dredged soil or inert materials. They are sank in
water by means of a split bottom hopper barge (Fig. 2). The
envelope is made of a geotextile especially manufactured
for that kind of application (Lenze and Klompmoker 2005).
The geotextile has a high strength allowing it to resist the
different solicitations engendered by filling and installation.
The envelopes are prefabricated in factory according to the
split barge size. The geocontainer's volume is between
100 m3 and 600 m3. The filling and installation process
goes through different steps: The empty envelope is placed
in the barge. The barge is then filled with materials, and
after that, the envelope is closed with special sewing. The
split barge goes to the sinkage point and sinks the envelope
to a depth of −5 m to −20 m.
Fig. 6 Installation of an upper geotube
14
Fig. 7 Installation of a geotube (during the filling)
Bag or “geobag”
Geobag elements are big geotextile bags filled with sand.
Geobags are also custom-made and supplied in various
forms and sizes. Each unit may typically contain from 1 m3
to over 10 m3 of soil. The bag is made of a high-strength
geotextile designed according to installation requirements.
A special geotextile, capable of retaining the sand materials
and allowing at the same time a great permeability, is
manufactured for that type of application.
Concrete examples of application
TENCATE NICOLON is considered as one of the leading
firms in the field of geotextile. The following chapter is a
review of some of its projects realised in different parts of
the world using the above mentioned innovative techniques.
Amwaj Islands, Bahrain
About 30 km of geotubes were used to build the
containment dykes (Fig. 4) to settle artificial islands for
the Amwaj Islands Project (Fig. 3) in Bahrain. (Fowler et
al. 2002).
Fig. 8 Installation of a geotube (filling completed)
A. Koffler et al.
Fig. 9 Wave and surge attacking geotube during construction
The project was carried out in two stages. The first stage
involved the installation of the structure at an approximate
height of 2.6 m followed by hydraulic filling of sand behind
the geotube (Fig. 5). The second stage involved the
installation of another geotube (Fig. 6) followed by further
hydraulic filling of sand to achieve the finished platform
level of CD + 3.60 m. Upon completion of the project, a
rock armour of 60 kg to 300 kg was placed in front of the
geotube dyke. Eventually, submerged reef breakwaters
were constructed about 300 m from the geotubes to create
perched artificial beaches.
Protection dyke - Sea Isle City, New Jersey, USA
With each hurricane season, Sea Isle City, on the Atlantic
coast, would be subjected to strong winds and waves that
would cause extensive flooding along coastal areas. Damaged
costs were continually large. For this reason, Geotubes were
used to internally reinforce a frontal sand dune to protect the
coastal road and properties in Sea Isle City from flooding.
The geotubes (construction steps illustrated in Figs. 7, 8,
9 and 10), buried within the frontal sand dune, prevent the
protection dyke from breaching during heavy storms. They
are also placed inside the dune in order to protect the dyke
structure from erosion.
Fig. 10 Since the installation of the protection dyke, no further
flooding has occurred
Geosynthetics in protection against erosion for river and coastal banks and marine and hydraulic construction
Fig. 11 Placing of sand fill into geocontainer
Buttress support -Zoutkamp, The Netherlands
Geocontainers were used to build submerged containment
dykes in order to reconstruct a failed underwater slope that
was threatening to undermine an adjacent gas pipeline.
The reconstruction of the slope involved several tiers
of geocontainer dykes and backfilling combinations. The
containment dykes were constructed using geocontainers
with sand used as the fill material (settlement steps illustrated
in Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14). The lowest tier of geocontainers
was founded about 20 m below water surface level. The
results were totally positive: the project was extremely cost–
effective and successful. The slope has been stabilized with
the innovative use of geocontainers.
Construction of a dam, near Rabat, Morocco
The dam of Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah, near Rabat
(Figs. 15 and 16) is an important source of potable water
for about 30% of the Moroccan people living in the Atlantic
coastal zone, from Rabat to Casablanca. It was inevitable to
increase the dam's height in order to double its size and
capacity (from 480 Mm3 to 1,025 Mm3) to be able to fulfil
the needs up to 2025.
Fig. 12 Opening of split bottom barge
15
Fig. 13 Dropping of filled geocontainer
The construction of the different hydraulic works con-
sisted of:
– The demolition of the drain off-work and construction
of a new one.
– The building of a new tower for the drinkable water
and a connecting gallery (700 m, diameter 3 m).
– The building of another tower and an emptying gallery
(240 m, diameter 5.50 m).
The project obviously needed protection on the upper
side of the channel. For this reason, a temporary protection
dam with a height of 6 m was installed. It had to be stable
and submersible in cases of high water level during the
construction period.
Initially, a solution was proposed to build a dam made of
soil and rock materials. Then, the contractor, supported by
the firm, proposed an alternative solution suggesting the use
of geotubes and geomembranes, which offered numerous
advantages and avoided difficulties in particular access and
subaqueous filling up ones.
The suggested solution was principally based on the use
of geotubes (Figs. 17 and 18), filled with sand by means of
hydraulic pumping to build a stable dam of 60 m length.
Three geotubes had to be installed: two on the bottom
Fig. 14 Cross section of geocontainer dyke
16 A. Koffler et al.

Fig. 17 Floating platform for the laying of geotube

Fig. 15 Initial site of the dam of Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah

The new technique allowed the project to be completed

and one on top, covered with a geomembrane securing
within a period of two months in spite of technological and
the impermeability.
logistical difficulties. It was however possible to do the
The operation needed the following dispositions:
same in only one month in normal conditions.
– Three geotubes of 65 m length and 15 m circumference
with a filling height of 3 m.
Conclusion
– A geomembrane of 34 m×80 m, delivered in two
pieces, welded together on site.
When geotextile was first introduced, its application was
– 4,000 m3 of sand coming from beaches in the region.
extremely limited. However, it is now used worldwide and
– 1,000 bags for ballasting.
for different aims. In fact, it is today famous, among others,
– Ropes.
as an efficient means for fighting erosion and protecting
– TOYO DP50B pump with capacity of 400 m3/h and
marine and hydraulic constructions thanks to its highly
pipes.
elaborate composition and the development of its tech-
– 15 floating platforms, built on site.
niques of realisation and makeup. Its application in concrete
– Two cranes with top-mast of 50 m length.
sites proved its merits in terms of easiness (use of sand
– Prefabricated concrete elements to put on the sides
as a construction material substituting rock and other
against the rock walls.
quarry materials), cost-effectiveness (transportation, im-
– Sectional iron HEB 180, screw bolts.
plementation...) rapidity and durability.
– Team of divers.
Certainly, the previously realised projects, as well as their
The Geomembrane was anchored at the bottom on both monitoring will take part in the prediction of the medium and
sides of the dam and against the prefabricated concrete long term performance of geosynthetic structures and the
element on the two sides. broadening of their application.

Fig. 16 Dam of Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah finished Fig. 18 Filling of geotubes
Geosynthetics in protection against erosion for river and coastal banks and marine and hydraulic construction 17

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hydrodynamic loads; ICCCM'05 “International Conference On
Coastal Conservation and Managment in the Atlantic and
Mediterranean; Tavira, Portugal: 17–20 April
Reiffsteck P (2003) Recommandations pour l”utilisation des géo-
synthétiques dans la lutte contre l'érosion, Janvier