DRAVIDA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Features

 Temples enclosed within a compounded wall

 Entrance at front gateway, called ‘Gopuram’
 Shape of main temple tower known as ‘Vimana’ which is stepped pyramid that rises
geometrically
 ‘Shikhara’ or octagonal cupola is used for crowning element which is shaped like a small
stupika – equivalent to ‘amalak’ or ‘kalash’ in Nagara style of temple architecture
 Images of ‘Mithuna’ or erotic images found at the entrance in Dravida style along with
images of ‘dwarpala’ or door-keeper found guarding the temple
 Common to find reservoir or water-tank enclosed within the temple

Subdivisions of Dravida Temple Architecture

Five different shapes of Dravida temple:

1. Kuta / Chaturasara - square

2. Shala / Ayatasara – Rectangle
3. Gaja-Prishtha (elephant back) or Vrittayara – Elliptical – derived from wagon-vault shape of
apsidal chaityas, horse shoe shaped called ‘Nasi’
4. Vritta – Circular
5. Ashtasara – octagonal

Temple Architecture

 Began under Pallava ruler Mahendravarman, which is classified under 4 stages:

Ist Stage: Mahendra Group

 Contemporary of Chalukyan King Pulukesin II of Karnataka

 Temple built under Mahendravarman were basically rock-cut temples
 Temples were known an Mandapa (Nagar style, Mandapa was assembly hall)
Sculpture

 The most prominent sculpture of Pallava period (8the C AD) is the icon of Shiva seated in
‘ardhaparyanka asana’ (one leg kept dangling).
 The right hand is in ‘achmana mudra’ gesture, suggesting that he is about to drink poision

IInd Stage: Narsimhavarman Group

 Now, caves were more refines and polished

and decoration was also done.
 Mandapas now called Rathas and got
divided into separate Rathas
 Ex. Rath temple in Mahabalipuram.
Biggest Ratha is called ‘Dharamraj Rath’
 Smaller Rath is called ‘Draupadi Rath’
 Most of the building works at
Mahabalipuram known as Mamallapuram

Mahabalipuram

 Rock-cut and free-standing structured temples made in 7-8cm

 Natural cleft in rock which is depicted as water flowing down and water collects in a
massive tank in front of sculpted wall
Stories depicted:
1. it is said to be the story of ganga from heaven to earth or
2. the main story of Kiratarjuniya of Arjuna’s Penance – poetic work of Bharavi

(Pallava’c court)
3. prashasti
Arjuna’s Penance: to obtain Pashupata weapon from Shiva (bearded figure) or Bhagirathi standing in
penance on one leg, arms raised above his head

 Bhagirathi prayed to have Ganga brought to earth

 Next figure stands Shiva in boon bestowing gesture or Varda Mudra
 Small ‘gana’ or dwarf who stands below this hand personified as Pashupati weapon

IIIrd stage: Rajasimha Group (Narsimhavarman II)

 3rd stage of temple development

 Real structural temple in place of rock-cut temples. Example, Shore temple, Mahabalipuram
(house of 3 shrines – 2 of Shiva: one facing east and west and 1 Vishnu is in center in
Anantshayan position, Kailashnath temple, Kanchipuram
 Water tank, early example of Gopuram

Shore Temple, Mahabalipuram

 Built during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha (700 –
728 AD).
 It has three shrines – one Shiva shrine facing east, one Shiva shrine facing west, a middle

shrine to Vishnu in Anantashayana pose. The presence of three main shrines is unique.
 It is probable that the shrines were not all built at the same time but were added later.
 There is evidence of a water reservoir and a Gopuram.
 There are sculptures of Nandi the bull (Shiva’s mount) along the walls of the temple. There
are several carvings as well.
IV Stage: Nandivarman

 Themples were smaller in size

 After their decline a new type of architecture developed during Cholas called Darvidian

CHOLA TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE

Though the Pallava rulers started the Dravidian style but grand temples were made during the period
of Chola.

