Review

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2016, Vol. 8(3) 1–15
Ó The Author(s) 2016
A comprehensive overview of hybrid DOI: 10.1177/1687814016636809
aime.sagepub.com
construction machinery

Jixin Wang1, Zhiyu Yang1, Shaokang Liu1, Qingyang Zhang1

and Yunwu Han2

Abstract
With the increasing attention of energy saving and emission reduction technology, the recent application of hybrid
powertrain technology affects the development of construction machinery industry. This article reviews these publica-
tions and provides comprehensive references. This article reviews the state-of-art for the hybrid wheel loader and exca-
vator, which focuses on powertrain configuration, energy storage devices, and energy management strategies. The basis
of classification and characteristic of each powertrain configuration are described. Advantages and disadvantages of bat-
teries, supercapacitors, hydraulic accumulators, and flywheel used in hybrid construction machinery are summarized.
The existing energy management strategies for hybrid construction machinery are also elaborated. The technological
challenges and developing trends in the near future for hybrid construction machinery are discussed.

Keywords
Hybrid construction machinery, wheel loader, excavator, powertrain configuration, energy storage device, energy man-
agement strategy

Date received: 30 September 2015; accepted: 9 February 2016

Academic Editor: Yangmin Li

Introduction With hybrid construction machinery (HCM) attract-

Electric technology and hybrid powertrain technology
are two effective technologies of energy conservation
and emissions reduction and have achieved great suc-
cess in automobile field.1–4 However, because of the
heavy-load, low-speed and periodically operation
mode, electric technology can not be applied directly in
construction machinery. Therefore, in order to decrease
the high fuel consumption rate of construction machin-
ery, hybrid powertrain technology is increasingly draw-
ing the attention of manufacturers, government and
scholars. Hybrid wheel loaders and excavators, which
share the maximum ownership from the global market,
have particularly made significant progress.5 Hitachi
successfully launched the world’s first hybrid loader in
2003,6 and Komatsu developed the world’s first com-
mercial hybrid excavator in 2008.7,8 The development
history of hybrid loaders and excavators is shown in
Figure 1.
ing more attention, the powertrain configurations,
energy management strategies, and energy storage
devices have been presented by many scholars for
HCM.9–12 Lin et al.13 presented the HCM review in
2010. The paper first analyzed the difference between
the hybrid powered automobile and HCM. The hybrid
power system applications and energy regeneration sys-
tem of construction machinery were then summarized.
The challenges that face the researchers and construc-
tion machinery manufacturers were discussed.
1
School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Jilin University,
Changchun, China
2
70 Unit, 65587 Troop, Siping, China
Corresponding author:
Jixin Wang, School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Jilin University,
Changchun 130022, China.
Email: jxwang@jlu.edu.cn

Creative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
(http://www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits any use, reproduction and distribution of the work without
further permission provided the original work is attributed as specified on the SAGE and Open Access pages (https://us.sagepub.com/en-us/nam/
open-access-at-sage).
2 Advances in Mechanical Engineering
Figure 1. Development history of hybrid loaders and excavators.
However, based on previous researches, further studies
on the development history, research progress, existing
problems, and developing trends of HCM are over-
viewed in order to promote research and application of
HCM.
Section ‘‘HCM powertrain configuration types’’
reviews the types of HCM powertrain configuration
which are currently launched by construction machin-
ery manufacturers. Section ‘‘HCM energy storage
devices’’ introduces the advantages and disadvantages
of batteries, supercapacitors, hydraulic accumulator
and flywheel in application of HCM. Section ‘‘HCM
energy management strategies’’ classifies and outlines
the control strategies of current hybrid wheel loaders
and excavators, although fewer studies are available.
Section ‘‘Current challenges and trends’’ presents the
main challenges and trends of HCM.
HCM powertrain configuration types
Wheel loaders and excavators are important construc-
tion machines that have the maximum ownership.
Thus, it is necessary to study the various types of
powertrain configuration of hybrid wheel loader and
excavator in order to better understand their construc-
tion features.
Hybrid wheel loader
The wheel loader mainly requires driving and actuating
working devices in V-cycle.14,15 The power requirement
has obvious volatility and periodicity. Frequent starts
and stops, and larger vehicle weight generates signifi-
cant amounts of braking energy which is generally
wasted by the frictional braking system.16 To effectively
use braking energy and control engine in its high-
efficiency operating region, many construction
machinery manufacturers and researchers have studied
hybrid wheel loaders.17 Currently, the hybrid wheel
loader has three design options of powertrains: series,
parallel, and series–parallel. Table 1 lists the classifica-
tion basis and their corresponding advantages and dis-
advantages of hybrid wheel loaders, and outlines of
hybrid wheel loaders prototype developed by main con-
struction machinery manufacturers are listed in
Table 2.
Figure 2 shows the series hybrid powertrain config-
uration, which is the simplest configuration type of
hybrid wheel loaders. The engine drives the electric
generator, and the generator drives electric motor. The
advantage of a series hybrid wheel loader is that the
engine is mechanically decoupled from the loader
wheels so it can be operated in its highly efficient speed
and torque region. Its disadvantage is that mechanical
power from the engine changes twice, namely, from
mechanical to electrical in the electric generator and
from electrical to mechanical again in the electric
motor.24 Furthermore, the generator and electric motor
need to be manufactured in terms of maximum power
demand. Actually, the series hybrid powertrain has
mainly been applied to the large-tonnage hybrid wheel
loader.
A parallel hybrid powertrain configuration has two
separate power sources that can directly power the loa-
der. In most cases, the engine can directly deliver torque
to the wheels without energy conversion. The disadvan-
tage of a parallel configuration is that the engine cannot
always be controlled in its high-efficiency operating
region, because it is still mechanically coupled to the
wheels.24 Thus, its oil-saving ability is limited. The two
types of parallel hybrid wheel loader currently used are
hybrid electric wheel loader (HEWL) and hybrid
hydraulic wheel loader, which are shown in Figures 3
and 4, respectively.16,22
Wang et al. 3

