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such as launching a specific application or working with accuracy. The degree of accuracy several hours. This means that we can use a
software, sending an email, scanning for viruses, in computers is very high; computers can computer 24 hours a day or 365 days a year
and many other maintenance tasks. Besides, perform calculations at almost 100% accuracy. continuously. Furthermore, it provides
computers can also be programmed to perform Errors may occur in a computer system, but only consistent results for the same set of data, that
many complex tasks. because of wrong human input or inaccurate is, if it is given the same set of data multiple
data. times, it will give the same result each time.
For example, the computer can start daily
maintenance tasks automatically when it is in an
ideal state. This includes tasks such as software
updates, security scanning, and system
diagnostics, etc.
Diligence Memory Remembrance Power
Unlike a human, the computer doesn’t get tired A computer has a built-in memory, where it can The computer has the power to store any data
or lacks its concentration. Due to this store instant data immediately. Here, we are or information for as long as we like. Data can
characteristic, it overpowers human being in referring to random access memory (primary also be recalled easily if needed. It is our choice
most of the regular tasks. It can work for hours memory) that holds data as long as the to decide how much data we want to store on
without any fault. This means that if millions of computer is connected to a power source. Data the computer and when to recall or erase these
calculations are to be done, a computer will is erased from memory after shutting down the data.
perform every calculation and provide all the computer. In addition, the computer includes
results with the same accuracy. ROM (read-only memory), the cache memory of
different levels, virtual memory, etc., thereby
speeding up performance.
1. Based on Size
2. Based on Purpose
3. Based on Types
Based on Types The three types of computers along with their functions are given below:
Analog Computer – An analog computer one that uses the continuously changeable aspects of physical phenomena to model the problem being
solved. These phenomena may be such as electrical, mechanical, or hydraulic quantities and they are extremely complex to be used. Such
computers are mostly used for scientific and industrial applications. Examples of Analog computers include Thermometer, Operational
Amplifiers, Electric Integrators, etc.
Digital Computer – Such computers are capable of solving problems in discrete format. It only operates on data entered in binary language and
can perform the dynamic function of managing large amounts of data and regulating the operations of the machine, Examples of Digital
computers are Desktop, Laptop, Mobile Phones, etc.
Hybrid Computer – Computers that exhibit features of both Analog and Digital computers are called Hybrid Computers. The logical operations
are solved by the digital aspects and the differential equations are solved using the analog features. Few important examples of Hybrid
Computers include Space Flights, Food processing Plants, etc.
Based on Size Described below are the four types of Computers based on their sizes along with their functions:
Types of computer
Micro Computers – A relatively inexpensive and small computer comprising a microprocessor and a Central Processing Unit (CPU) is called a
Microcomputer. Such computers are made with minimal circuitry mounting over a single circuit board. Examples include Desktop, Laptop, etc.
Mini Computer – Developed in the mid-1960s, Mini computers are comparatively smaller than mainframe computers. They were developed
keeping in consideration human interaction, control instrumentation and were cost-effective. For example Smartphones, iPads, etc.
Mainframe Computer – Computers used by large Organisations to manage bulk data are called Mainframe computers. Main functions of such
type include managing customer statistics, census and other heavy data in a single device. For example, the system used at Trading companies.
Super Computer – Computers used at Organisations dealing with Weather forecasting, Quantum Mechanics, Climate research, etc., where high
level of performance has to be justified are called Super Computers.
By Purpose On the basis of purpose, there are just two variety of computers. Those two varieties have been discussed in detail below:
1. General Purpose – Based on General Purpose, there are these following functions which a device is expected to perform:
1. Basic Input/Output functions
2. Calculations
3. Data Saving on a smaller scale
4. General performing activities
These may include basic calculators, laptops, desktop computers, mobile phones, etc., which can help people with their basic necessary functions are
included in the General Purpose computer type.
Special Purpose – When a computer is designed specifically to perform a certain function, such type of computers are known as Special Purpose
computer. These types may include:
1.
1. Thermometers to test temperature
2. Generators to manage electricity
3. Devices used for analysing Climate Change
4. Large computers for IT Companies
5. Machines used at Manufacturing Units and the list goes on and on
The special-purpose computers are important for various Organisations and their applications are made in a way that makes the work easy and
efficient.
Size – Relatively big size .Size was equivalent to Main Component – based on vacuum tubes
a room. Main memory –Magnetic drum
Speed – slow speed, hundred instructions per secondary Memory – Magnetic drum & magnetic
second. tape.
Cost – cost was very high. Input Media – Punched cards & paper tape
Language– Machine and Assembly Language. Output Media – Punched card & printed reports.
Reliability – high failure rate , Failure of circuits Example – ENIAC, UNIVAC, Mark –I,mark-III , IBM
per second. 700 series , IBM 700 series ,IBM 701 series IBM
Power– high power Consumption and it 709 series etc.
generated much heat.
Second The invention of transistor lead to start the second generation of computers. Vaccum tubes are replaced by transistors. For data storage magnetic tapes
Generation of and magnetic tapes and magnetic disks were used. For programming purpose besides machine and assembly languages, high level languages were also
Computers used like FORTRAN, COBOL and BASIC etc.
(1955 to 1964)
– Based on A) Computer Characteristics & Capabilities – B ) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware-
Transistor
Size – Smaller than first generation Computers. Main Component – Based on Transistor.
Speed – Relatively fast as compared to first Main Memory – Magnetic core.
generation, thousand instructions per second. Secondary Memory – Magnetic tape & magnetic Disk.
Cost – cost Slightly lower than first generation. Input Media – Punched cards
Language – Assembly Language and High level Output Media – Punched card & printed reports.
languages like FORTRAN, COBOL,BASIC. Example – IBM-7000,CDC 3000 series, PDP1,PDP3,PDP
Reliability – Failure of circuits per days. 5 ,PDP8 ,ATLAS,IBM-7094 etc.
Power– Low power Consumption.
Third In this generation of computers transistors are replaced by its integrated form, known as integrated Circuits(IC). Mini computers were introduced in this
Generation of generation. Multiprogramming facility was developed.Size, cost, power requirement and heat generation decreased. High level languages were used in
Computers this generation. Processing speed and storage capacity used of computer increased.
(1965 to 1974)
– Based on A) Computer Characteristics & Capabilities – B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware-
Integrated
Circuit Size – Smaller than Second generation Main Component – Based on Integrated Circuits (IC)
Computers. Disk size mini computers. Primary Memory – Magnetic core.