 Continuation of Pallava architecture, called Dravidian architecture

 This style of temple is enclosed by a compounded wall and there is one huge entrance which is
known as ‘Gopurams’
 Presence of water tank is a necessary feature
 Panchayatan style – principal temple and 4 subsidiary shrines
 Tower of this style is a Stepped pyramid called ‘Vimana’. There is only one vimana on top of
the main temple
 Crowning element is octagonal shape called ‘Shikhara’ similar to Kalasha

Ex. Shiva temple of Thanjavur called ‘Rajarajeshwara’ or ‘Brihadeshwara’ temple completed by

Rajaraja Chola in 1009 AD. Gangaikondacholapuram (Rajendra I to commemorate his victory in
Gangetic plains)

Chola Temples:

1. Kanchipuram –
Kailashnath, Vaikunth
Preumal
2. Mamallapuram – Panch
Rath Pagoda, Shore
temple
3. Tanjore – Brihadeshwara
tempe (granite stone),
Vijayalaya Choleswaram
temple
4. Hampi – Hazar
Ramaswamy,
Vitthalaswamy

Brihadeshwar Temple, Tanjore

 Shiva temple, also called

Rajarajeswara Temple.
 Completed around 1009
AD. Built by Rajaraja
 Chola.
 It is the largest and tallest of all Indian temples. This Chola temple is bigger than any of the
previous Pallava, Chalukya or Pandya structures.
 Its pyramidal multi-storied vimana is almost 70 metres high.
 There is a monolithic shikhara atop the vimana.
 The shikhara is a dome-shaped octagonal stupika. On the shikhara, there are large Nandi
images.
 The kalasha on top of the shikhara is 3m and 8cm tall.
 There are hundreds of stucco figures on the vimana. Many might have been added later on in
the Maratha period.
 The main deity of Shiva is portrayed as a huge lingam set in a double-storied sanctum.
 The surrounding walls of the sanctum are adorned with painted murals and sculptures of
mythological stories.
Sculpture of Chola Period

The Chola Bronze Nataraja

Nataraja image of Shiva in Tandava dance posture,

made in bronze represents Shiva’s cosmic dance
which symbolizes the cyclic creation and destruction
of the universe.

Features:

4 Hands

 The main right hand is in the ‘Abhayahastha’

mudra which means he releasing fearlessness
 Upper right hand holding ‘damru’
symbolizing the creation
 Main left hand is called ‘Dolahastha’ which is
pointing towards his left raised foot
symbolizing the refuse of world and connects
the abhayahastha of the right hand
 Upper left hand carrying the flame which
symbolizing destruction

Legs

 Right leg of Nataraja Shiva: with his right leg he is suppressing the demon of ignorance and
evil, which is named as ‘Mayulakha’
 Left leg is raised called ‘bhujangtrasila or ‘tirobhava’. He is kicking away maya or illusion
from the mind of devotee
 The garland around his statue is known as ‘jwalamala’ (garland of flames). It depicts
destruction.
  His hair locks are flying both in left and right direction touching the jwalamala

Other Schools of temple architecture

1. Vijayanagara school
 They introduced all the features
of Dravidian style and
introduced few new prominent
features. Indo-Islamic style of
Bijapur, features are influenced
by -
i. First such introduction was
the concept of very high
enclosure walls and grand
and high Gopurams.
ii. Walls are highly decorated
with carvings and geometrical patterns
iii. Gopuram built on all the sides
iv. Larger enclosing walls (to protect from enemies like Bahmani Kingdom)
v. They introduced the concept of very new shrine known as ‘Amman Shrine;. It was
dedicated to chief wife of main deity.
vi. More than one Mandapa were built, central mandapa is called Kalyan Mandapa (marriage
purpose)
vii. Secular concept of building,
ex. Virupaksha temple, Lotus
Mahal, etc., Lepakshi temple
2. Nayaka School
 Built between 16th-18th C AD
 Called Madurai school –
architecturally similar to
Dravidian style, unique features
are:
- Presence of Prakarna or huge
corridors in portico around
Garbhagriha, along with
roofed ambulatory
passageway
- Gopurams – some are largest. Meenakshi temple has tallest Gopuram in the wolrd. Art
has reached to its climax by thus time
- Temple structure was filled with intricate carvings, ex. Meenakshi temple, Madurai
 Temples outside India

Combodia (Khamboja)

 Colonized by Indians in 1st C AD

 Influenced by native people called
Khmers
 Ruling dynasty was Khamboja
 Early rulers were Shaivites and
Vaishnavites
 Hindu literary works like Vedas,
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Panini’s
grammer, hindu philosophical
treatises were all known to people
 Angkorwat temple (Vishnu) – built by
Suryavarman II – built in Dravidian style