Table 1. Classification of hybrid wheel loaders.

Powertrain type
Series Parallel Series–Parallel

Driving system powered by ICE 3 O O

Driving system powered O O O
by generator/motor
Hydraulic actuator powered – 3 O
by generator/motor
Advantages High engine operating efficiency High transmission efficiency High transmission efficiency
Easy control High reliability High engine operating efficiency
Simple construction
Disadvantages Low transmission efficiency Low engine operating efficiency Complicated control
High additional cost Limited oil-saving ability Complicated construction
Low reliability

ICE: internal combustion engine.

Table 2. Outline of hybrid wheel loaders prototype developed by main construction machinery manufacturer.

Manufacturer Powertrain configuration Energy storage devices Energy saving Reference

Hitachi Series Battery 25%–30% Inoue,7 Ochiai and Ryu,17

Ochiai,18 and Riyuu et al.19
John Deere Series Battery 25% John Deere20
Joy Global Series Battery 45% Joy Global21
Volvo Parallel Supercapacitor 10% Machine Design22
XCMG Parallel Hydraulic accumulator – Sun and Jiang16
Liugong Series–Parallel Supercapacitor – Zhou et al.23

Figure 3. Volvo parallel hybrid electric wheel loader.22

Figure 2. Hitachi series hybrid wheel loader.7,17–19

The transmission system of the series–parallel hybrid

wheel loader is driven in parallel, and the hydraulic
mechanism is driven in series. The advantage of
parallel–series system is that the hydraulic system could
work independently from the engine. Therefore, the
idle speed of engine could be cancelled. The power
required by the working device can be flexibly provided
using a working pump, which is driven by the pump
motor. So the overflow loss from the drive of pump by
engine can be avoided. However, this configuration is
still on the researching stage and Liugong has applied a
related patent. Liugong uses this configuration as Figure 4. XCMG parallel hybrid hydraulic wheel loader.16
shown in Figure 5.23
4 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 3. Classification of hybrid excavators.

Powertrain type
Series Parallel Series–Parallel

Swing powered by generator O O O

Hydraulic actuator powered by generator O 3 O
Hydraulic actuator powered by ICE 3 O O
Advantages High engine High transmission efficiency High engine
operating efficiency Low additional cost operating efficiency
Short payback time
Disadvantages High additional cost Low engine operating efficiency Complicated control
Long payback time Limited oil-saving ability
Low reliability

ICE: internal combustion engine.

Table 4. Outline of the hybrid excavators prototype developed by main construction machinery manufacturer.

