Topic: Shear Force and its Adverse Effects on Different Links

Term Paper
Of Mechanical Sciences – I (MEC-101)

Submitted To: - Submitted By:-

Amit Kr. Gupta Biprajit Bhattacharjee
Dept of Mechanics Section: - RD1801
Roll No: - A22
Regd. No: - 10801010
ACNOWLEDGEMENT

This is sincere effort on my part to put up this term

paper on Shear Force And Its Adverse Affects On Different
Links.
I want to thank our Mechanical Science Teacher Mr. Amit
Kr. Gupta who has throught and helped me in completing
my Mechanical Science Term Paper.
I also received immense support from my parents due to
which I could successfully complete my assigned project.

-Biprajit
Bhattacharjee
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Introduction

Shear Force

Defination

Different Types of links

Adverse affects of shear force

Conclusion

Reference

INTRODUCTION:
Mechanics is the branch of physics concerned with the behaviour
of physical bodies when subjected to forces or displacements, and the
subsequent effect of the bodies on their environment. The discipline has
its roots in several ancient civilizations (see History of classical
mechanics and Timeline of classical mechanics). During the early
modern period, scientists such as Galileo, Kepler, and
especially Newton, laid the foundation for what is now known
as classical mechanics.
Types Of Mechanics Bodies
The often-used term body needs to stand for a wide assortment of
objects, including particles, projectiles, spacecraft, stars, parts
of machinery, parts of solids, parts of fluids (gasesand liquids), etc.
Other distinctions between the various sub-disciplines of mechanics,
concern the nature of the bodies being described. Particles are bodies
with little (known) internal structure, treated as mathematical points in
classical mechanics. Rigid bodies have size and shape, but retain a
simplicity close to that of the particle, adding just a few so-
called degrees of freedom, such as orientation in space.
Otherwise, bodies may be semi-rigid, i.e. elastic, or non-rigid, i.e. fluid.
These subjects have both classical and quantum divisions of study.
For instance, the motion of a spacecraft, regarding its orbit and attitude
(rotation), is described by the relativistic theory of classical mechanics,
while the analogous movements of anatomic nucleus are described by
quantum mechanics.
Thus as a part of Mechanics we will study about the SHEAR FORCE
AND ITS ADVERSE AFFECTS.

SHEAR FORCE
A shear stress, denoted (tau), is defined as a stress which is applied
parallel or tangential to a face of a material, as opposed to a normal
stress which is applied perpendicularly.

General shear stress

The formula to calculate average shear stress is:

where

τ = the shear stress

F = the force applied
A = the cross sectional area

Shear Rate

Shear rate is the rate at which a shear is applied.

Simple Shear

Shear rate for a fluid flowing between two fixed parallel plates is defined
using the following equation:
Where:

• = The shear rate, measured in reciprocal seconds

• = The velocity, measured in meters per second
• = The distance between the two parallel faces that are
experiencing the shear, measured in meters

Other Forms Of Shear Stress:

Beam shear

Beam shear is defined as the internal shear stress of a beam caused by

the shear force applied to the beam.

where
V = total shear force at the location in question
Q = statical moment of area
t = thickness in the material perpendicular to the shear
I = Moment of Inertia of the entire cross sectional area
This formula is also known as the Jourawski formula.

Semi-monocoque shear
Shear stresses within a semi-monocoque structure may be calculated by
idealizing the cross-section of the structure into a set of stringers
(carrying only axial loads) and webs (carrying only shear flows).
Dividing the shear flow by the thickness of a given portion of the semi-
monocoque structure yields the shear stress. Thus, the maximum shear
stress will occur either in the web of maximum shear flow or minimum
thickness.
Also constructions in soil can fail due to shear; e.g., the weight of an
earth-filled dam or dike may cause the subsoil to collapse, like a
small landslide.
Impact shear
The maximum shear stress created in a solid round bar subject to impact
is given as the equation:

where
U = Change in Kinetic Energy
G = Shear Modulus
V = Volume of Rod
and

= Mass Moment of Inertia

= Angular Speed

Shear stress in fluids

Any real fluids (liquids and gases included) moving along solid
boundary will incur a shear stress on that boundary. The no-slip
condition[2] dictates that the speed of the fluid at the boundary (relative to
the boundary) is zero, but at some height from the boundary the flow
speed must equal that of the fluid. The region between these two points
is aptly named theboundary layer. For all Newtonian fluids in laminar
flow the shear stress is proportional to the strain rate in the fluid where
the viscosity is the constant of proportionality. However for Non
Newtonian fluids, this is no longer the case as for these fluids
the viscosity is not constant. The shear stress is imparted onto the
boundary as a result of this loss of velocity. The shear stress, for a
Newtonian fluid, at a surface element parallel to a flat plate, at the point
y, is given by:

where
μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid,
u is the velocity of the fluid along the boundary, and
y is the height of the boundary.
Specifically, the wall shear stress is defined as:

In case of wind, the shear stress at the boundary is called wind stress.