Java, Indonesia

 Borobudur temple by Shailendra dynasty

 Situated on top hill – crowned by bell-
shaped stupa – open gallaries in terraces
contains 2000 small carved stone figures
(bas-relief) – various incidents of Buddha’s
life

Ravana Shaking Mount Kailasha, Ellora (Cave temple)

 The theme is depicted on the wall of Kailashnath temple

(Cave no. 16) at Ellora, belongs to 8th C AD
 It depicts the episode of Ravana shaking Mt. Kailasha when
Lord Shiva along with Parvatki and others were on the
mountain
 The composition is divided into several tiers. The lower tier
depicts Ravana, multi-faced and multi armed shaking the
mount with ease
 The upper half is divided into 3 frames. The centre occupied
by the image of Shiva and Parvati. Parvati is moving close
to Shiva scared by the commotion of hill.
 Their torsos are slender with heaviness and its surface
 treatment, arms are slim in full round

INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE

How Indo-Islamic Architecture emerged in India

 In the 7th and 8th centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India. Islam came to
India particularly with merchants, traders, holy men and conquerors over a passage of
600 years
 The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture in India. With
the coming of Muslims to India, many new features and techniques came to be introduced
in buildings.
 By 8th C, Muslims had begun to construct in Sindh, Gujarat, etc. by 13th C only a large
scale building activity started taking place by Turkish state established after the Turkish
conquests of northern India
 By 12th C certain techniques and embellishments were prevalent and popular in India like
trabeation (use of beam), brackets and multiple pillars to support a flat roof or a shallow
dome. While arches were shaped in wood and stone
 The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the Indo-
Islamic Architecture or Indo-Saracenic or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic
Art.
 The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. It was a
combination of Islamic architecture elements to those of the Indian architecture.

Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture

 Use of Arch and Dome gained prominence during these periods which is known as ‘Arcuade’
style of architecture replaced the ‘trabeate style’
 Uses of minars around mosque and mausoleums
 Mortar was used as connecting agent
 Avoided the use of human and animal figures on the walls
 Spaciousness, massiveness and breadth unlike hindu architecture which looks more congestive
 Use of calligraphy were replaced the sculptures used in
Hindu style of architecture
 Arbesque method was used for decoration – use of
geometrical vegetal ornamentation – leafy structures
 Intricate ‘jali work’ in buildings – importance of light
and cooling effect
 Use of water tank in the premises of constructions in the
form of courtyard pools, fountains and small drains.
Three purposes were there: - religious, cooling the
premises and decoration
  Charbagh style of gardening – square blocks divided
into 4 adjacent identical gardens
 Use of pietra-dura
technique for inlaying of precious
stones and gems into the stone
walls
 Foreshortening techniques
were used – inscriptions appear
smaller than it really is.

Difference between trabeate and arcuade styles

Categories of Indo-Islamic style

The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorized as follows:

1. The Imperial Style (Delhi sultanate)

2. The Provincial styles (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal and Jaunpur)
3. The Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra and Lahore)
4. The Deccani style (Bijapur and Golconda)
 Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is regarded as distinct.
  Gujarat was said to have a markedly regional character for patrons borrowed elements
from the regional temple traditions such as torans, lintels in mihrabs, carving of bell and
chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs, mosques and dargahs.
 The 15th century white marble dargah of Sheikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good
example of provincial style and it heavily influenced the forms and decoration of Mughal
tombs.

Architecture during Delhi Sultanate 1206-1526

 The Delhi Sultanate was predominantly spread in and around Delhi in North India and it
gradually spread its rule across various parts of the Indian subcontinent for over three
centuries starting from 1206 to 1526, particularly during the Tughlaq Dynasty.
 The rule of the sultanate comprised of five successive dynasties starting from the Mamluk
Dynasty whose founder in Delhi was Qutub-ud-Din Aibak, also the founder of the Turkish
dominion in north-western India, became the first sultan of Delhi.
 The three of the other four successive dynasties namely the Khilji Dynasty, the Tughlaq
Dynasty and the Sayyid Dynasty respectively were also of Turkish origin

It can be categorized into two broad categories:

i. Imperial style – patronized by rulers of Delhi

ii. Provincial style – local rulers ad fiefs

Imperial Style

i. Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) AD

 Remodeling of existing Hindu structures: Teachings from the Holy Quran and various floral
patterns are visible in the arches while swastika, lotus, bells and other Hindu motifs used
largely by the sultans form parts of other embellishments of the palaces.