Speed – Relatively fast as compared to second Secondary Memory– Magnetic Tape & magnetic disk.
generation, Million instructions per second Input Media – Key to tape & key to disk
(MIPS). Output Media – Printed reports & Video displays.
Cost – cost lower than Second generation. Example – IBM-307 Series ,CDC 7600 series, PDP
Language– High level languages like PASCAL, (Personal Data processer ) II etc.
COBOL,BASIC,C etc.
Reliability – Failure of circuits in Weeks.
Power– Low power Consumption.
Fourth The fourth generation computers started with the invention of Microprocessor. Software is user friendly. Storage capacity is high. Size, cost, power
Generation of requirement, heat generation decreased compared to the previous generation. Problem-oriented fourth generation language (4GL) is used to develop the
Computers program.
(1975– till now
)- Based on A) Computer Characteristics & Capabilities – B) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware-
VLSI
Microprocessor Size – Typewritter size micro Computer. Main Component – Large scale integrated (LSI)
Speed – Relatively fast as compared to Semiconductor circuits called MICRO PROCESSOR or chip
Third generation, Tens of Millions and VLSI(Very Large scale integrated).
instructions per second. Main Memory – Semi conductor memory like RAM, ROM
Cost – Cost lower than third generation. and cache memory is used as a primary memory.
Language– High level languages like Secondary Memory – Magnetic disk, Floppy disk, & Optical
C++,KL1 , RPG, SQL. disk (CD,DVD).
Reliability – Failure of circuits in months. Input Media – keyboard.
Power– Low power Consumption. Output Media – Video displays ,Audio responses & printed
reports.
Example – CRAY 2, IBM 3090/600 Series, IBM AS/400/B60
Fifth In this generation of computer Artificial Intelligence (AI) concept is adopted. The computers have intelligence quality, default assumptions, Decision
Generation of making capability etc. through these concepts expert systems. Knowledge based systems, Decision Support System are developed. Robots are the
Computers common example of this type of system.
( Still in Generally this generation of system is expected to be intelligent as mankind. It may be hear, understand and work as human being. Research and
Process)-Based development are continued.
on ULSI
Microprocessor A) Computer Characteristics & Capabilities – B ) Trends and Developments in Computer Hardware-
,AI
Size –Credit card size micro computers. Main Component – based on ULSI ( Ultra Large scale
Speed – Billions instructions per second. integrated) Circuit .that is also called Parallel Processing
Cost – Cost Slightly lower than first generation. method.
Language– Artificial Intelligence (AI) Languages Memory – Optical disk and magnetic disk.
like LISP, PROLOG etc Input Media – Speech input, Tactile input.
Reliability – Failure of circuits in year. Output Media – Graphics displays, Voice responses.
Power– Low power Consumption. Example – Lap-Tops, palm –Tops, Note books ,PDA (personal Digital Assistant ) etc.
Intro Computer memory is a generic term for all of the different types of
data storage technology that a computer may use, including RAM,
ROM, and flash memory.
Another way that computer memory can vary is that some types
are non-volatile, which means they can store data on a long term
basis even when there is no power. And some types are volatile,
which are often faster, but which lose all the data stored on them as
soon as the power is switched off.
The acronym RAM stems from the fact that data stored in random access memory can be accessed – as the name suggests – in any random
order. Or, put another way, any random bit of data can be accessed just as quickly as any other bit.
The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it can be written to as well as read, it is volatile (so
all data stored in RAM memory is lost when it loses power) and, finally, it is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in
terms of cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory types that most computer systems
use both primary and secondary memory.
Data that is required for imminent processing is moved to RAM where it can be accessed and modified very quickly, so that the CPU is not
kept waiting. When the data is no longer required it is shunted out to slower but cheaper secondary memory, and the RAM space that has
been freed up is filled with the next chunk of data that is about to be used.
Types of RAM
Memory
DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type
common type of RAM used in computers. The oldest type is of RAM which is faster than DRAM, but more expensive and
known as single data rate (SDR) DRAM, but newer computers bulker, having six transistors in each cell. For those reasons
use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes in several SRAM is generally only used as a data cache within a CPU itself
versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better or as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small SRAM
performance and are more energy efficient than DDR. cache of the most imminently-needed data can result in
However different versions are incompatible, so it is not significant speed improvements in a system
possible to mix DDR2 with DDR3 DRAM in a computer system.
DRAM consists of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell.
The key differences between DRAM and SRAM is that SRAM is faster than DRAM - perhaps two to three times faster - but more expensive
and bulkier. SRAM is usually available in megabytes, while DRAM is purchased in gigabytes.
DRAM uses more energy than SRAM because it constantly needs to be refreshed to maintain data integrity, while SRAM - though volatile –
does not need constant refreshing when it is powered up.
ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while data can be read from this type of computer memory, data
cannot normally be written to it. It is a very fast type of computer memory which is usually installed close to the CPU on the motherboard.
ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in the memory even when it receives no power –
for example when the computer is turned off. In that sense it is similar to secondary memory, which is used for long term storage.
When a computer is turned on, the CPU can begin reading information stored in ROM without the need for drivers or other complex
software to help it communicate. The ROM usually contains "bootstrap code" which is the basic set of instructions a computer needs to
carry out to become aware of the operating system stored in secondary memory, and to load parts of the operating system into primary
memory so that it can start up and become ready to use.
ROM is also used in simpler electronic devices to store firmware which runs as soon as the device is switched on.
Types of ROM
PROM PROM stands for EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electrically
Programmable Read-Only Memory, Programmable Read-Only Memory, Erasable Programmable Read-Only
and it is different from true ROM in and as the name suggests, data stored Memory, and the distinction between
that while a ROM is programmed (i.e. in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can
has data written to it) during the EPROM reprogrammed. Erasing an be erased and written to by the computer
manufacturing process, a PROM is EPROM involves removing it from the system it is installed in. In that sense
manufactured in an empty state and computer and exposing it to ultraviolet EEPROM is not strictly read-only. However
then programmed later using a light before re-burning it. in many cases the write process is slow, so
PROM programmer or burner. it is normally only done to update program
code such as firmware or BIOS code on an
occasional basis
Secondary Definition Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate storage device, such as a hard disk drive or solid
memory state drive (SSD), which is connected to the computer system either directly or over a network. The cost per gigabyte of secondary
memory is much lower, but the read and write speeds are significantly slower.