Diverging fringe shear stress sensor

This relationship can be exploited to measure the wall shear stress. If a
sensor could directly measure the gradient of the velocity profile at the
wall, then multiplying by the dynamic viscosity would yield the shear
stress. Such a sensor was demonstrated by A. A. Naqwi and W. C.
Reynolds. The interference pattern generated by sending a beam of light
through two parallel slits forms a network of linearly diverging fringes
that seem to originate from the plane of the two slits (see double-slit
experiment). As a particle in a fluid passes through the fringes, a
receiver detects the reflection of the fringe pattern. The signal can be
processed, and knowing the fringe angle, the height and velocity of the
particle can be extrapolated.

SHEAR MODULUS:
In materials science, shear modulus or modulus of rigidity, denoted
by G, or sometimes S or μ, is defined as the ratio of shear stressto
the shear strain:[1]
 where
= shear stress;
F is the force which acts
A is the area on which the force acts
= shear strain;
Δx is the transverse displacement
I is the initial length
Shear modulus is usually expressed in gigapascals (GPa) or thousands of
pounds per square inch (ksi).
The shear modulus is one of several quantities for measuring the
stiffness of materials. All of them arise in the generalized Hooke's law:

 Young's modulus describes the material's response to linear strain

(like pulling on the ends of a wire),
 the bulk modulus describes the material's response to
uniform pressure, and
 the shear modulus describes the material's response to shearing
strains.

The shear modulus is concerned with the deformation of a solid when it

experiences a force parallel to one of its surfaces while its opposite face
experiences an opposing force (such as friction). In the case of an object
that's shaped like a rectangular prism, it will deform into
a parallelepiped.Anisotropic materials such as wood and paper exhibit
differing material response to stress or strain when tested in different
directions. In this case, when the deformation is small enough so that the
deformation is linear, the elastic moduli, including the shear modulus,
will then be a tensor, rather than a single scalar value.
SHEAR RATE:
Shear rate is the rate at which a shear is applied.
Simple Shear:
Shear rate for a fluid flowing between two fixed parallel plates is defined
using the following equation:

Where:

 = The shear rate, measured in reciprocal seconds

 = The velocity, measured in meters per second
 = The distance between the two parallel faces that are
experiencing the shear, measured in meters

Or,
For the simple shear case, it is just a gradient of velocity in a flowing
material. The SI unit of measurement for shear rate is sec-1, expressed as
"reciprocal seconds" or "inverse seconds."[1]
The shear rate at the inner wall of a Newtonian fluid flowing within a
pipe[2] is:

where:

 = The shear rate, measured in reciprocal seconds.

 = The linear fluid velocity.
 = The inside diameter of the pipe.

The linear fluid velocity v is related to the volumetric flow rate Q by:
 where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe, which for an
inside pipe radius of r is given by:

thus producing:

Substituting the above into the earlier equation for the shear rate of a
Newtonian fluid flowing within a pipe, and noting (in the denominator)
that d = 2r:

which simplifies to the following equivalent form for wall shear rate in
terms of volumetric flow rate Q and inner pipe radius r :

For a Newtonian fluid wall shear stress (τw) can be related to shear rate
by , where μ is the viscosity of the fluid. For Non-Newtonian
fluids, there are different constitutive lawsdepending on the fluid, which
relates the stress tensor to the shear rate tensor.

SHEAR MOMENT AND DIAGRAM:

Shear and bending moment diagrams are analytical tools used in
conjunction with structural analysis to help perform structural design by
determining the value of shear force andbending moment at a given
point of an element. Using these diagrams the type and size of a member
of a given material can be easily determined. Another application of
shear and moment diagrams is that the deflection can be easily
determined using either the moment area method or the conjugate beam
method.
Normal convention
The normal convention used in most engineering applications is to label
a positive shear force one that spins an element clockwise (up on the left,
and down on the right). Likewise the normal convention for a positive
bending moment is to warp the element in a "u" shape manner
(Clockwise on the left, and counterclockwise on the right).

Normal positive shear force convention (left) and normal bending

moment convention (right).
This convention was selected to simplify the analysis of beams. Since a
horizontal member is usually analyzed from left to right and positive in
the vertical direction is normally taken to be up, the positive shear
convention was chosen to be up from the left, and to make all drawings
consistent down from the right. The positive bending convention was
chosen such that a positive shear force would tend to create a positive
moment.