The ‘Qutb Complex’ comprising of a number of historically significant monuments and buildings is
one of the foremost examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. Some of the important constructions of
the complex include the ‘Qutb Minar’, the
‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque’, the ‘Tomb of
Iltutmish’, etc.

‘Qutb Minar’ - The 73 m (240 ft.) colossal tower

called ‘Qutb Minar’ made of red sandstone and
marble located within the complex stands not
only as the highest brick minaret in the world
but it is also as one of the most famous tourist
attractions in India.

 Construction of this UNESCO World

Heritage Site was initiated by Qutb
 ud-Din Aibak, the founder of the Mamluk Dynasty in Delhi, in 1200 AD and completed by
his successor and son-in-law Iltutmish in 1220 AD.
 This minaret was dedicated by Aibak to the Muslim Sufi mystic saint and scholar of the
Chishti Order, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki.

‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque’ – Originally was a Jaina temple, converted into a mosque. It is regarded
as the first mosque built in India;

 Its construction was delegated by Aibak, which started in 1193 and completed in 1197.
 Twenty seven Hindu temples, shafts
of which adorn the inner and outer
courtyard of this Jami Masjid, were
demolished to construct it.
 A provocative inscription etched over
its eastern gate justifies the presence
of typical Hindu embellishments in a
Muslim mosque.

Adhai-din-ka-Jhopra, Ajmer: Originally a

Sanskrita college, converted into a mosque by
Qutub-ud-din-Aibak

Khalji Dynasty:

Ruled from 1290-1320 AD and established a Seljuk

style of architecture

 Red sandstone was used in the construction

 Construction of ‘Arcuade’ style began from
this period
 Mortar began to use as a cementing agent
 Examples are Alai Darwaza by Alaud-din-
Khilji and Siri Fort, etc
‘Alai Darwaza’ - Another brilliant example of Indo-Islamic architecture is the magnificent ‘Alai
Darwaza’ within the complex that forms the central gateway from the southern side of the mosque.

 Built in 1311 AD by Ala-ud-din Khilji, the second Khilji Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate, the
gateway built of red sandstone and white marble stands as the first ever structure in India
that incorporated principles of Islamic architecture, both in its construction and decoration.

Tughluq Dynasty

 Use of grey sandstone in the

construction of building
 They focused more on the
strength of the building, less
emphasized on the decoration,
also marked as the crisis period
for architectures
 Combination of arch and lintel
method of entrance designs are
used
 Introduces ‘batter system’
meaning sloping walls to give more strength to the building
 The fortified city of Tughlaqabad built by emperor Ghiyas-ud-Din-Tughluq; the medieval
city of Delhi called Jahanpanah and the ‘Adilabad Fort’ built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq,
son of Ghiyas- ud- Din Tughluq; and the Ferozabad fort and palace constructed by Firoz
Shah Tughlug, successor of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, marks the architectural style of the
Tughlug dynasty.

Lodhi Dynasty

 Tombs were commissioned in the architecture by this time

 Introduction of double dome. Reason of double dome structure were to give strength to the
building and lower the inner height of dome
 Tombs were hard and bare – without lavish
decorations
 Built in octagonal shape – diameter of
roughly 15m supported by sloping verandah
 Ex. Lodhi garden, Delhi, Agra city
established by Sikander Lodhi
PROVINCIAL SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

Bengal

 Sultanate Muslim Architecture in Bengal started with Bakhtiyar's conquests. He is reported

in Minhaj-us-Siraj's Tabaqat-i-Nasiri to have built 'mosques, madrasahs and khanqahs'.
 Use of bricks and black marble
 Mosques built by this time continued the use of sloping ‘Bangla roof’

Malwa

 Cities of Dhar and Mandu became the important seats of Malwa architecture
 Also called Pathan school of architecture
 They used different colored stones and marbles.
 Buildings had large windows and were decorated
by a stylized use of arches and pillars
 Artificial reservoirs or ‘baulis’ are also important
feature of this school which was used to store
water
 Locally available materials were used
 They also used the batter system
introduced by Tuglaqs
 Examples are Hindola Mahal, Rani
Roopmati Pavillian, Jahaz Mahal, etc

Jaunpur School

 Patronized by Sharqui rulers, style of

architecture named after them
 They avoided the use of minars
  They used bold and forceful characters painted on huge screens in the centre and side bays of
the prayer hall. Ex. Atala mosque, Jaunpur, etc.