Types Secondary memory comprises many different storage Secondary memory also includes:
media which can be directly attached to a computer
system. These include: Storage arrays including 3D NAND flash arrays connected over a
storage area network (SAN)
hard disk drives
solid state drives (SSDs) Storage devices which may be connected over a conventional
Optical (CD or DVD) drives network (known as network attached storage, or NAS)
Tape drives
Arguably cloud storage can also be called secondary memory.
Differences between RAM and ROM
ROM: RAM:
Non-volatile Volatile
Fast to read Fast to read and write
Usually used in small quantities Used as system memory to store data (including program
Cannot be written to quickly code) that the CPU needs to process imminently
Used to store boot instructions or firmware Relatively cheap per megabyte stored compared to ROM,
Relatively expensive per megabyte stored compared to RAM but relatively expensive compared to secondary memory
Computer A hardware device which can be used to store digital data and applications which may be in the form of images, video, audio, etc. is called a storage
Storage Device device. It is a key component of a computer and the hard drive is one of its examples
Definition
Types of The computer storage devices can be classified into various parts, but the computer storage unit is also divided into three parts. Given below are details
Computer about the three types of computer storage:
Storage
Primary Storage: This is the direct Secondary Storage: This type of storage does not Tertiary Memory: This type of storage is
memory which is accessible to the have direct accessibility to the Central Processing generally not considered to be important
Central Processing Unit (CPU). Unit. and is generally not a part of personal
computers.
This is also known as the main memory The input and output channels are used to
and is volatile. connect such storage devices to the computer, It involves mounting and unmounting
This is temporary. As soon as the as they are mainly external of mass storage data which is
device turns off or is rebooted, the It is non-volatile and larger storage capacity in removable from a computer device
memory is erased comparison to primary storage This type of storage holds robotic
It is smaller in size This type of storage is permanent until functions
Primary storage comprises only of removed by an external factor It does not always require human
Internal memory It comprises of both internal and external intervention and can function
memory automatically
Examples of primary storage include
RAM, cache memory, etc. Examples of secondary storage are USB drives,
floppy disks, etc.
List of There are four types of devices in which computer data can be stored. Discussed below are the same in detail.
Computer
Magnetic Storage Devices Optical Storage Devices
Storage
Devices The most commonly used storage devices in today’s time are magnetic storage Such devices used lasers and lights to detect and store data. They are cheaper in
devices. These are affordable and easily accessible. A large amount of data can comparison to USB drives and can store more data. Discussed below are a few
be stored in these through magnetised mediums. commonly used optical storage devices.
A magnetic field is created when the device is attached to the computer and
CD-ROM – This stands for Compact Disc – Read-Only Memory and is an
with the help of the two magnetic polarities, the device is able to read the
external device which can store and read data in the form of audio or
binary language and store the information. Given below are the examples of
software data
magnetic storage devices.
Blu-Ray Disc – Introduced in 2006, Blu-ray disk was backup up by major IT
Floppy Disk – Also known as a floppy diskette, it is a removable and computer companies. It can store up to 25 GB data in a single-layer
storage device which is in the shape of a square and comprises disc and 50 GB data in a dual-layer disc
magnetic elements. When placed in the disk reader of the computer DVD – Digital Versatile Disc is another type of optical storage device. It
device, it spins around and can store information. Lately, these floppy can be readable, recordable, and rewritable. Recordings can be done in
Storage
disks have been replaced with CDs, DVDs and USB drives such devices and then can be attached to the system
Hard Drive – This primary storage device is directly attached to the CD-R – It is a readable Compact Disc which uses photosensitive organic
motherboard’s disk controller. It is an integral storage space as it is dye to record data and store it. They are a low-cost replacement for
required to install any new program or application to the device. storing software and applications
Software programs, images, videos, etc. can all be saved in a hard
Flash Memory Devices
drive and hard drives with storage space in terabytes are also easily
available now These storage devices have now replaced both magnetic and optical storage
devices. They are easy to use, portable and easily available and accessible. They
Zip Disk – Introduced by Iomega, is a removable storage device which
was initially released with a storage space of 100 MB which was later have become a cheaper and more convenient option to store data.
increased to 250 and then finally 750 MB Discussed below are the major flash memory devices which are being commonly
Magnetic Strip – A magnetic strip is attached in the device comprising used by the people nowadays.
digital data. The most suitable example for this is a debit card which
has a strip placed on one of its sides which stores the digital data USB Drive – Also, known as a pen drive, this storage device is small in size
and is portable and ranges between storage space of 2 GB to 1 TB. It
comprises an integrated circuit which allows it to store data and also
replace it
Online Cloud Storage Memory Card – Usually attached with smaller electronic and
computerised devices like mobile phones or digital camera, a memory
The term Cloud computing is used to describe the data centres available for card can be used to store images, videos and audios and is compatible
users over the Internet where they can save their databases and files. This data and small in size
can easily be accessed over the internet anytime and anywhere.
Memory Stick – Originally launched by Sony, a memory stick can store
more data and is easy and quick to transfer data using this storage device.
This has become a common mode to store data. The largest or the smallest
Later on, various other versions of memory stock were also released
computerised devices can use the online cloud storage to save their data files.
This option is also available in mobile phones where a backup of our files and SD Card – Known as Secure Digital Card, it is used in various electronic
data is being managed. devices to store data and is available in mini and micro sizes. Generally,
computers have a separate slot to insert an SD card. In case they do not
have one, separate USBs are available in which these cards can be
inserted and then connected to the computer
Characteristics Over the years, the usage of computer and electronic devices have massively increased and so has the dependency on them. Personally or professionally a lot of data is
of Computer entered into the computer and storing it becomes a must for future use. Thus, these internal and external storage devices have come in as a saviour for the users.
Storage In case of less memory space in the device, the various computer storage devices can be used to save the data securely without losing it.
Devices
Given below are a few characteristics of these storage devices:
Because of volatile memory, the data stored can be saved and also replaced whenever needed
These devices are readable, writable and rewritable which ensures that the data saved if not necessary can be removed or replaced accordingly
Accessibility to these has become very easy and convenient. The devices are easily available online and offline and need no expertise for usage
The capacity and size of these drives and devices has become an added advantage
Even in terms of performance, using these storage devices the data can be saved easily but can also be transferred easily from one device to another
INPUT DEVICES OUTPUT DEVICES
Input Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which help us enter data Output Device Definition: A piece of equipment/hardware which gives out
into a computer is called an input device. For example keyboard, mouse, etc. the result of the entered input, once it is processed (i.e. converts data from
machine language to a human-understandable language), is called an output
List of Input Devices device. For example printer, monitor, etc.