Relation Between LOAD, SHEAR and MOMENT Diagram:

Since this method can easily become unnecessarily complicated with
relatively simple problems, it can be quite helpful to understand different
relations between the loading, shear, and moment diagram. The first of
these is the relationship between a distributed load on the loading
diagram and the shear diagram. Since a distributed load varies the shear
load according to its magnitude it can be derived that the slope of the
shear diagram is equal to the magnitude of the distributed load.

Some direct results of this is that a shear diagram will have a point
change in magnitude if a point load is applied to a member, and a
linearly varying shear magnitude as a result of a constant distributed
load. Similarly it can be shown that the slope of the moment diagram at a
given point is equal to the magnitude of the shear diagram at that
distance.

A direct result of this is that at every point the shear diagram crosses
zero the moment diagram will have a local maximum or minimum. Also
if the shear diagram is zero over a length of the member, the moment
diagram will have a constant value over that length. By calculus it can be
shown that a point load will lead to a linearly varying moment diagram,
and a constant distributed load will lead to a quadratic moment
diagram.
Different types Of Links:
In architecture and structural engineering, a truss is
a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with
straight members whose ends are connected at joints referred to
as nodes. External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to
act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are
either tensile or compressive forces. Moments (torsional forces) are
explicitly excluded because, and only because, all the joints in a truss are
treated as revolutes.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two
dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes extending
into three dimensions.
A truss is composed of triangles because of the structural stability of that
shape and design. A triangle is the simplest geometric figure that will not
change shape when the lengths of the sides are fixed. In comparison,
both the angles and the lengths of a four-sided figure must be fixed for it
to retain its shape.
Types Of Truss:
There are two basic types of truss:

* The pitched truss, or common truss, is characterized by its triangular

shape. It is most often used for roof construction. Some common trusses
are named according to their web configuration. The chord size and web
configuration are determined by span, load and spacing.

* The parallel chord truss, or flat truss, gets its name from its parallel top
and bottom chords. It is often used for floor construction.
A combination of the two is a truncated truss, used in hip roof
construction. A metal plate-connected wood truss is a roof or floor truss
whose wood members are connected with metal connector plates.

Forces in members
On the right is a simple, statically determinate flat truss with 9 joints and
(2 x 9) − 3 = 15 members. External loads are concentrated in the outer
joints. Since this is a symmetrical truss with symmetrical vertical loads,
it is clear to see that the reactions at A and B are equal, vertical and half
the total load.
The internal forces in the members of the truss can be calculated in a
variety of ways including the graphical methods:

 Cremona diagram
 Culmann diagram
 the analytical Ritter method (method of sections).
Thus Now Discussing About Its Adverse Effects In Different types
Of Links::

A reinforced concrete beam-column, assumed to possess a series of

potential crack planes, is considered as a truss consisting of a finite
number of differential truss elements and analyzed using the virtual
work method to define the lateral force-deformation relationship. The
differential truss is simplified using various numerical integration
schemes, since the analytical integration involves the complexity. From
such truss models the effects of the diagonal shear cracking can be
reliably modeled and valuable information such as crack angles and the
cracked elastic stiffness in both shear and flexure can be determined. An
equation to estimate the theoretical crack angle is derived by considering
the energy minimization on the virtual work done by shear and flexural
components. Theoretical crack angles compare favorably with
experimentally observed crack angles reported by previous researchers.
It is postulated that the total shear strength can be found by combining
three complementary mechanims that arise from: truss action that
incorporates the transverse hoop steel; truss action that incorporates the
concrete tensile strength normal to the principal diagonal crack plane;
and arch action that incorporates the axial load transferring mechanism.
Displacement compatibility requirements are applied when combining
the three mechanism to give the overall shear force-deformation
behavior. The theory is also implemented computationally using cyclic
non-linear truss elements. However, the present version of modeling
technique cannot properly account for the cyclic loading effect due to the
earthquake duration effect. If improved constitutive models were used to
more faithfully represent concrete and steel behavior (under cyclic
loading), then the overall predictions should also markedly improve.