Bijapur School

 Under the patron of Adil Shah, Deccan style or Bijapur style of architecture flourished
 Architecture was bit different by this time.
 The use of 3-arched façade and bulbous dome which was spherical in shape with a narrow
neck
 Iron clamps and strong plaster or mortar were used to give strength to the buildings.
 Walls were decorated by rich carvings
 Example, Gol Gumbaj, mausoleum of Adil Shah in Bijapur

MUGHAL ARCHITECTURE

 The Mughal Empire was founded in the Indian subcontinent by a conqueror from Central
Asia called Babur who became the first Mughal emperor in India in 1526.
 The Mughal Empire that ruled till 1764 in India made significant contribution in the field of
architecture in the Indian subcontinent by evolving a rich and unique architectural style,
better known as Mughal architecture that portray a fine blend of Central Asian, Islamic,
Persian, Arabic and Turkish architectural styles with that of the native architectural styles of
India

Some of the Mughal Architecture was:

Babur: constructed mosques in Panipat, Rohilkhand in 1526 AD

Humayun: He founded the city called Din Panah, but couldn’t complete due to his sudden demise

Sher Shah: Constructed Quila-I-Quhnah mosque (Mosque of Old Fort), grand trunk road and tomb at
Sasaram, Bihar. He continued the tradition of Delhi Sultanate

Architecture during Akbar period

 The principle feature of building by this time was the use of red sandstone
 He introduced the Tudir Arch (four centred arch)
 Akbar made significant contributions to the Mughal style of architecture.
 Huge domes, large halls, colossal gateways, minarets positioned at corners and fine
embellishments are some of the other signature features of the Mughal architecture.

Agra Fort

It was the first construction by Akbar but many of them were also built by Shahjahan, some of the
prominent building built here were:

 Moti masjid by Shah Jahan

 Diwan-i-Aam (hall of public audience) by
Shah Jahan
 Diwan-i-Khas (hall of private audience)
by Shah Jahan
 Jahangiri Mahal
 Sheesh Mahal (Turkish bath)

Garden inside the fort were built in Charbagh

style

Fatehpur Sikri

 It was a new capital city made by Akbar. Here

buildings are made in blend of hindu and Persian
style of architecture

Some of the important buildings here found are:

 Buland darwaza to commemorate Akbar’s

victory over Gujarat. It is the largest gateway of
the world
  Panch Mahal: made as wind catcher, inspired from Persian style of architecture
 Jodha Bai’s or Mariam-us-Zamani’s Palace
 Salim Chishti’s tomb contained finest
jail work built in white marble. It has
arabesque pattern and inscriptions of Quranic
verses on the walls
 Ibadat Khana was made for the
discussion on different religions attended by
leaders

Jahangir

 He focused more on paintings and architecture

took a back seat
 He oversaw the construction of some
monuments including Akbar’s tomb at
Sikandra
 Built his own tomb at Lahore
 Developed a number of gardens, eg. Shalimar
garden in Kashmir
 Moti Masjid at Lahore
 Noor-e-Jahan also undertook some major
construction
- Tomb of Itmad-ud-Daulah (her father): here use of white marble replaced the use of red
sandstone which was in use till this time
- Finest work of pietra dura

Shah Jahan

 Mughal architecture reached to its climax by this time

Some of the notable works by Shah Jahan are:

Taj Mahal

 Constructed in the memory of

Arzuman Bano Begum or Mumtaz
Mahal
 It has all the features of Mughal
architecture – use of calligraphy,
pietra dura works, foresightening
techniques, Charbagh style of garden
 and use of water in the premises for decoration and also extensive use of Jali work
 Apart from Taj Mahal, another of his architectural works
- Red fort, Delhi
- Jama masjid
- Shalimar Bagh in Lahore
- Shahjahanbad city
- Peacock throne

Muhammad Azam Shah

 Aurangzeb did not taken active interest in the

pursuit of art and architecture.

 Shah was the last Mughal ruler who took interest in the
architectural field.
 He built Bibi-ka-Maqbara in the memory of his mother
Rabia Durrani, wife of Aurangzeb
 It is situated in Aurangabad district which is a poor
imitation of Taj Mahal
 He also built Zinat Mahal in Delhi in the memory of his wife