Manufacturer Architecture Energy storage devices Energy saving Reference

Kobelco Series Battery + supercapacitor – Lin et al.13 and Kagoshima et al.26,27

New Holland Parallel Battery 40% Lin et al.13
Hitachi Parallel Battery 25% Ochiai and Ryu17 and Edamura et al.28
Komatsu Series–parallel Capacitor 25%–41% Nishida,8 Kanezawa et al.,9 and
Profile Komatsu Corporate (KC)29
Doosan Series–Parallel Supercapacitor 8%–24% Kwon et al.30
Kobe Steel Series–Parallel Battery – Kagoshima31

hybrids. Table 3 lists the classification basis and their

Figure 5. Liugong series–parallel hybrid wheel loader.23
Hybrid excavator
The excavator is a type of construction machinery that
has a larger weight and higher energy consumption.
Statistics show that excavators generally complete
65%–70% of earthwork because of its strong multi-
function adaptability, whose amount continues to
steady increase.25 Therefore, studying hybrid excava-
tors to promote energy efficiency and decrease gas
emissions is significant. A hybrid excavator can typi-
cally recycle two energy types, including the braking
kinetic energy of swing and gravitational potential
energy of booms.12 Structurally, the hybrid excavator
can be grouped as series, parallel, or series–parallel
corresponding advantages and disadvantages of hybrid
excavators, and Table 4 lists the outline of present
hybrid excavators prototype developed by main con-
struction machinery manufactures.
The engine of a series hybrid excavator drives the
generator to work directly which is shown in Figure 6.
The generator drives four independent electric motors
which drive hydraulic pump and swing, respectively.
The greater change of configuration compared to the
original one and additional costs of electrical compo-
nents result in non-commercialization of this configura-
tion. The 6-ton Kobelco series hybrid excavator
prototype developed in 2007 uses this
configuration.13,26,27
The additional production costs of parallel hybrid
excavator is the lowest in these three types of config-
urations, but its fuel consumption is higher and the
time for payback time is longer.30 The engine of a par-
allel hybrid excavator drives the hydraulic pump and
generator to work in parallel. The hydraulic pump
drives the hydraulic circuit of the work device, which
is similar to conventional excavators. And the genera-
tor drives swing electric motor. Both New Holland
and Hitachi apply configurations similar to this one,
of which the difference is that hybrid excavator of
Hitachi can recycle both the braking kinetic energy of
Wang et al. 5

Figure 6. Kobelco series hybrid excavator.13,26,27

Figure 7. New Holland parallel hybrid excavator.13 Figure 8. Hitachi parallel hybrid excavator.17,28

swing and the gravitational potential energy of

booms.13,17 The specific structures are shown in
Figures 7 and 8.
In the series–parallel hybrid powertrain configura-
tion of an excavator, the engine drives the generator
directly. The hydraulic pumps are driven by generator
in series, and the swing electric motor is driven by gen-
erator and battery or supercapacitor in parallel.31
Although the fuel consumption of series–parallel hybrid
excavator is more than the series structure and the pro- Figure 9. Komatsu series–parallel hybrid excavator.8,9,29
duction costs are higher compared with the parallel
structure, it offers the shortest cost recovering time.
Thus, the series–parallel hybrid excavator is identified However, the present study cannot make us understand
as the best solution among existing configurations that their powertrain configurations because related details
consider economy and liability.30 Komatsu, Kobe Steel are not published.32–34 Moreover, it should be specially
and Doosan all adopt configurations similar to this explained that Hyundai Heavy Industries and Hanyang
one, which are shown in Figures 9–11 respectively.8,9,29–31 University published a paper on the feasibility of the
Other construction machinery manufacturers have power distribution mechanism of a plug-in hybrid exca-
also studied hybrid wheel loaders and excavators. vator. However, plug-in hybrid excavator applications
6 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 5. Characteristics of different energy storage devices.5,38–42

Characteristics Li-ion batteries Supercapacitors Hydraulic accumulator Flywheel

Energy density (Wh kg21) 5 to 600 1 to 5 1 to 3 10 to 95

Power density (kW kg21) 0.005 to 0.4 10 to 100 5 2 to 11.9
Efficiency (%) 75% to 85% 91% 85% to 90% 85% to 90%
Operating temperature (°C) 220 to +65 240 to +85 228 to +93 –
Charging time 1 to 5 h 0.3 to 30 s – Mins
Discharging time 0.3 to 3 h 0.3 to 30 s – Mins
Life 150 to 1500 cycles 500,000 cycles 3 to 5 years 18 years
Environmental issues High Less Less Very less

Table 5 shows the characteristics of different energy

storage devices.

