Statics

and dynamics
Animals are subjected to the same physical laws
as inanimated objects. Statics describes the
principles of construction necessary to maintain
the equilibrium of the body in a state of rest or in
motion.

Dynamics analyses the movement of the body

during locomotion.

There is a great adaptive variety in the
construction of the body between different
species, reflecting the requirements set
forth by their natural surroundings.
Carnivores, being predators, must develop considerable speed over a short distance
in order to catch their prey, the body of herbivores is specialized to support large
stores of poorly digestible food and to enable continuous movement over long
distances. These differences are exemplified by the horse, being characterised by
passive support mechanisms, which allow the horse to carry heavy loads for a long
period of time without the muscles fatiguing.
Whereas these support mechanisms have not developed in the dog, which has a
lower body weight, whose food is highly digestible and of a higher energy density.
 Architecture of the trunk
• "bow and string" theory → The thoracolumbar
vertebrae, their articulations and the
accompanying ligaments and muscles provide a
flexible structure, constituting the "bow". The
"string" consists of the abdominal muscles,
especially the straight muscle of the abdomen,
which reaches from the thorax to the pelvis. The
bow is indirectly attached to the string by
interposition of the thoracic skeleton cranially
and the pelvic bones caudally.
• Contraction of the abdominal muscle causes
flexion of the bow, while contraction of the
epiaxial muscles straightens the bow.
The intrinsic elasticity of the trunk construction is complemented by
active contraction of other muscles. This is evident in the horse, when
its back does not sag under the rider, but rather is curved in a dorsal
direction as a result of the increasing tension in the string.
The caudal part of the bow and string construction, the last lumbar
vertebra, is joined to the sacrum.
Thoracic limb

• The major role of the forelimbs is to support the weight of the body,
this is reflected by a reduction in the skeletal structure of the shoulder
girdle, where only the scapula and in some species a much reduced
clavicle, remain.
• The scapula is attached to the trunk at the cranial end of the bow
and string construction by a synsarcosis, with muscles and tendons
forming a sling-like suspension for the trunk. The ventral serrate muscles
form a cradle between the two scapulae, which allows the thorax to rise
and fall between the shoulders and for the animal to lean over to one
side without any corresponding deviation of either forelimb from the
perpendicular.
• The thoracic portion of the ventral serrate muscle, with its high
content of tendinous tissue, is well adapted to carry the considerable
weight with a minimum of muscular effort.
• This anatomical arrangement enables the considerable forces which
occur during standing and locomotion to be sustained.
• The forces that the thoracic limbs are subjected to, increase
considerably, when the animal contacts the ground after jumping
• The horse has developed tendinous-
ligamentous support mechanisms, the
stay apparatus present in both the
forelimbs and hindlimbs, which allow this
species to carry its body weight with a
minimum of muscular effort and reduce
muscle fatigue. The efficient use of this
apparatus enables the horse to stand very
for long periods whilst resting.
• True sleep must be accompanied by
removal of the weight from the limbs by
lying down.
The carpus is predisposed to effortless weight
bearing since the long axis of the radius and the
cannon bone are approximately in the same
vertical line. It is prevented from buckling
forwards by the lacertus fibrosus, an inelastic
band arising from the biceps tendon, which inserts
on the cannon bone.
Tension in the biceps is transmitted through this
system to assist in fixed extension of the carpus.
Overextension of the carpus is prevented by the
ligaments on the caudal aspect of the carpus, the
ligaments of the accessory bone and the check
ligaments (accessory ligaments of the superficial
and deep digital flexor tendons). Both check
ligaments are kept under tension by the
overextended "neutral« position of the
metacarpophalangeal joint.
One of the most essential anatomical features of the stay
apparatus is the suspensory ligament on the palmar and plantar
aspect of the third metacarpus/metatarsus. It serves as the
main support for the fetlock, preventing excessive
overextension and reducing concussion of the fetlock during
locomotion.
The superficial and deep digital flexor tendons supplement
the suspensory ligament in this function. They are restricted
by the accessory ligament between the distal end of
the radius and the superficial digital flexor tendon (proximal
check ligament) and the accessory ligament between the carpus
and the deep digital flexor tendon (distal check ligament).
The suspensory ligament and the two digital flexor tendons
operate in series. As the fetlock joint is extended by the
bodyweight, the suspensory ligament tightens, this is followed
by the superficial and then the deep digital flexor tendon.
During locomotion, the thoracic limb is raised off the
ground by the shoulder girdle musculature and the flexion of
all joints through their flex or muscles. The flexed limb is
protracted by the brachiocephalic muscle. This action is
complemented by the trapezius and omotransverse muscles,
which rotate the distal end of the scapula craniodorsally and
the caudal angle caudoventrally, resulting in the swing phase
of locomotion.
At the end of the swing phase the joints are extended again,
through the action of the triceps muscle of the forearm, the
radial extensor muscle of the carpus and digital extensor
muscles. This straightens the limb, reaching forward from its
starting point, inducing the stance phase of the stride, thus the
limb becomes longer and reaches the ground further forward
to its starting point. This induces the stance phase of the
stride, during which the weight of the body is transported over
the extended limb. The scapula is rotated in the reverse
direction by the broadest muscle of the back, the rhomboid
and the deep pectoral muscle. The triceps is responsible for
extending the elbow joint, the biceps muscle extends the
shoulder and through the lacertus fibrosus the carpus.
The fetlock joint is extended beyond its
normal position. Shortly before the limb is
lifted off the ground again, the superficial
digital flexor tendon and the suspensory
ligament are relaxed, while the coffin joint
is maximally extended, thus the deep
digital flexor tendon and its check
ligament are tensed. This causes the
phalangeal joints to flex immediately
when the foot is lifted off the ground.
 Pelvic limb

The sacrum and the pelvis are rigidly attached through the
sacroiliac joint, with the sacrum suspended on the inner surface
of the ilial wings.
This ensures an effective transmission of the thrust of the
hindlimb onto the trunk. In the horse many modifications
involving collagenous bands derived from muscular
tissue and skeletal adaptations serve to reduce the muscular
effort associated with weight bearing and link movement of the
hock and stifle joints. The patellar locking mechanism is
brought about by the arrangement of the patellar ligaments and
the bones, which can result in locking of the patella and the
immobilisation of the stifle and thus the hock.
Horses with a straight conformation of the hindlimb and
Shetland Ponies are thought to be predisposed to upward fixation of
the patella.

Another modification, unique to the equine hindlimb is

known as the reciprocal apparatus and links the stifle and
hock movements. It consists of the third peroneal
muscle cranially, opposed by the gastrocnemius and the
superficial digital flex or muscle caudally. The attachment of the
third peroneal muscle ensures that in the normal animal flexion
of the stifle joint must be accompanied by flexion of the
hock, while the caudal muscles ensure, that when the stifle
joint is extended the hock joint is also extended.
 During gallop the resonance
oscillation of the limbs become even
Tarsus is always maintained at an angle.
shorter. Up to three legs
Therefore the superficial flexor tendon requires strong
can be at the ground at the same time
tendinous
and act as axial springs,
insertions to stabilise the tarsus in its 'neutral' position.
similar to the trot. When the animal
The fixation and stabilisation of the fetlock joint and the
changes to a faster gait,
phalangeal joints is similar to the thoracic limb.
the duration of a stride becomes
shorter and the length increases. This
is a result of the described resonance
phenomenon, which helps the animal
to achieve a certain speed with the
least muscular effort.
In addition to the spring mechanisms
of the limbs, the rhythmic flexion and
extension of the thoracic and lumbar
spine assists locomotion.