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Yaroslavsky
Inventor of optical microscope is not known. Credit for the first microscope is usually
given to Dutch (from other sources, Middleburg, Holland) spectacle-maker Joannes
and his son Zacharios Jansen. While experimenting with several lenses in a tube,
they discovered (around the year 1595) that nearby objects appeared greatly enlarged.
(partly adopted from [1]) . That was the forerunner of the compound microscope and
of the telescope.
Hubble space
telescope: in
principle, the
same optics as
in Newton’s
telescope
Photography (Niepps, 1826; Daguerre, 1836 year, W. F. Talbot, 1844.
First public report was presented by F. Arago, 19.8.1839 at a meeting of
L’Institut, Paris, France)
In the 19-th century, scientists began to explore ways of “fixing” the image thrown by
a glass lens. (H. Nieps, 1826; J. Daguerr, 1836; W. F. Talbot, 1844)
The first method of light writing was developed by the French commercial
artist Louis Jacque Mande Daguerre (1787-1851). The daguerrotype was made on a
shhet of silver-plated coper, which could be inked and then printed to produce
accurate reproduction of original works or scenes. The surface of the copper was
polished to a mirrorlike brilliance, then rendered light sensitive by treament with
iodine fumes. The copper plate was then exposed to an image sharply focused by the
camera’s well-ground, optically correct lens. The plate was removed from the camera
and treated with mercury vapors to develop the latent image. Finally, the image was
fixed by removal of the remaining photosensitive salts in a bath of hyposulfite and
toned with gold chloride to improve contrast and durability. Color, made of powdered
pigment, was applied directly to the metal surface with a finely pointed brush.
Daguerre’s attempt to sell his process (the daguerreotype) through licensing
was not successful, but he found an enthusiastic supporter in Francois Arago, an
eminent member of the Academie des Sciences in France. Arago recommended that
the French government compensate Daguerre for his considerable efforts, so that the
daguerreotype process could be placed at the service of the entire world. The French
government complied, and the process was widely publicized by F. Arago, 19.8.1839
at a meeting of L’Institut, Paris on August 19, 1839, as a gift to the world from
France.
Astronomers were among the first to employ the new imaging techniques. In
1839-1840, John W. Draper, professor of chemistry at New York University, made
first photographs the moon in first application of daguerreotypes in astronomy. The
photoheliograph, a device for taking telescopic photographs of the sun, was unveiled
in 1854.
In 1840 optical means used to reduce daguerreotype exposure times to 3-5
min. In 1841 William Henry Fox Talbot patents a new process involving creation of
paper negatives. By the end of 19-th century, photography had become an important
means for scientific research and also a commercial item that entered people every
day life. It has been keeping this status till very recently.
Marie Curie, the discoverer of radium, operated and taught operating first X-ray
imaging machines in French army during the 1-st world war
Photography had played a decisive role in
the discovery of X-Rays.
It had played a decisive role in yet
another revolutionary discovery, the
discovery of radioactivity.
Modern gamma-camera:
Gamma-ray collimator + Gamma-ray-to light converter + photo sensitive array + CRT
as a display. Collimator separates rays from different object points.
• Electronic imaging
Electron microscope (Ernst Ruska, 1931, The Nobel Prize, 1986)
Electron optics + luminescent screen or electron sensitive array + CRT display
~1910, Boris Lvovich Rosing, St. Petersburg, Russia: Cathode Ray Tube as a display
device
~1920, His former student, US émigré, Vladimir Kozmich Zvorykin – conversion of
optical image into electric signal and inverse conversion: iconoscope& kinescope.
David Sarnov, sun of a rabbi from Belorussia, US émigré and former telegraph
operator, President of RCA at that time, invited Zvorykin to RCA and gave him
$100.000 for the development of a commercial electronic television system
~1935 : first regular TV broadcasting in Britain, Germany, USA
~ end of 1940-th – commercial TV broadcasting
~ end of 1950-ths – colour television
Radio wave beam forming antenna + space scanning mechanism + receiver + CRT as
a display
• Acoustic microscope (1950-th, after R. Bracewell, Two-dimensional Imaging,
Prentice Hall, 1995):
Electric Receiver
Oscillator
Piezo-electric
transducer
(niobium
Sapphir
i )
(Al2O3) rode
Movable specimen
(immersed in a
li id)
The idea of focusing an acoustic beam was originally suggested by Rayleigh. The
application of scanning acoustic microscopes goes back to 1950.
A scanning optical microscope can also be made on the same principle. It has value as
a means of imaging an extended field without aberrations associated with a lens.
• Scanned-proximity probe (SPP) microscopes.
SPP- microscopes work by measuring a local property - such as height, optical
absorption, or magnetism - with a probe or "tip" placed very close to the sample. The
small probe-sample separation (on the order of the instrument's resolution) makes it
possible to take measurements over a small area. To acquire an image the microscope
raster-scans the probe over the sample while measuring the local property in question.