Given below is the list of the most common input devices along with brief List of Output Devices
information about each of them.
The commonly used output devices have been listed below with a brief
1. Keyboard summary of what their function is and how they can be used.
A simple device comprising keys and each key denotes either an alphabet, 1. Monitor
number or number commands which can be given to a computer for
various actions to be performed The device which displays all the icons, text, images, etc. over a
It has a modified version of typewriter keys screen is called the Monitor
The keyboard is an essential input device and computer and laptops both When we ask the computer to perform an action, the result of that
use keyboards to give commands to the computer action is displayed on the monitor
Various types of monitors have also been developed over the years
2. Mouse
2. Printer
It is also known as a pointing device
Using mouse we can directly click on the various icons present on the A device which makes a copy of the pictorial or textual content,
system and open up various files and programs usually over a paper is called a printer
A mouse comprises 3 buttons on the top and one trackball at the bottom For example, an author types the entire book on his/her computer
which helps in selecting and moving the mouse around, respectively and later gets a print out of it which is in the form of paper and is
In case of laptops, the touchpad is given as a replacement of mouse which later published
helps in the movement of the mouse pointer Multiple types of printers are also available in the market, which can
serve different purposes
3. Joy Stick
3. Speakers
It is a device which comprises a stick which is attached at an angle to the
base, so that it can be moved and controlled A device through which we can listen to a sound as an outcome of
Mostly used to control the movement in video games what we command a computer to do is called a speaker
Input And Output Device
Apart from computer system, a joystick is also used in the cockpit of an Speakers are attached with a computer system and also are a
aeroplane, wheel chairs, cranes, trucks, etc. to operate them well hardware device which can be attached separately
With the advancement in technology, speakers are now available
4. Light Pen which are wireless and can be connected using bluetooth or other
applications
It is wand-like looking device which can directly be moved over the device’s
screen 4. Projector
It is light sensitive
Used in conjunction with computer’s cathode ray tube An optical device which presents an image or moving images onto a
projection screen is called a projector
5. Microphone Most commonly these projectors are used in auditoriums and movie
theatres for display of the videos or lightening
Using a microphone, sound can be stored in a device in its digital form If a projector is connected to a computer, then the image/video
It converts sound into electrical signal displayed on the screen is the same as the one displayed on the
To record or reproduce a sound created using a microphone, it needs to be computer screen
connected with an amplifier
5. Headphones
6. Scanner
They perform the same function as a speaker, the only difference is
This device can scan images or text and convert it into a digital signal the frequency of sound
When we place any piece of document on a scanner, it converts it into a Using speakers, the sound can be heard over a larger area and using
digital signal and displays it on the computer screen headphones, the sound is only audible to the person using them
Also known as earphones or headset
7. Barcode Reader
All the devices mentioned above are the most commonly used input devices.
Several other such equipments are used in different fields which can be counted as
an input device.
Hardware-
The term hardware refers to mechanical device that makes up computer. Computer hardware consists of interconnected electronic devices that we can
Definition
use to control computer’s operation, input and output. Examples of hardware are CPU, keyboard, mouse, hard disk, etc.
Hardware
Computer hardware is a collection of several components working together. Some parts are essential and others are added advantages. Computer
Component
hardware is made up of CPU and peripherals as shown in image below.
s
Software And Hardware
Software-
A set of instructions that drives computer to do stipulated tasks is called a program. Software instructions are programmed in a computer language,
Definition
translated into machine language, and executed by computer. Software can be categorized into two types −
System software
Application software
Types System Software Application Software
System software operates directly on hardware devices of computer. It An application software is designed for benefit of users to perform one
provides a platform to run an application. It provides and supports user or more tasks. Examples of application software include Microsoft Word,
functionality. Examples of system software include operating systems Excel, PowerPoint, Oracle, etc.
such as Windows, Linux, Unix, etc.
Differences
Sr.No. Software Hardware
between
Software
1 It is a collection of programs to bring computer hardware system into It includes physical components of computer system.
and
Hardware operation.
2 It includes numbers, alphabets, alphanumeric symbols, identifiers, It consists of electronic components like ICs, diodes, registers, crystals,
keywords, etc. boards, insulators, etc.
3 Software products evolve by adding new features to existing Hardware design is based on architectural decisions to make it work over
programs to support hardware. a range of environmental conditions and time.
4 It will vary as per computer and its built-in functions and It is mostly constructed for all types of computer systems.
programming language.
5 It is designed and developed by experienced programmers in high- The hardware can understand only low-level language or machine
level language. language.
6 It is represented in any high-level language such as BASIC, COBOL, C, The hardware works only on binary codes 1’s and 0’s.
C++, JAVA, etc.
7 The software is categorized as operating system, utilities, language The hardware consists of input devices, output devices, memory, etc.
processor, application software, etc.
What is an An Operating system (OS) is a software which acts as an What is a The kernel is the central component of a computer operating
Operating interface between the end user and computer hardware. Every Kernel? systems. The only job performed by the kernel is to the manage
System? computer must have at least one OS to run other programs. An the communication between the software and the hardware. A
application like Chrome, MS Word, Games, etc needs some Kernel is at the nucleus of a computer. It makes the
environment in which it will run and perform its task. The OS communication between the hardware and software possible.
helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing While the Kernel is the innermost part of an operating system, a
how to speak the computer's language. It is not possible for the shell is the outermost one.
user to use any computer or mobile device without having an
operating system.
Features of Kennel
History Of OS Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to Low-level scheduling of processes
manage tape storage Inter-process communication
The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS Process synchronization
in the early 1950s for their IBM 701 Context switching
In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was Types of Kernels
developed
The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 There are many types of kernels that exists, but among them,
by purchasing the 86-DOS software from a Seattle company the two most popular kernels are:
The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence
in 1985 when a GUI was created and paired with MS-DOS. 1.Monolithic
Features of Protected and supervisor mode
Operating Allows disk access and file systems Device drivers A monolithic kernel is a single code or block of the program. It
System Networking Security provides all the required services offered by the operating
Program Execution system. It is a simplistic design which creates a distinct
Memory management Virtual Memory Multitasking communication layer between the hardware and software.