Figure 10. Doosan series–parallel hybrid excavator.30
Batteries
Batteries have become the most widely studied energy
storage device in hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).
Battery applications in the hybrid power system are
divided into three types: Li-ion batteries,43–47 nickel
metal hydride batteries48,49 and lead-acid batteries.50,51
Recently, however, Li-ion batteries are considered as
highly prospective technology for automotive applica-
tions because of their larger storage capacity, wide
operational temperature range, better material avail-
ability, environmental impact, safety, and promising
potential for cost reduction.52–56 Li-ion batteries have
the highest energy density. However, these batteries
usually take a long time to recover energy because they
depend on chemical reactions to store energy. For such
HCMs as hybrid excavator, the lowering of the boom
only takes about 2–3 s,11 which lead to the recover effi-
ciency of Li-ion batteries is lower. In addition, Li-ion
batteries have lower power density, lower efficiency,
lower lifetime, higher vulnerability to environmental
temperature, and higher cost compared with other
energy storage devices.5,41

Figure 11. Kobe Steel series–parallel hybrid excavator.31

are difficult to apply in practice because of battery
technology defects.35
HCM energy storage devices
The energy utilization efficiency of construction
machinery is generally relatively low, and kinetic or
potential energy is lost during operation. Therefore, the
energy efficiency of the system can be improved by
implementing an energy regeneration device that
recovers the released energy.36,37 Currently, batteries,
supercapacitors, hydraulic accumulator, and flywheel
are mainly used as energy storage devices in HCM.
Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors have also been regarded as the appro-
priate energy storage devices of hybrid powertrain sys-
tems, which are designed to bridge the gap between
batteries and capacitors to form fast-charging energy
storage devices of intermediate specific energy.57 A
supercapacitor can be classified as a double-layer capa-
citor or pseudo-capacitor according to different charge
storage modes.58,59 A supercapacitor has the advan-
tages of fast charge/discharge capacity so it can recol-
lect fast potential or regenerative braking energy and
deliver larger acceleration.57,59,60 At the same time, it
has high power density and provides pulse power of
more than 1000 W kg21 with a cycle life that can reach
more than 500,000 cycles.5 However, its disadvantage is
Wang et al.
that it has low energy density at typically 2 Wh/kg,
which leads to a limited energy storage. Thus, superca-
pacitors currently are difficult to provide enough energy
density for HCMs.
Hydraulic accumulator
Hydraulic accumulator primarily plays one of two roles
in hydraulic circuits: (1) lowering pressure fluctuations
created by variations in the flow rate or (2) storing
energy to improve the system efficiency or enable high
power transients.61 However, its primarily function is
as a power-assisted device for HCM.62 The hydraulic
storage approach converts the recoverable energy
into hydraulic form, stores it in an accumulator, and
releases it using secondary components or auxiliary
cylinders.63–66
Compared with an electric hybrid system composed
of a battery or supercapacitor, a hydraulic accumula-
tor as an energy storage device for HCM has the fol-
lowing advantages: (1) The hydraulic accumulator
systems have an advantage in terms of the power den-
sity over an electric system; the hydraulic accumulator
energy recovery systems are ideal for cases of frequent
and short start–stop cycles in sufficient spaces.11 (2)
The hydraulic motor has higher efficiency than the
electric motor at low speeds; this condition is impor-
tant for HCM. (3) Hydraulic hybrid powertrain sys-
tems have higher round-trip efficiency for energy
storage devices and lower mechanical losses because
of a lower gear ratio in the gear box.38 However, the
application of hydraulic hybrid powertrain systems in
HCM still encounters several defects: (1) The impact
of the limited energy density is a design tradeoff
between the energy storage capacity and volume or
weight.61,67,68 (2) The filling process of an accumula-
tor is a nearly adiabatic process, especially when the
filling is fast. Thus, the gas temperature increases dur-
ing the filling, and this heat escapes through the walls
to the environment during the storage phase.37 (3) It
requires additional components such as hydraulic
pump/motors and transformers to reuse the recovered
energy.12
Flywheel energy storage system
Flywheel energy storage system (FESS) has developed
considerably in recent years because of the develop-
ment of the circuit topology and carbon fiber materials.
Thus, this system has become one of the most common
energy storage systems for hybrid vehicles.69–73
However, in the HCM field, the research on using
FESS as energy storage system is relatively applied in a
patent.74 FESS is composed of the following several
parts: motor/generator, bearing system, vacuum cham-
ber, flywheel, power electronics, and other auxiliary
7
items.75 When in charge, the electric motor drives the
flywheel to rotate and store a large amount of kinetic
energy (mechanical energy), while in discharge, the fly-
wheel drives the generator to rotate, converting kinetic
energy into electric energy. The energy lost in conver-
sion from one form to the other is saved using FESS.76
FESS has the following advantages: (1) it exhibits high
energy density and high power density.77,78 (2) The num-
ber of cycles is independent of the temperature and depth
of the discharge. Thus, this system has a very long cycle
life.72,79 (3) It has a wide range of tolerable tempera-
tures.80 (4) It exhibits low maintenance.75 (5) It is light-
weight and small.81 (6) Producing this system is cheaper
than producing battery hybrids.82,83 (7) This system has
minor environmental concerns.80 Given these advan-
tages, this system works best at low speeds and in fre-
quently stop/start working condition.82 However, their
drawbacks include their limited storage time. They also
demonstrate high standing losses since a significant per-
centage of their stored capacity is wasted through self-
discharge.84 In light of its advantages and disadvantages,
FESS is a potentially energy storage device of HCMs.
HCM energy management strategies
Due to the complexity of the hybrid’s powertrain, con-
trol strategy plays a crucial rule in the functionality
and performance of HCM. Various energy manage-
ment strategies are necessary to regulate the power flow
to or from different components because of the varia-
tions in HCM powertrain configurations and energy
storage devices. The published energy management stra-
tegies of HCM can be classified as shown in Figure 12.
These energy management strategies aim to satisfy
several goals for HCMs. The following are the four key
goals:2,85 (1) maximum fuel economy, (2) minimum
emissions, (3) minimum system cost, and (4) good han-
dling performance.
Energy management strategies for hybrid excavator
The energy management strategies of hybrid excavator
mainly include deterministic rule–based strategy, fuzzy
rule–based strategy and equivalent consumption mini-
mization strategy (ECMS). Deterministic rule–based
strategy and fuzzy rule–based strategy belong to rule-
based (RB) control strategies. The main idea of RB
strategies is commonly based on the concept of ‘‘load
leveling’’ which is shifting the actual internal combus-
tion engine (ICE) operating point as close as possible
to the optimal point of efficiency, fuel economy, or
emissions at a particular engine speed.2 ECMS is a kind
of optimization-based control strategy. The primary
objective of the optimization-based control strategies is
to maximize the efficiency of the powertrain while
minimizing the power loss.86
8 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Figure 12. Control strategies classification of HCM.