The effect of shear force on aerobic granulation was studied in four

column-type, sequential aerobic sludge blanket reactors. Hydrodynamic
turbulence caused by upflow aeration served as the main shear force in
the systems. Results showed that aerobic granulation was closely
associated with the strength of shear force. Compact and regular aerobic
granules were formed in the reactors with a superficial upflow air
velocity higher than 1.2 cm s-1. However, only typical bioflocs were
observed in the reactor with a superficial upflow air velocity of 0.3 cm s-
1
during the whole experimental period. The characteristics of the
aerobic granules in terms of settling ability, specific gravity,
hydrophobicity, polysaccharide and protein content and specific oxygen
utilization rate (SOUR) were examined. It was found that the shear force
has a positive effect on the production of polysaccharide, SOUR,
hydrophobicity of cell surface and specific gravity of granules. The
hydrophobicity of granular sludge is much higher than that of bioflocs.
Therefore, it appears that hydrophobicity could induce and further
strengthen cell-cell interaction and might be the main force for the
initiation of granulation. The shear-stimulated production of
polysaccharides favors the formation of a stable granular structure.
This research provides experimental evidence to show that shear force
plays a crucial role in aerobic granulation and further influences the
structure and metabolism of granules.
Traditionally, timber truss is one of the most used load bearing structures
for roofs in Italy, especially in historical buildings; if properly realized
and regularly checked and maintained1, it could represent the best
structural solution for a very long time On the contrary the neglect and
the defect of maintenance, combined with a bio-deterioration or an
increase of the load, could lead to very important structural problems
which sometimesrequire hard work and thorough knowledge to be
solved and to avoid the risk of failure In some cases the presence of
wood "defects" like knots, shrinkage fissures, slope of grain, or wood
damage (e.g. insect attacks) in critical locations of the truss such as
joints, may affect the mechanical performance of the structure, inducing
an early failure at low load levels, in other cases the strength of the
structural system is not affected by specific defects, but may be difficult
for the timber surveyor to state.
Understanding the failure behaviour of full dimension joints is an
important goal, particularly in order to optimize on-site examination and
diagnosis of timber structures; by such means, the visual assessment and
evaluation of strength properties of timber elements and joints can be
performed with greater reliability, with the objective of saving old
timber members from replacement or heavy strengthening, if not strictly
necessary.

This paper reports about the first part of a wider study in progress; it
presents an experimental research aiming at determining the strength of
nodal joints connecting bottom and top chords in traditional trusses, and
to verify how shear failures occur in heel; then to test the shear strength
of little full dimension specimens, according to EN 1193, made with the
timber of the same structural elements.

Main purposes are to assess the pattern of failure in shear of heel

connections, to relate it with defects and wood damage, usually present
in full size ancient timber beams, and to compare the mode of shear
failure between the two different test modalities. Experimentation has
been carried out on old timber elements, made of poplar one coming
from ancient buildings undergoing restoration in Tuscany. The
information collected about the structures in restoration dated the beams
more than fifty years old: poplar beams which have been under load
from the last years of the XIX century, while fir and spruce date from the
Forties [Bevilacqua, 2001]. This material has been used to realize six full
dimension heel joints of different wood:
- 3 joints of poplar,
- 2 joints of fir,
- 1 joint of spruce.
Three further joints have been made with some pieces of more recent
chestnut beams, used for some laboratory tests in the Nineties
Formerly all the joists had been subjected to bending.
Then the beams were truncated to the length required to compose the
joint: 100cm for the top-chord and 130cm for the bottom-chord; each
single element has been planed and reduced to a section of 15x15cm.
Top and bottom chords, made with the same wood, have been connected
as shown in the first picture. The bottom-chords have been prepared with
a notch about 4cm deep at a distance of 20cm from the end of the beam,
to bear the top-chord. The joint has been made to obtain a pitch of the
top-chord of 30°. The moisture content of timber has been
periodically controlled by an electric moisture meter; after a period of
some on the inside labs, during the tests the MC has been measured in
the range 11-14%, close to the normal condition (12%).

CONCLUSION:

The laboratory tests on the different shear failures allow us to formulate

the following conclusions:
- the shear failure of the heel joints has been widely verified: the
behaviour of the full size timber specimens corresponds properly to the
performances expected on structural timber elements. The test proposed
is able to reproduce the actual in situ loading condition;
- the shrinkage fissures have no weakening effect on the shear strength
of the heel, if they are not precisely in the breaking plane;
- some strength reducing characteristics, such as the slope of the grain
and the knots, ordinarily evaluated for grading full size timber elements
(e.g. UNI 11035), have no negative effects on shear strength; on the
contrary wane, pitch pockets, tunnels of wood-boring beetles and, more
generally, "lack of wood", can influence the correct shear performance;
- it is not possible to exclude a positive effect of knots and slope of the
grain (local or general), on heel shear strength and stiffness of the full
size truss joint;
- the strength values are not enough numerically to be statistically
evaluated; they show that the timbers tested, although defects and insect
tunnels are present, have shear mechanical performances comparable to
the literature data about new timber;
REFERENCE:

1) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truss

2) http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?
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4) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shear_stress