Handling I/O operations
Manipulation of the file system 2. Microkernels
Error Detection and handling
Resource allocation Microkernel manages all system resources. In this type of
Information and Resource Protection kernel, services are implemented in different address space. The
user services are stored in user address space, and kernel
services are stored under kernel address space. So, it helps to
reduce the size of both the kernel and operating system.
Functions of
an Operating
System
Operating system
1. Process management:- Process management helps OS to 7. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels
create and delete processes. It also provides mechanisms for of storage which includes primary storage, secondary storage,
synchronization and communication among processes. and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in
primary storage or cache so that a running program can
2. Memory management:- Memory management module reference it.
performs the task of allocation and de-allocation of memory
space to programs in need of this resources. 7. Security:- Security module protects the data and information
of a computer system against malware threat and authorized
3. File management:- It manages all the file-related activities access.
such as organization storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and
protection of files. 8. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting
commands given by the and acting system resources to
4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all process that commands.
devices. This module also responsible for this task is known as
the I/O controller. It also performs the task of allocation and 9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors
de-allocation of the devices. which do not share memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The
processors communicate with one another through the
5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS network.
is to hide the peculiarities of that hardware devices from the
user. 10. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by
various job and users.
6. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels
of storage which includes primary storage, secondary storage, 11. Communication management: Coordination and assignment
and cache storage. Instructions and data must be stored in of compilers, interpreters, and another software resource of
primary storage or cache so that a running program can the various users of the computer systems.
reference it.
Types of Batch Operating System Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems
Operating
system Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different
speed the same process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched terminal(shell) to use a single computer system at the same time. The
together and run as a group. processor time (CPU) which is shared among multiple users is termed
as time sharing.
The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the
computer. In this type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an
offline device like a punch card and submit it to the computer
operator.
Real time OS Distributed Operating System
A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to Distributed systems use many processors located in different
inputs is very small. Examples: Military Software Systems, Space machines to provide very fast computation to its users.
Software Systems.
Network Operating System Mobile OS
Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are
to serve to manage data, user, groups, security, application, and other designed to power smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices.
networking functions.
Introduction Brief introduction about MS Windows has been given in the table below, candidates must refer to this information:
Windows
to Microsoft
Windows MS Windows
Developer Microsoft
What is By definition, an Operating System is a group of several GUIs (Graphical User Interface) families, all of which are developed, sold and marketed by
Windows Microsoft.
Operating
System? The latest version of Microsoft Operating System which is being widely used across the world is Windows 10.
History and It was 1983 when work on “Interface Manager” was started by Microsoft but it was in November 1995, when the first Windows 1.0 was introduced. Later
Development on, with developments in technology, the requirement of the people and increased demand for Graphical User Interface, Microsoft kept releasing revised
of Windows versions of Operating Systems.
The image given below shows the different Microsoft Operating Systems along with the year in which they were introduced:
Versions of Let us understand the different versions of Windows Operating System along with the features of each of them individually.
Windows
Operating 1. Windows 1.0 2. Windows 2.0 3. Windows 3.0
System
It was released on November 20, 1985 It was released on December 9, 1987 It was released in 1990
Pure Operating Environment 16 bit Graphic User Interface (GUI) based It was better at multitasking
Used Graphical User Interface operating environment Used 8086 microprocessors
Simple Graphics Introduced Control Panel, and the first It has both, conventional and extendable memory
version of MS Word and Excel
Offered limited multi-tasking was expected to First version of Windows to gather critical
have a better future potential Unlike Windows 1.0, it had the capacity to appreciation
allow applications to overlap each other
Better memory/ storage
It was also the last Windows OS which did
Note* – None of the above mentioned Windows was Operating Systems. They all came under the category of
not require a hard disk Windows, working based on a graphical operating environment. It was Windows 95, which was the first Operating
System released by Microsoft.
Hardware played an important role
It was the first complete Operating System It was released to manufacturing on It was officially released on February 17, 2000.
It was released on August 15, 1995 May 15, 1998 However, its manufacturing had begun in late 1999
It merged MS-DOS and Windows products It was a 16 bit and 32 bit product based A core set of features was followed for manufacturing
on MS DOS Windows 2000 but 4 different editions, targeting
It simplified plug and play features
It was not an entirely new version but different sectors of the market were released. These
Taskbar and Start menu was introduced included: Server, Professional, Advanced Server and
just a tuned-up version to Windows 95
with this Windows OS Data center Server
Internet Explorer 4.01 was released
Advanced from 16 bit GUI to 32 bit GUI It was considered as one of the most secure OS ever
along with this Windows version
Long file names could be saved A local disk manager was introduced with these
It did not support USB printers or mass
Initially, computers with Windows 95 did storage devices Windows
not have Internet Explorer installed but by
An update to this version “Windows SE” Multilingual User Interface – it supported many
the release date of Windows 95, the first different languages
was released in 1999
version of Internet Explorer was installed
in the software
On December 31, 2001, Windows declared
this version of OS outdated and ended its
support for the same
While the manufacturing started on August It was released on January 30, 2007 It was released on October 22, 2009
24, 2001, the official product was released It had an upgraded version of Graphical A large number of new features were introduced
on October 25, 2001 User Interface Redesigned Windows shell with an updated
Advanced portable PC support It was the first operating system to use taskbar
Automatic wireless connection support DVD-ROM for installation Incremental upgrade to the Windows line
Fast start up Libraries were added in the file management
Better Graphical User Interface (GUI) system
Help and support centre A few features from the past Windows were
removed
Extended hardware support
It was released for retail on October 26, It was released on July 29, 2015
2012 Addresses shortcomings in the user
Optimisations for touch-based interface first introduced with Windows
Installed in new devices like Laptops, 8
Mobile phones, tablets, etc. A virtual desktop system
Increased integration with cloud services It had the ability to run windows store
Windows Store service for software apps within windows on the desktop
distribution rather than in the full-screen mode
Web Browsers
Adobe Photoshop
Adobe Reader
Messenger
Media Players
Games
Audio/ Video Chatting Apps
Maps & Calendar and this list goes on
Introduction Microsoft Office is a software which was developed by Microsoft in 1988. This Office suite comprises various applications which form the core of
computer usage in today’s world.
MS Office Currently, MS Office 2016 version is being used across the world and all its applications are widely used for personal and professional purposes.
Applications
& its Discussed below are the applications of Microsoft Office along with each of their functions.