Deterministic rule–based strategy. The hybrid excavator performance and high fuel efficiency. Although apply-
usually uses deterministic rule–based strategies at the ing of the deterministic rule–based strategy is quite
beginning of its development because these strategies widespread, the main drawbacks include not optimiz-
are simple and practicable strategies.10,87–89 When a ing the efficiency of the whole drivetrain and not con-
hybrid system is implemented, the energy storage sidering the improvement of emissions.
devices of the power system absorb the fluctuation of
the load power to engine outputs of the averaged load
power. Thus, the control strategy of working at a con- Fuzzy rule–based strategy. In fact, instead of using deter-
stant high-efficiency point can be realized for the engine ministic rules, the decision-making property of fuzzy
with the benefit of increasing the efficiency of the logic can be adopted to realize a real-time and subopti-
engine and system. However, the state of charge (SOC) mal power split. In other words, the fuzzy logic control-
ler is an extension of the conventional RB controller.
of the energy storage devices always fluctuates because
The main advantages of fuzzy rule–based methods are
the chosen working power of the engine cannot be the
the following: (1) robustness, since they are tolerant to
same as the average load power. Therefore, the system
imprecise measurements and component variations and
cannot work normally after a long operation time.
(2) adaptation, since the fuzzy rules can be easily tuned,
To solve the problem, Zhang et al.90 employed a
if necessary.93
double-work-point control strategy for hybrid excava-
Wang et al.94 proposed fuzzy logic control strategies
tor, which is the engine working at one high-power
for a parallel hybrid hydraulic excavator to attain
point and one low-power point in the high-efficiency
improved energy distribution, low fuel cost, and high
area. However, the control strategy should switch
efficiency. Moreover, the membership functions of the
between the two working points frequently if the
fuzzy logic controller for the parallel hybrid hydraulic
assigned working range of the accumulator is narrow.
excavator can be optimized using genetic algorithm
In addition, the efficiency and cycle life of the accumu-
(GA). The controller could be divided into two levels:
lator deteriorate if the working range of the accumula-
high-level controller and low-level controller. In the
tor SOC is set wide. Thus, Xiao et al.91 further
high-level controller, the fuzzy logic control is
proposed a dynamic-work-point control strategy to
embedded, and battery SOC and the required torque of
overcome this drawback. Although the dynamic-work-
the pumps are considered as the input variables that
point control strategy makes the system significantly
are received from the plant mode. In the low-level con-
complex and needs more control variables, the engine
troller, the optimum throttle angle of the engine is
working points are kept in or near the high-efficiency
delivered into command calculation block, where a set
area, and the capacitor SOC is restrained in a small
of optimum commands for both engine and motor
region. Lin et al.92 proposed a so-called multiwork-
would be generated accordingly. The results show that
point dynamic control strategy for hybrid hydraulic
the hybrids with the fine-tuned fuzzy logic controller
excavators to overcome the disadvantage of double-
would have higher fuel economy and better system effi-
work-point control strategy. The simulation result
ciency compared with the conventional RB controller.
shows that if the working point is suitable for the cur
load condition rent, the strategy can keep SOC in a
narrow range and bring rapid dynamic response of the ECMS. The ECMS, an instantaneously optimized
speed and torque, which leads to the stable system power management strategy, is one of the real-time
Wang et al.
optimization strategies.93,95 The control variable in
ECMS is the equivalency factor compared with other
optimization algorithms. Froberg et al.96 minimized
fuel consumption for an electric power demand given
as function of time in hybrid construction equipment
by ECMS. The optimization problem can be written as
Z where tfinal and t0 represent final time and initial time,
tf
min Pf ðTice , Wk Þdt ð1Þ
0 _
in which Tice and Wk represent engine torque and kinetic