Scanned-probe systems do not use lenses, so the size of the probe rather than
diffraction effects generally limit their resolution
A conductive sample and a sharp metal tip, which acts as a local probe, are brought within
a distance of a few ångstroms, resulting in a significant overlap of the electronic wave
functions (see the figure). With applied bias voltage (typically between 1mV and 4V), a
tunelling current (typically between 0.1nA and 10 nA) can flow from the occupied electronic
states near the Fermi level of one electrode into the unoccupied states of the other electrode.
By using a piezo-electric drive system of the tip and a feedback loop, a map of the surface
topography can be obtained. The exponential dependence of the tunneling current on the tip-
to-sample spacing has proven to be the key for the high spatial resolution which can be
achieved with the STM. Under favorable conditions, a vertical resolution of hundredths of an
ångstrom and the lateral resolution of about one ångstrom can be reached. Therefore, STM
can provide real-space images of surfaces of conducting materials down to the atomic scale.
(from R. Wiesendanger and H.-J. Güntherodt, Introduction, Scanniing Tunneling Microscopy
I, General Principles and Applications to Clean and Absorbate-Covered Surfaces, Springer
Verlag, Berlin, 1994)
Atomic force microscope (after http://stm2.nrl.navy.mil/how-afm/how-afm.html).
The atomic force microscope is one of about two dozen types of scanning probe
microscopes. AFM operates by measuring attractive or repulsive forces between a tip
and the sample. In its repulsive "contact" mode, the instrument lightly touches a tip at
the end of a leaf spring or "cantilever" to the sample. As a raster-scan drags the tip
over the sample, some sort of detection apparatus measures the vertical deflection of
the cantilever, which indicates the local sample height. Thus, in contact mode the
AFM measures hard-sphere repulsion forces between the tip and sample. In
noncontact mode, the AFM derives topographic images from measurements of
attractive forces; the tip does not touch the sample.
AFMs can achieve a resolution of 10 pm, and unlike electron microscopes, can
image samples in air and under liquids. To achieve this most AFMs today use the
optical lever. The optical lever (Figure 1) operates by reflecting a laser beam off the
cantilever. Angular deflection of the cantilever causes a twofold larger angular
deflection of the laser beam. The reflected laser beam strikes a position-sensitive
photodetector consisting of two side-by-side photodiodes. The difference between the
two photodiode signals indicates the position of the laser spot on the detector and thus
the angular deflection of the cantilever. Image acquisition times is of about one
minute.
The ability of AFM to image at atomic resolution, combined with its ability to image
a wide variety of samples under a wide variety of conditions, has created a great deal
of interest in applying it to the study of biological structures. Images have appeared in
the literature showing DNA, single proteins, structures such as gap junctions, and
living cells.
• Linear tomography (~1930-th)
Moving X-ray point source
O1 O2 O3
Focal plane
Due to the synchronous movement of the X-ray source and X-ray sensor, certain
plane cross-section of the object is always projected in the same place of the sensor
while others are projected with a displacement and therefore will appear blurred in
the resulting image.
Application in dentistry
Laminography
X-ray point source moving in the source plane over a circular trajectory projects
object onto X-ray detector plane. The detector moves synchronously to the source in
such a way as to secure that a specific object layer is projected on the same place on
the detector array for whatever position of the source. The plane of this selected layer
is called “focal plane’. Projections of other object layers located above or beneath of
the “focal plane” will, for different position of the source, be displaced. Therefore if
one sums up all projections obtained for different positions of the source, projections
of the focal plane layers will be accumulated coherently producing a sharp image of
this layer while other layers projected with different displacement in different
projections will produce a blurred background image. The more projections are
available the lower will be the contribution of this background into high frequency
components of the output image.
Probably, the very first example of indirect imaging method was that of X—ray
crystallography (Max Von Laue, 1912, Nobel Prize 1914-1918)
Recording
Source of medium
coherent light
Object beam
Principle of
recording
Object
holograms
Recording
Principle of Source of medium
hologram coherent light
playback
Reconstructing beam
Mirror
Virtual object (imaginary)
• Optical information processing (Marechal, VanderLugt,
1964-66)
Input image Fourier lens Spatial filter Fourier lens Output image
F F F F
Coherent
illumination
Optical system for image restoration
Matched
filter:
Target
Input image object
Fourier lens h l Fourier lens Correlation plane
F F F F
Coherent
illumination
Digital holography reflects, in the most purified way, the informational pith and
marrow of holography and imaging which motivated two the most famous inventors
in holography, D. Gabor and Yu.N. Denisyuk
Beam spatial
filter Reference
beam
Collimator
Lens
Hologram
sensor:
Microscope Digital
Laser
photographic
Object table camera
Object
beam
Digital
reconstruction of
electronically
Computer
recorded holograms
In synthetic aperture radar imaging, amplitude and phase of radio waves reflected
by the object is recorded in course of plain flight around the object. These flight data
are then used for reconstruction of wave reflectivity distribution over the object
surface. The reconstruction is carried out either optically, or, presently, in digital
computers.