Functions 1. MS Word 2. MS Excel 3. MS PowerPoint
First released on October 25, 1983 Majorly used for making spreadsheets It was released on April 20, 1987
Extension for Doc files is “.doc” A spreadsheet consists of grids in the Used to create audiovisual presentations
It is useful in creating text documents form of rows and columns which is easy Each presentation is made up of various slides
Office
which is downloadable in the form of a saved in tabular format using MS Excel The extension for power point presentations is
document Calculations can be done based on the “.ppt”
Authors can use for writing/ editing their large amount of data entered into the Used majorly for professional usage
work cells of a spreadsheet within seconds
Using Power point, presentations can be made
File extension, when saved in the more interactive
computer, is “.xls”.
4. MS Access 5. MS Outlook 6. MS OneNote
Uses Of
It was released on November 13, 1992 It was released on January 16, 1997 It was released on November 19, 2003
It is Database Management Software It is a personal information It is a note-taking application
(DBMS) management system When introduced, it was a part of the Office
Table, queries, forms and reports can be It can be used both as a single-user suite only. Later, the developers made it free,
created on MS Access application or multi-user software standalone and easily available at play store for
Import and export of data into other Its functions also include task android devices
formats can be done managing, calendaring, contact The notes may include images, text, tables, etc.
The file extension is “.accdb” managing, journal logging and web The extension for OneNote files is “.one”
browsing
It can be used both online and offline and is a
It is the email client of the Office Suite multi-user application
The file extension for an Outlook file is
“.pst”
Definition In terms of Graphical user interface, using MS PowerPoint, interesting
Computer Language and appealing presentation and documents can be created. To read more
about its features and usage, candidates can visit the linked article.
Types of A language is the main medium of communicating between the Computer systems and the most common are the programming languages.There are
language basically two types of computer languages:
1) Low Level Language
2) High Level Language
Assembly Language is the second generation programming language that has almost similar structure and set of commands as Machine language.
Instead of using numbers like in Machine languages here we use words or names in English forms and also symbols. For example microprocessor
instruction codes. An assembly language is the most basic programming language available for any processor. With assembly language, a programmer
works only with operations that are implemented directly on the physical CPU.
There are further certain popular types of High Level Languages related to which questions were asked in computer section of recent examination:
Scripting Language: A scripting language is a programming language that employs a high-level construct to interpret and execute one command at a
time.
AppleScript, a scripting language for the Macintosh allows the user to send commands to the operating system to, for example open applications, carry
out complex data operations.
JavaScript, perhaps the most publicised and well-known scripting language was initially developed by Netscape as LiveScript to allow more functionality
and enhancement to web page authoring that raw HTML could not accommodate.
Perl (Practical Extraction and Report Language). This is a popular string processing language for writing small scripts for system administrators and web
site maintainers. Much web development is now done using Perl.
Object-oriented Languages: Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based on the concept of “objects”, which may contain
data, in the form of fields, often known as attributes; and code, in the form of procedures, often known as methods. Significant object-oriented
languages include Java, C++, C#, Python, PHP, Ruby, Perl, Object Pascal, Objective-C, Dart, Swift, Scala, Common Lisp, and Smalltalk.
Procedural Programming Language: The procedural programming language is used to execute a sequence of statements which lead to a result.
Typically, this type of programming language uses multiple variables, heavy loops and other elements, which separates them from functional
programming languages. The first major procedural programming languages first appeared circa 1960, including Fortran, ALGOL, COBOL and BASIC.
Definition Translator is a programming language processor that converts
a computer program from one language to another. It takes a
program written in source code and converts it into machine
code. It discovers and identifies the error during translation.
It translates high-level language program into a machine
language program that the central processing unit (CPU) can
understand. It also detects errors in the program.
Types Compiler
A compiler is a translator used to convert high-level programming language to low-level programming language. It converts the whole program in one
session and reports errors detected after the conversion. Compiler takes time to do its work as it translates high-level code to lower-level code all at
once and then saves it to memory.
A compiler is processor-dependent and platform-dependent. But it has been addressed by a special compiler, a cross-compiler and a source-to-source
compiler. Before choosing a compiler, user has to identify first the Instruction Set Architecture (ISA), the operating system (OS) and the programming
language that will be used to ensure that it will be compatible.
Interpreter
Just like a compiler, is a translator used to convert high-level programming language to low-level programming language. It converts the program one at
a time and reports errors detected at once, while doing the conversion. With this, it is easier to detect errors than in a compiler. An interpreter is faster
than a compiler as it immediately executes the code upon reading the code.
It is often used as a debugging tool for software development as it can execute a single line of code at a time. An interpreter is also more portable than a
compiler as it is not processor-dependent, you can work between hardware architectures.
Assembler
An assembler is is a translator used to translate assembly language to machine language. It is like a compiler for the assembly language but interactive
like an interpreter. Assembly language is difficult to understand as it is a low-level programming language. An assembler translates a low-level
language, an assembly language to an even lower-level language, which is the machine code. The machine code can be directly understood by the CPU.
Translators
Interpreter You discover errors before you complete the program, There’s a possibility of syntax errors on unverified scripts.
so you learn from your mistakes. Program is not enhanced and may encounter data errors.
Program can be run before it is completed so you get It may be slow because of the interpretation in every execution.
partial results immediately.
You can work on small parts of the program and link
them later into a whole program.
Assembler The symbolic programming is easier to understand thus It is machine dependent, cannot be used in other architecture.
time-saving for the programmer. A small change in design can invalidate the whole program.
It is easier to fix errors and alter program instructions. It is difficult to maintain.
Efficiency in execution just like machine level language.
Broadband – Provided either through cable or phone companies, Broadband is a high-speed internet connection which is widely used today
Wireless Connection – Wi-fi and Mobile service providers fall under this category. Internet connectivity is made via radio waves and the Internet
can be connected anywhere, irrespective of the location. Given below are a few examples of wireless connection:
o Wi-fi – Wireless Fidelity or wi-fi allows high-speed internet connectivity without the use of wires
o Mobile Phones – All smartphones are now equipped with an option for Internet connectivity which can be availed using Internet
vouchers and packs. No external connection or wire is required for these
o Satellite – Where broadband connections are unavailable, satellites are used for wireless Internet connectivity
o Integrated Services Digital Network – ISDN allows users to sent audio or video data using telephone lines
Internet Protocols are a set of rules that help in governing the way in which any particular body or technology works.