energy, respectively. The corresponding Hamiltonian
function then is
H ðu, x, Pdex Þ = Pf + le Pe, i + lk Pk ð2Þ
Pe, i is the energy storage inner power, Pk is the kinetic
power, Pdex is the electrical power, le and lk are the
dynamics coefficients. The control variable is
u = ½Tice , Tem T . The state variable is x = ½Wk , We T . The
simulation results show the powertrain speed costate can
be approximated as a static function of power demand
giving a possibility to design a fuel equivalent kinetic
energy function that can be used for online control.
Energy management strategies for hybrid wheel
loader
Currently, the main research direction of energy man-
agement strategies of hybrid wheel loader is
optimization-based control strategy. The optimization-
based control strategies are divided into two types: glo-
bal optimization and real-time optimization.2 A global
optimization algorithm generally applies to a fixed
driving cycle, whereas the real-time optimization
applies to definition of an instantaneous cost function.
Global optimization strategy. The purpose of global optimi-
zation is to minimize the cumulative energy loss
throughout the cycle.97 The global optimization is non-
casual because it finds the minimum fuel consumption
using knowledge of future and past power demands.
Obviously, this approach cannot be used directly for
real-time energy management. However, it might be a
basis of designing rules for online implementation or
comparison to evaluate the quality of other control stra-
tegies. Global optimization control strategies of hybrid
vehicles mainly include linear programming, control the-
ory approach, dynamic programming (DP), stochastic
DP, game theory, and GA.2 In the field of hybrid wheel
loader, only DP has been used by scholars at present.
Wang et al.15 optimized the engine operations of the
wheel loader via DP, which can handle the nonlinearity
that is determined in the dynamics. The focus is on
investigating the potential oil saving of the hybrid wheel
loader. Therefore, the paper considers power demands
9
from the drivetrain and the load-sensing pump. The
cost function to be minimized is defined as follows
"t #
Xfinal
J ðtÞ = min m_ fuel ðve ðtÞ, Te ðtÞÞ ð3Þ
t0
respectively. In DP approach, (ve , Te ) candidates are
first calculated from the (S OC(t), v_ e (t)) candidates and
_
a known driving cycle. (S OC(t), v_ e (t)) pairs are calcu-
lated from the SOC and ve candidates, which are iter-
ated between 0 and 1, and between 850 and 1700 r/min,
respectively, at every time step. By comparing RB strat-
egy, the simulation results of DP show that the fuel use
based on the DP strategy is slightly lower than that
based on RB strategy in the short-loading cycle.
Although the difference is small, DP strategy shows its
advantage of full cycle optimization from engine effi-
ciency curves, where the engine operates efficiently dur-
ing the full cycle.
DP produces an optimal time-varying state-feedback
control law. However, the computational complexity of
DP leads to a great challenge in the application of this
method in actual HCM. Thus, more researches are
needed.
Real-time optimization strategy. The global optimization
techniques are not directly applied to real-time develop-
ment, considering the fact that these techniques are
casual solutions. In order to develop a cost function
used in instantaneous optimization, in addition to a
measure for fuel consumption, variations of the stored
electrical energy should also be taken into account to
guarantee electrical self-sustainability.93 Instantaneous
optimal control strategy (IOCS) is a typical real-time
optimization strategy.
Zeng et al.98 analyzed and compared the energy-
saving effects of four strategies in parallel HEWL.
The four strategies include engine optimal control
strategy (EOCS), minimum motor control strategy
(MMCS), motor optimal control strategy (MOCS),
and IOCS. IOCS takes the minimum fuel consump-
tion by calculating the comprehensive fuel consump-
tion of all possible combinations of the engine torque
Te and motor torque Tm at a certain demand torque.
The instantaneous fuel consumption of engine Ze is as
follows
Pe  be
Ze = ð4Þ
3600
where Pe is the engine power and be is the specific fuel
consumption.
The simulation results indicate that EOCS and
MMCS are applicable to the development of real con-
trol system of parallel HEWL. Although IOCS is
10 Advances in Mechanical Engineering

