國立台灣海洋大學

國立台灣海洋大學 National Taiwan Ocean University

Announcement
National Taiwan Ocean University
„ Course webpage:
通訊與導航工程學系 http://dcstl.cge.ntou.edu.tw/DCSTL/Web/introDC09.htm
http://moodle.ntou.edu.tw/course/view.php?id=2501
數位通訊導論
„ Reading Assignment:
Introduction to Digital Communications ‹ Chapter 8
Spring 2009
吳家琪 助理教授

Lecture 13: Spread Spectrum and CDMA

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Spread-Spectrum Communications Direct-Sequence vs. Frequency Hopping

„ Techniques: „ Direct-Sequence:
‹ Frequency-hopped (FH) ‹ Can often be coherently demodulated
‹ Direct-sequence (DS) ‹ Suffers from near- far problem (requires power control)

‹ Hybrid (DS/FH) ‹ Very-resistant to multipath fading

‹ Less expensive receivers
„ Advantages:
‹ Low probability of signal detection/interception „ Frequency Hopping:
‹ Protection against hostile jamming ‹ Noncoherent modulation
‹ Resistance to multipath fading ‹ No near-far problem

‹ Graceful performance degradation from interference ‹ Less resistant to multipath fading

‹ Frequency Reuse ‹ Requires synchronization with each hop

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Applications of Spread-Spectrum Multiple Access

„ Military/secure communications „ Spread-spectrum allows many users to share same
„ Cellular telephone/Personal Communications Service bandwidth
„ User signals are separated out at receiver based on code
„ Wireless Local Area Networks
properties
„ Unlicensed “Part 15” Devices „ Interference between users mitigated by code cross
correlation
„ In downlink, signal and interference have same received
power
„ In uplink, “close” users drown out “far” users (near-far
problem)

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Multiple Access Methods Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum System

„ Transmitter
Base Station
b(t) X X s(t)

Forward link
a(t) 2 P cos(ωc t )
Reverse link
Mobile Station
„ Receiver
T Z > 0 ⇒ bˆ = +1
r(t) X X
∫0 dt Z < 0 ⇒ bˆ = −1 b̂
Mobile Station Z
Mobile Station Mobile Station
2 P cos(ωc t ) a(t)
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Direct-Sequence Spread-Spectrum Signal Power Spectral Density of Spread Spectrum Signal

„ N = T/Tc = Processing Gain „

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Preferable Codes

„ Bit sequence modulated by chip sequence „ In order to minimize mutual interference in DS-CDMA,
B(f)
b(t) a(t) A(f) B(f)*A(f)
the spreading codes with less cross-correlation should
be chosen.
1/T
Tc T=NTc 1/Tc Synchronous DS-CDMA :
Orthogonal Codes are appropriate. (Walsh code etc.)
„ Spreads bandwidth by large factor (N)
Asynchronous DS-CDMA :
„ Despread by multiplying by a(t) again (a2(t)=1) • Pseudo-random Noise (PN) codes / Maximum sequence
„ Mitigates ISI and narrowband interference • Gold codes
‹ ISI mitigation a function of code autocorrelation
„ Must synchronize to incoming signal
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DS/SS Resistance to Jamming
„ Desired signal: s (t ) = 2 P a(t )b(t ) cos(ωct )
„ Tone jammer: J (t ) = 2 PJ cos(ωct )
„ Received signal: r(t) = s(t) + J(t)
„ Correlation receiver: ∫ a (t ) cos(ωct )r (t )dt
‹ a (t ) cos(ωc t ) s (t ) = b(t ) P / 2 (despreads signal)
‹ a (t ) cos(ωc t ) J (t ) = a (t ) PJ / 2 (spreads signal)
„ Effective jamming power is reduced by ≈ 1/N
„ N is often called "Processing Gain."
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Spread Spectrum CDMA
„ For ease of both generation and synchronization by the
receiver, the waveform is pseudorandom, meaning that
it can be generated by mathematically precise rules, but
statistically it nearly satisfies the requirements of a truly
random sequence
„ In spread spectrum CDMA all users use the same
bandwidth, but each transmitter is assigned a distinct
code
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Spread Spectrum CDMA
„ A spread spectrum CDMA scheme is one in which the
transmitted signal is spread over a wide frequency band,
much wider than the minimum bandwidth required to
transmit the information being sent
„ It employs a waveform that for all purposes appears
random to anyone but the intended receiver of the
transmitter waveform
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Code Division Multiple Access, CDMA
„ We have considered only single communications links.
‹ Practical systems need to support many users
simultaneously.
„ A common way of avoiding interference between
multiple transmitting signal is to make the signals
orthogonal to one another
‹ Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
‹ Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)
„ Spread Spectrum systems can support Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA).
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CDMA Cocktail Party Multiple Access Capability of DS/SS

„ CDMA is like a cocktail party Rough Analysis
“你好＂
where everyone is in the same „ Assume baseband, synchronous system:
room talking at the same time.
s1(t) = a1(t)b1(t)
„ However, each pair of guests
s2(t) = a2(t)b2(t)
uses a different language to
communicate. „ a1(t) and a2(t) are distinct, pseudorandom waveforms:
N −1
„ Using different languages makes
it very easy for the guests to tune
a1 (t ) = ∑ a1, j pT (t − Tc )
c
j =0
in to what the person speaking N −1
their language is saying and tune a2 (t ) = ∑ a2, j pT (t − Tc )
c
out everyone else. j =0

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Multiple Access Capability of DS/SS CDMA for Cellular Telephone