Connection
Internet
Protocols Internet Connection Protocols can be divided into three major types:
TCP/IP Network Model – Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) are the most widely used protocols for connecting
networks. It divides any message into a series of packets which are sent from source to destination
File Transfer Protocol – Program files, multimedia files, text files, documents, etc. can be transferred from one device to another, using FTP
Hypertext Transfer Protocol – Used for transferring a hypertext from one device to two or more devices. HTML tags are used for creating links
and these links may be in the form of text or images
Pros and Pros of Internet
Cons of Using
Internet Easy Access to Information – Information on anything and everything are available online. The Internet makes it convenient to learn about new
things at any point in time and get details on various subjects, irrespective of time and place
Platform for Online Education – With the advanced technology, even students and adults wish to learn new things and gaining knowledge at
various online portals has become more accessible
Job Hunting – Employers can look for employees on the internet and the job seekers can apply online for jobs using the Internet
Platform to become an Entrepreneur – Today, thousands of people have started their own websites and getting good business and
users/customers by making their own websites and selling products or services. This has become accessible due to Internet connectivity
Visual and Graphical Representation of Things – Various researches have shown that a person tends to get more engaged with a graphical
representation of things. Internet has made this facility also convenient for both user and creator
Reduced the parameter of Distance – Social media has reduced the distance between people as communication has become much easier
because of Internet connection
With the Internet being an extremely essential part of daily life, it is important that a person is well aware of the disadvantages of the Internet and its
excess usage.
Cons of Internet
Dependency – The dependency of people for looking things and information online has increased massively since the introduction of Internet
and its easy access
Cyber Crime – People do not just use internet for learning purposes, cyber crime has also been at a distinctive high because of effortless
availability of resources
Distraction – People can easily find online games, interesting information, etc. online which may be a cause of distraction for may
Bullying and Trolls – Online platforms are being used for unethical practises like bullying people and trolling them
E-mail
Social Media Intro The phenomenal rise of Social Media (SM) platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and others is proving to be a double-edged sword in the functioning of
democracies. On the one hand, it has democratised access to information but on the other hand, it has also posed new challenges which are now directly
impacting our democracies and the people.
Today Social Media has empowered common people to directly Today, creating content needs less investment than the brick and
interact with the government and avail government services mortar or any other Physical set up.
directly.
It is more often soft-skill driven.
Common people tagging Railway and other ministries and the
With the assistance of technology, anyone can create competent,
agencies responding to them is common news these days.
authentic, effective and fresh online content.
Countering The Hegemony Closing The Distance
Social Media has also evolved as a tool to counter the hegemony or Social Media has also bridged the distance.
narrative of traditional players.
Friends and Family are now connected over WhatsApp and other Apps
It has provided an alternate source of Knowledge in a world where despite being far away in distance.
mainstream media has come under severe public criticism for fake
news and propaganda.
Online communities are, geographically, much wider and more heterogeneous than physical communities.
In the past, many communities in India were not allowed to participate in public discourses, organise themselves and advance their thoughts and
ideas.
Their concerns, ideas, experiences, ambitions and demands largely went unheard.
Hate speech and rumours in India have been responsible for acts of A 2019 Microsoft study found that over 64% of Indians
violence and deaths in many of the cases for quite some time now. encounter fake news online, the highest reported amongst the
22 countries surveyed.
The most recent being the case when two sadhus and their driver
were lynched in Gadchinchale village in Palghar, Maharashtra this There are a staggering number of edited images, manipulated
year. videos and fake text messages spreading through social media
platforms and messaging services like WhatsApp making it
The incident was fuelled by WhatsApp rumours about thieves
harder to distinguish between misinformation and credible
operating in the area and the group of villagers had mistaken the
facts.
three passengers as thieves and killed them. Several policemen who
intervened were also attacked and injured.
Similarly Hate Speech on Social Media had a big role in the Delhi
Riots of 2020.
Trolling is the new bi product of Social Media. Women face cyber rape and threats that affect their dignity
severely.
Vigilantes take law in their own hand and start trolling and
threatening those who don’t agree with their views or narratives. Sometimes their pictures and videos are leaked with and are
forced to cyber bullying.
It has led to anonymous trolls who attack the reputation of an
individual.
Way Artificial Intelligence (AI) Fight Misinformation With Information
Forward
Several Social Media houses have put up a mix of automated This is the other way where alternative information alongside the content
and human driven editorial processes to promote or filter with fake information is posted so that the users are exposed to the truth
certain types of content. and correct information.
These AI units will automatically flash the danger of mis This approach, which is implemented by YouTube, encourages users to click
reporting everytime an image or news is shared. on the links with verified and vetted information that would debunk the
misguided claims made in fake or hateful content.
This practice must be strengthened and disseminated.
E.g, If you search “Vaccines cause autism” on YouTube, while you still can
view the videos posted by anti-vaxxers, you will also be presented with a
link to the Wikipedia page of MMR vaccine that debunks such beliefs.
There must be an exhaustive national law to deal with the ever A digitally literate country is the need of the hour.
expanding horizon of Social Media.
Responsible social media use must be taught at every school and college in
Responsibility must be fixed and there must be deterrence of the country and especially in the rural areas where people can be easily
law. manipulated.
Legal Measures
The Election Commission of India (ECI) had announced measures to curb fake news and misinformation on social media platforms at the time of
elections.
It had brought political parties’ social media content under the ambit of the model code of conduct, and had asked the candidates to disclose their
social media accounts and all expenditure on their respective social media campaigns.
Similarly the media Wing of the I&B Ministry has been assisting various arms of the government in keeping an eye on activities on various social
media platforms.
Conclusion As India is not a surveillance state, there must not be any illegal or unconstitutional check on the right to privacy and freedom of speech and
expression which are the fundamental rights of every citizen.
There must be a balance as the Constitutions itself has provided several limitations on one’s right to speech and expression.
Big technology firms who own social media platforms can mediate content and thus impinge on democracy.
They and everyone must be held accountable for their actions which have wide social ramification.
Definition e-Governance can be defined as the application of information and Objectives Better service delivery to citizens.
E-Governance
The “e” in e-Governance stands for ‘electronic’. Improve efficiency within Government i.e between
centre-state or inter-states.
The Council of Europe referred to e-Governance as:
Improve interface with business and industry.