theoretically the best and can be used for guiding opti-

mization, it showed poor simulation performance
because MOCS and IOCS are difficult to realize the
simulation. This difficulty is caused by high depen-
dency of MOCS and IOCS on SOC. Thus, the com-
plete optimal state was not achieved, resulting in higher
fuel consumption than expected.
As real-time optimization aims to obtain the lowest
equivalent fuel consumption, its theoretical fuel con-
sumption should be the lowest. However, the real
demand torque changes frequently, making it hard to
apply in a real-time control system, so the fuel con-
sumption is not ideal.

Current challenges and trends

HCM is the promising future construction machinery.
However, many obstacles still have to be considered.

Cost challenges and trends

Compared with traditional construction machinery, an
additional energy storage device is required and the
original powertrain configuration is changed in HCM,
which increases initial costs. And initial cost is a key
factor for public acceptance and recognition. For exam-
ple, the price of hybrid excavators is approximately
20%–50% higher than that of a standard excavator so
that public is difficult to accept.13 Although hybrid
technology, particularly the energy storage device, is
still in its early stage, it is promising in cost reduction
as its adaptation to new technologies.44,99 For example,
the industry-wide cost of Li-ion battery packs estimates
declined by approximately 14% annually between 2007
and 2014, from above US$1000 per kWh to around
US$410 per kWh.100
Powertrain configuration challenges and trends
The research on powertrain configuration of HCMs is
relatively limited compared with research on HEVs.
For hybrid wheel loaders, published literatures show
that construction machinery manufacturers did not
conduct in-depth studies on series–parallel and com-
pound hybrid powertrain configuration at present. In
addition, to the authors’ knowledge, distributed electric
wheel loader is likely to be one of the next step develop-
ment trend in the future. The distributed electric wheel
loader includes two types: front and rear axle indepen-
dent drive and four-wheel independent drive, which are
shown in Figure 13(a) and (b). Since batteries and
supercapacitors have their own defects so that they
cannot be single driving source for HCMs, distributed
electric wheel loaders still have to maintain the ICE as
the main driving source. The advantage of distributed
electric wheel loader is that it can not only save energy
Figure 13. Distributed electric wheel loader: (a) front and rear
axle independent drive wheel loader and (b) four-wheel
independent drive wheel loader.
but also control the driving force of front and rear axle
or four wheel so as to improve the active safety and
operation characteristics of the whole loader. However,
in order to achieve this goal, the wheel loader operation
environment is first required to be identified, which
definitely involves the state estimation of the key para-
meters for the whole loader. But the researches of state
estimation need further development currently on con-
struction machinery.
For hybrid excavators, the prototype or production
model was released by current construction machinery
manufacturers. Although these hybrid excavators can
recover the braking energy of the swing, few of them
can recover gravity potential energy produced by the
hydraulic work device.17,33 This problem has been
noted by scholars and they have achieved prog-
ress.12,13,101 In the three powertrain configurations, the
series–parallel hybrid excavator which has the ability to
recover braking energy and gravity potential energy
may be a trend of development.
Energy storage devices challenges and trends
The existing energy storage devices have some chal-
lenges in application for HCMs. Using a single device
is difficult to meet the various requirements of HCM
before a revolutionary progress. Therefore, hybridiza-
tion energy storage system that is designed for all types
Wang et al.
of HCMs is expected to become the development trend
of the future. Hybridization energy storage system
combines or integrates two or more energy storage
devices to enable every energy storage device to show
its advantages and compensate for the shortcomings
using other energy storage devices. A hybridization
energy storage system can be generated in two ways:
one way is to combine two or more independent energy
storage devices to form a combined energy storage sys-
tem, and other way is to integrate functions of two or
more energy storage devices to form a new integrated
energy storage device.
Generally, a combined energy storage system is com-
posed of two basic energy storage devices: one has high
specific energy, whereas the other has high specific
power. Ehsani et al.102 presented a type of combined
energy storage system composed of a battery and super-
capacitor to overcome the shortcomings. Then, Lajunen