„ Model {a1,j } and {a2,j } as IID random variables, „ Spread-spectrum was proposed for original cellular
equiprobable on {–1,+1}. telephone standard (Cooper 1978).
r(t) = s1(t) + s2(t) „ QUALCOMM has proposed a spread-spectrum
N −1
standard for digital cellular telephone
∫0 a1 (t )r (t )dt = Tb1 (t ) + Tcb2 (t ) ∑ a1, j a2, j
T
‹ Gilhousen, et al., “On the capacity of a cellular CDMA
j =0 system,” IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, May
1991
„ As N Æ ∞, binomial distribution approaches Gaussian „ Rationale: Maximize # of Users K that can operate
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Capacity of Cellular CDMA

„ With powerful coding, single cell CDMA can support Block diagram of the baseband model of a direct sequence (DS)
as many users as FDMA or TDMA. CDMA modulator and demodulator
„ Voice Activity Monitoring:
‹ Speech signal has a duty factor approximately 3/8.
‹ Vocoder can suppress transmission during periods of
silence.
„ Universal Frequency Reuse:
‹ 4-6 times as many users.
„ Conclusion: CDMA can support 12-16 times as many
users than FDMA or TDMA.

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Frequency Allocation 國立台灣海洋大學
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„ In FDMA or TDMA, radio resource is allocated not to „ In CDMA, identical radio resource can be used among
interfere among neighbor cells. all cells, because CDMA channels use same frequency
simultaneously.
‹ Neighbor cells cannot use the same
(identical) frequency band (or time ‹ Frequency allocation in CDMA is not necessary.
slot). ‹ In this sense, CDMA cellular system is easy to be
‹ The figure shows the simple cell designed.
allocation with seven bands of
f3
f4 f2 frequency.
f1
f5 f7 ‹ In actual situation, because of
f6
complicated radio propagation and
irregular cell allocation, it is not easy to
allocate frequency (or time slot)
appropriately.
cell :
a “cell” means covered area by one base station.
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P
Near-Far Problem Near-Far Problem
Received Signal strength is proportional to 1/dα, α ∈
Lp-a
„
DATA A
CDMA
Transmitter [2, 4] Base
CDMA Demodulated DATA
CODE A
P
Receiver „ Forward Channel:
Lp-b

X Y
CODE A
DATA B
CDMA • Desired Signal Power = P/Lp-a Base
Transmitter • Interfered Signal Power = „ Reverse Channel:
P/Lp-b/(processing gain )
CODE B X Y
When user B is close to the receiver and
user A is far from the receiver, „ Base receives much more power from Y than from X.
Lp-a could be much bigger than Lp-b.
In this case, desired signal power is „ Solution: Power Control.
smaller than the interfered power.

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Power Control Multiple Access

„ Open Loop Power Control. Mobile makes estimates
of received signal strength based on signal power
received from base station. Assumes reciprocal channel.
„ Closed Loop Power Control. Mobile receives
instructions from base station to increase or decrease
signal strength.
„ SS allows many users to share same BW
„ User signals are separated out at receiver based on
code properties
„ Interference between users mitigated by code cross
correlation
„ In downlink, signal and interference have same
received power
„ In uplink, “close” users drown out “far” users (near-far
problem)
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Multiple Access Capability of DS/SS Multiple Access Capability of DS/SS:

Detailed Analysis Gaussian Approximation
„ Problem: „ We can employ a “Gaussian approximation” for the
‹ Suppose we have K simultaneous DS/SS users, each multiple access interference.
with a processing gain N and unique spreading code, „ If the number of interferers is sufficiently large and all
transmitting over a noisy channel. users are received with approximately identical powers,
‹ How can we calculate the probability of error? then the multiple access interference can be modeled as
‹ How many simultaneous users can transmit over the an additional noise contribution.
channel?
⎡ ⎤ Reference: M. B. Pursley, “Performance evaluation for
∑
K „
Pk ⎥
pb = Q ⎢1
„ Eventual Answer: N0 = phase-coded spread spectrum multiple-access
+ k 2
⎢ 2 Eb,1 3P1N ⎥ communications - Part I: system analysis,” IEEE Trans.
⎢⎣ ⎥⎦ on Comm., Aug. 1977.

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BER vs. SNR for CDMA BER vs. Number of Users for CDMA
„ N=128, equal signal powers „ N=128, equal signal powers
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BER vs. Number of Users for CDMA
„ Eb/N0 = 20 dB, equal signal powers
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Near-Far Problem
„ Let Eb/N0 = 20 dB for desired user, N=128
„ Interfering users are X dB either weaker or stronger than
desired signal
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CMDA Performance Characteristics
„ BER decreases as Eb/N0 increases
„ BER increases as K increases
„ For high Eb/N0, the system will be interference limited.
„ For Eb/N0 = 50 dB, we achieve Pb = 10–3 when K/N ≈ 0.2 .
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Practical Effect of Near-Far Problem
„ IS-95 CDMA system employs both open loop and
closed loop power control.
„ After power control received signal powers are
lognormally distributed with a variance of 1-2 dB.
‹ A. J. Viterbi and R. Padovani, “Implications of mobile
Cellular CDMA,” IEEE Comm. Magazine, Dec. 1992.
„ The effect of this variance is to reduce capacity of a
CDMA system by 15-40%.
‹ Rick Cameron and B. Woerner, “An analysis of CDMA
with imperfect power control,” IEEE Trans. Comm., July
1996.