The use of electronic technologies in three areas of public action: Types of G2G i.e. Government to Government
Interaction
o relations between the public authorities and civil society G2C i.e. Government to Citizen
in e-
o the functioning of the public authorities at all stages of the Governance G2B i.e. Government to Business
democratic process (electronic democracy) G2E i.e. Government to Employees
o the provision of public services (electronic public services)
Different e-Administration: The use of ICTs to modernize the state; the creation of data repositories for Management Information System (MIS) and
Connotations computerization of records (land, health etc).
of e- e-Services: The emphasis here is to bring the state closer to the citizens.
Governance
o For Examples: Provision of online services.
o e-administration and e-services together constitute what is largely termed as e-government.
e-Governance: The use of IT to improve the ability of the government to address the needs of society.
o It includes the publishing of policy and program-related information to transact with citizens.
o It extends beyond the provision of online services and covers the use of IT for strategic planning and reaching the development goals of the
government.
e-Democracy: The use of IT to facilitate the ability of all sections of society to participate in the governance of the state.
Process People
Well defined and well managed process of e-governance. It To strengthen the second pillar of governance factors such as Digital literacy,
includes apps like UMANG, grievance redressal mechanisms Affordability, Accessibility are very important.
and convergence and coordination between various Though with the introduction of JIO and such other affordable service
stakeholders (departments, ministries, citizen, etc.). providers, internet in India became quite affordable, more needs to be done.
Unified Mobile Application for New-age Governance According to a report of World Wide Web foundation, in India, there is a rise in
(UMANG) is a multi-utility app and integrates with other core affordability, but the lowest rates are found in other Asian countries like
government services of Aadhaar, DigiLocker, Rapid Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Myanmar and Vietnam.
Assessment System, and Bharat Bill Payment System etc. and Similarly on the front of digital literacy, PMGDISHA and such other digital
supports 13 Indian languages. literacy campaigns are started, but they are yet to bear fruits.
Technology Resources
For a successful e-governance, state of the art technology is For successful e-governance, ‘resources’ is fourth pillar, and strength of this
prerequisite. India is one of the technological hubs in the pillar is determined by factors such as infrastructure, electricity, Knowledge
world, but also one of the most vulnerable countries for cyber Resources, IT Policies, and Institutions working on e-Governance.
attacks. We have Bharat Net for and such other programmes for infrastructure
We need continuous and most modern technology as an development. Various institutions and departments such as NeGD (National e-
important pillar of governance. Governance Division) are working to achieve e-Kranti, and of course there is
For technological support we can take benefit from private no dearth of technological knowledge in India.
sector expertise such as Google and facebook, with There are problems related to policies, we are yet to frame our data
precautions. protection policy.
Various MyGov: It aims to establish a link between Government and Citizens towards meeting the goal of good governance.
Initiatives
Under
o It encourages citizens as well as people abroad to participate in various activities i.e. 'Do', 'Discuss', 'Poll', 'Talk', ‘Blog’, etc.
Digital India
Initiatives DigiLocker: It serves as a platform to enable citizens to securely store and share their documents with service providers who can directly access
them electronically.
e-Hospital-Online Registration Framework (ORF): It is an initiative to facilitate the patients to take online OPD appointments with government
hospitals. This framework also covers patient care, laboratory services and medical record management.
National Scholarships Portal (NSP): It provides a centralized platform for application and disbursement of scholarship to students under any
scholarship scheme.
DARPAN
PRAGATI (Pro-Active Governance And Timely Implementation):
Common Services Centres 2.0 (CSC 2.0)
Mobile Seva:
Jeevan Pramaan:
National Centre of Geo-informatics (NCoG)
National e-Governance Plan (NeGP):
o PMGDISHA: Pradhan Mantri Gramin Digital Saksharta Abhiyaan aims to make six crore people in rural India digitally literate.
o SWAYAM: It includes Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs) for leveraging e-Education. It provides for a platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses,
taught in classrooms from Class 9 till post-graduation to be accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time.
e-Healthcare: e-Healthcare would cover online medical consultation, online medical records, online medicine supply, pan-India exchange for patient information,
etc.
Farmers: This would facilitate farmers to get real-time price information, online ordering of inputs and online cash, loan, and relief payment with mobile banking.
Security: Mobile-based emergency services and disaster-related services would be provided to citizens on a real-time basis so as to take precautionary measures well
in time and minimize loss of lives and properties.
Financial Inclusion: Financial inclusion shall be strengthened using mobile banking, Micro-ATM program, and CSCs/ Post Offices.
Justice: Interoperable Criminal Justice System shall be strengthened by leveraging several related applications, i.e. e-Courts, e-Police, e-Jails, and e-Prosecution.
Planning: National GIS Mission Mode Project would be implemented to facilitate GIS-based decision making for project planning, conceptualization, design, and
development.
Cyber Security: National Cyber Security Co-ordination Centre has been set up to ensure a safe and secure cyber-space within the country.
Infrastructure
Initiatives like BharatNet and Saubhagya are steps taken in this regard.
Cost
o e-Governance measures are costly affairs and require huge public expenditure.
o In developing countries like India, the cost of projects is one of the major impediments in the implementation of e-Governance
initiatives.
Privacy and Security
o Recent spark in data leak cases has threatened the peoples’ faith in e-governance. Therefore, the implementation of e-
governance projects must have security standards and protocols for safeguarding the interest of all classes of masses.
Digital Divide
The gap needs to be narrowed down, then only the benefits of e-governance would be utilized equally.
Suggestions A hybrid approach needs to be adopted for enhancing interoperability among e-governance applications which will encompass a centralized
approach for document management, knowledge management, file management, grievance management etc.
The e-governance initiatives in rural areas should be taken by identifying and analyzing the grassroots realities.
The government should also focus on devising appropriate, feasible, distinct and effective capacity building mechanisms for various
stakeholders viz bureaucrats, rural masses, urban masses, elected representatives, etc.
Cloud computing is also becoming a big force to enhance the delivery of services related to e-governance. Cloud computing is not only a tool for
cost reduction but also helps in enabling new services, improving the education system and creating new jobs/ opportunities.
o Meghraj- GI Cloud is a step in the right direction. The focus of this initiative is to accelerate the delivery of e-services in the country
while optimizing ICT spending of the Government.
e-Governance through regional languages is appreciable for the nations like India where people from several linguistic backgrounds are the
participants.
Conclusion e-Governance is getting momentum in India, but public awareness and the digital divide are important issues to be addressed.
The success of e-Governance measures largely depends on the availability of high-speed internet, and the nation-wide roll-out of 5G technology in
the near future will strengthen our resolve.