and Suomela103 further applied the combined energy
storage system in hybrid mining loaders. Three different
kinds of combined energy storage system configurations
can be used: (1) one battery pack, (2) two or more similar
battery packs in parallel or in series, and (3) a combina-
tion of one or more battery packs and a supercapacitor
unit. Wang et al.11 designed a new accumulator–motor–
generator regeneration system composed of a hydraulic
accumulator and a battery. The advantage of this system
is that gravitational potential energy can be converted
into electrical energy and hydraulic energy at the same
time because of the large mass associated with the boom
when the actuators go down, and this system has
improved the energy recycling time that relies on control
strategy. In addition, although the energy recycling time
was short, this system can use a battery to replace the
supercapacitor and reduce the cost because of the exis-
tence of a hydraulic accumulator.
Although studies on integrated energy storage device
are relatively rare, they are still meaningful. If some
technic progress has been made, this would be promis-
ing. Van de Ven104 proposed an integrated energy stor-
age device, namely, flywheel–accumulator, to solve the
low density of hydraulic accumulator energy. This device
is integrated by a flywheel and an accumulator, which is
shown in Figure 14. This integrated energy storage
device makes storing energy simultaneously in both
pneumatic and rotating kinetic form possible, thereby
increasing the energy density and power density signifi-
cantly. The simulation results show that the energy stor-
age of a flywheel–accumulator can be 10 times greater
than that of a traditional hydraulic accumulator with
the same volume (124–1209 kJ).
Energy management strategies challenges and trends
Most of the current HCMs employ the RB control
strategy because of its high reliability and easy
11
Figure 14. Diagram of the flywheel–accumulator system.89
realization. The optimization-based control strategy
can obtain an optimal result, but it is inconsistent with
the actual situation because many constraints and sim-
plified calculations exist in the process of calculation.
In addition, the real-time performance of optimization-
based control strategy is not ideal because of the con-
siderable amount of calculation required. Therefore,
this strategy is difficult to apply in practice. The control
strategy of the future will be likely to develop toward
the combination of intelligence and optimization algo-
rithms to improve the effect of optimization and real-
time performance through hybrid optimization.
Conclusion
Several conclusions have been obtained from this study.
They are summarized as follows:
 HCMs can continuously reduce ownership costs
and depletion of oil saving, because of the
advances in technology and government sup-
port. Thus, HCMs have the ability to extend to
the construction machinery market in the near
future.
 There are three types of powertrain configura-
tion used in hybrid wheel loader, that is, series,
parallel, and series–parallel. The series hybrid
powertrain has mainly been applied to the large-
tonnage hybrid wheel loader, and the parallel
and series–parallel hybrid configuration are still
on the researching stage.
 For the powertrain configuration of hybrid exca-
vator, series, parallel, and series–parallel are the
most commonly used configurations. The series–
parallel configuration is identified as the best
solution among existing configurations, consid-
ering economy and liability.
 In light of batteries, supercapacitors, hydraulic
accumulator, and flywheel, these existing energy
storage devices require revolutionary progress to
promote the rapid development of HCMs.
12
 Combined energy storage system or integrated
energy storage device, which enables every
energy storage device to show its advantages
and compensate for the shortcomings using
other energy storage devices, is expected to
become the energy storage system development
trend of the future for HCMs.
 For HCMs energy management strategies, RB
control strategy is the most widely used control
strategy because of its high reliability and easy
realization. While for optimization-based con-
trol strategy, it will need to do a lot of researches
in order to be applied in practice.
 The distributed electric wheel loader is likely to
be one of the next step development trend in the
future for hybrid wheel loader. However, to real-
ize this goal, a large number of basic researches
still need to be conducted.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with
respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial sup-
port for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this
article: This work was supported by National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 51375202) and Graduate
Innovation Fund of Jilin University (No. 2015135).
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