It is not accidentally that E. Leith and Yu. Upatnieks who produced first optical laser
hologram were radio engineers that have been working on synthetic aperture radars, a
highly classified subject at that time.
If the thick clouds covering Venus were removed, how would the surface appear?
Using an imaging radar technique, the Magellan spacecraft was able to lift the veil
from the Face of Venus and produce this spectacular high resolution image of the
planet's surface. Red, in this false-color map, represents mountains, while blue
represents valleys. This 3-kilometer resolution map is a composite of Magellan
images compiled between 1990 and 1994. Gaps were filled in by the Earth-based
Arecibo Radio Telescope. The large yellow/red area in the north is Ishtar Terra
featuring Maxwell Montes, the largest mountain on Venus. The large highland
regions are analogous to continents on Earth. Scientists are particularly interested in
exploring the geology of Venus because of its similarity to Earth.
• “Coded” aperture (multiplexing) techniques (1970-th)
Pinhole camera (camera obscura) has a substantial advantage over lenses - it has
infinite depth of field, and it doesn't suffer from chromatic aberration. Because it
doesn't rely on refraction, pinhole camera can be used to form images from X-ray and
other high energy sources, which are normally difficult or impossible to focus.
Source of irradiation
Pinhole camera
Image plane
detector
The biggest problem with pinhole cameras is that they let very little light through to
the film or other detector. This problem can be overcome to some degree by making
the hole larger, which unfortunately leads to a decrease in resolution. The smallest
feature which can be resolved by a pinhole is approximately the same size as the
pinhole itself. The larger the hole, the more blurred the image becomes. Using
multiple, small pinholes might seem to offer a way around this problem, but this gives
rise to a confusing montage of overlapping images. Nonetheless, if the pattern of
holes is carefully chosen, it is possible to reconstruct the original image with a
resolution equal to that of a single hole.
Coding mask
m( x , y )
Detector array
b( x , y )
Parallel beam
of X-rays y
Obj ( x , y )
ξ
ϑ
Pr oj (ϑ ,ξ )
X-ray sensitive
line sensor array
Magnet
and
“gradient” Strong magnetic
coils z RF
field
inductor
Object
Reconstruction RF RF impulse
and display receiver generator
• Gabriel Lippmann, France, Sorbonne University, Paris, France b.1845 (in Hollerich,
Luxembourg), d.1921: The Nobel Prize in Physics 1908 "for his method of reproducing
colours photographically based on the phenomenon of interference"
• Cecil Frank Powell, United Kingdom, Bristol University, Bristol, United Kingdom
b.1903 d.1969. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1950 "for his development of the
photographic method of studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons
made with this method"
• Donald Arthur Glaser, USA, University of California , Berkeley, CA, USA b.1926.
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1960 "for the invention of the bubble chamber”
• Dennis Gabor, United Kingdom, Imperial College of Science and Technology London,
United Kingdom b.1900 (in Budapest, Hungary), d.1979, The Nobel Prize in Physics
1971 "for his invention and development of the holographic method"
• Allan M. Cormack, USA, Tufts University Medford, MA, USA, b.1924 (in
Johannesburg, South Africa) d.1998
• Paul C. Lautenbur, Peter Mansfield, UK. The Nobel Prize 2003 in Physiology and
Medicine ”for their discoveries concerning magnetic resonance imaging”.
Digital imaging and image processing: the highest
level of the evolution of imaging techniques
New qualities that are brought to imaging systems by digital computers and
processors:
USER
OBJECTS
of STUDY
IMAGING
DEVICE
Raw IMAGE
IMAGE
PROCESSOR
(Garbage In) (Gold Out)
Text books:
1. L. Yaroslavsky, Digital Holography and Digital Image processing: Principles, Methods,
Algorithms, Kluwer Scientific Publishers, 2004
2. L. Yaroslavsky, M. Eden. Fundamentals of Digital Optics. Birkhauser, Boston, 1996
3. L. Yaroslavsky. Digital Picture Processing. An Introduction, Springer Verlag, Heidelberg,
New York, 1985
Additional references
1. L. Yaroslavsky, Digital Signal Processing in Optics Holography, Moscow, Radio I Svyaz’),
1987 (In Russian).
2. L. P. Yaroslavsky, N. S. Merzlyakov, Digital Holography, Nauka Publsh., Moscow, 1982 (In
Russian).
3. L. P. Yaroslavskii, N. S. Merzlyakov, Methods of Digital Holography, Consultant Bureau,
N.Y., 1980
4. L. Yaroslavsky, Introduction to Digital Image processing, Moscow, Sov. Radio, Moscow,
1979 (In Russian).
5. J. S. Lim, Two-dimensional Signal and Image Processing, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 1990.
6. R. C. Gonzalez, R. E. Woods, Digital Image Processing, 2-nd ed. Prentice Hall, Inc., 2002
7. R. N. Bracewell, Two-Dimensional Imaging, Prentice Hall Int. Inc., 1995