Higher Education in Nepal

Policies and Perspectives

Edited by Krishna Bista, Shyam

Sharma, and Rosalind Latiner Raby

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 7 8/2/2019 5:58:22 PM

 16 Assessing Nepal’s higher
education
Current status and future
directions for the federal
democratic republic
Uttam Gaulee and Krishna Bista

Abstract
Even though more than one-third of Nepal’s colleges are categorized as community
colleges (UGC, 2012), the biggest missing piece in Nepal’s higher education is
community engagement. The irony is rooted in the fact that most of the colleges are
satellite campuses affiliated with a handful of universities, offering bachelor and mas-
ter’s degrees on the basis of centralized curricula and externally administered high
stake examinations. Now that the country is poised to harness economic potentials
by embracing a federal structure, higher education needs to unleash itself from the
tether of pseudo-elitist ivory-tower model in favor of community-engaged scholarly
activities geared toward the development of skills and entrepreneurship. Most of the
scholars we spoke to emphasized skills development through community-based col-
leges that promote accessible job-oriented skills for adult students through appren-
ticeship, professional education, and technical and vocational education and training.
This chapter presents an overview of current Nepalese higher education. Results are
based on quantitative and qualitative data collected over the past two years. Results
support an argument for a strong need for a community-engagement model of
higher education to allow youth an opportunity to maximize local resources, over-
AuQ1 come high unemployment rates, and end socialcultural discrimination.

Because the higher education system in Nepal is criticized for producing the
human resource that doesn’t fit the demand of the job market. It is an irony
that there is a dearth of technical man power in the local market on one hand
and at the same time thousands of students and youths are leaving the country
citing that there is lack of employment opportunities in Nepal. I think this can
be minimized with the establishment of technical community colleges that
cater to the needs of the local market.
–– Study participant

Introduction
Since the first university in Nepal – Tribhuvan University (TU) was established
in 1959 – many public institutions have opened. In fact, the first public college,

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 214 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 215
Tri-Chandra College was established in 1951, even before the first university. In
Nepal, a public college is usually funded by the government. Community col-
leges are funded privately, often times with portions coming from local taxes.
Unlike a community college in the United States or Canada, a typical Nepali
public college or a typical community college tends to be a satellite campus of a
larger university. Neither the public college nor the community college have an
independent curricula or degree-granting authority. Students enroll based on the
university entrance exam, and receive a university degree if they pass the nation-
ally administered examinations externally, which are controlled by the affiliated
university (in most cases Tribhuvan University, the oldest university). In addi-
tion, the terms “colleges” and “campuses” are synonymous in Nepal because
all colleges are affiliated with a university for examination and degree-granting
purposes. While they are all satellite campuses, some like to call themselves col-
leges. Due to lack of an accreditation system, an independent degree-granting
“college” does not exist in Nepal (Bista & Gaulee, 2018).
By 1965, there were five public colleges with a total enrolment of 5,000 and
51 community colleges with a total enrolment of 10,000 students. In 1971, all
community colleges were nationalized and became part of Tribhuvan University.
During the 2014/15 academic year, there were over 384,499 students enrolled
in Tribhuvan University academic programs. One-third of the total students were
from 60 constituent campuses and central departments, the other two-thirds
were from 1,063 affiliated public colleges and/or community colleges (Trib-
huvan University, 2016). A constituent campus is one owned by the university
itself, while public or community colleges are considered to be affiliated in that
they pay an affiliation fee to the university (somehow like a franchise). Currently,
there are nine universities that offer a wide range of programs in natural sciences,
social sciences, medical sciences, business and computer sciences, education, and
other technical fields. The funding to all universities is channeled through the
University Grants Commission (UGC) with the exception of B.P. Koirala Insti-
tute of Health Sciences, which receives grants from the Ministry of Health. It is
important to note that the Nepal community colleges are not an integral part of
the university, but nonetheless must follow the university syllabi, examinations,
and degree programs.

Current structure
All universities established in Nepal are public universities with more or less simi-
lar structures. The constituent campuses (also known as colleges) are an integral
part of their respective universities, and are located in main cities of the country.
All institutions that are non-constituent campuses are called affiliated campuses.
Affiliated campuses are located throughout the country and are all affiliated with
a specific university. They follow the same admission requirements, curricula, and
examination as the university to which they are affiliated with. There are two types
of non-affiliated colleges: (1) public colleges, which are community funded and,
therefore, are sometimes referred to as community colleges, and (2) private col-
leges, which although privately funded, otherwise operate in the same ways as do

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 215 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 216 Uttam Gaulee and Krishna Bista
community colleges. According to the Ministry of Education (2015), there were
1,369 higher education campuses in Nepal. Out of these campuses, 98 (7.2%) are
constituent campuses of universities, 839 (61.3%) are private, and 432 (31.5%)
are community college campuses. In recent years, many private campuses have
been established with foreign university affiliations. Tribhuvan University still has
the largest share (83.8%) of the total higher education enrollment. The share
of remaining universities and medical academies is less than 15% and below 1%
respectively. The enrolment proportion in terms of field of study is very high in the
general programs (86.33% of the total) and low in technical programs (13.66%).

Student enrollment
Enrollment wise, students are pretty much evenly distributed among the three
types of institutions previously discussed. The share of community campuses is
32.8% while the share of constituent campuses is 31.4% and that of private cam-
puses is 35.8%. Looking at the level of degree enrollment distribution, the vast
number of students (82.52%) is at bachelor’s level, followed by 17.4% at the
master’s level. These figures for MPhil and PhD are less than 1%. Enrollments
in education, management, and humanities are 34%, 30.5%, and 20.02% respec-
tively. For engineering, medicine, and science and technology, this value is 5%,
4.5%, and 4.2% respectively.
Students in public and community colleges, similar to the university, take col-
lege courses during morning or evening shifts. Most Nepalese undergraduate
students are full-time students, and may not work elsewhere while studying. As a
cultural norm, parents pay the costs of education for their children, which often
influences the selection of majors. Because of the growing number of unem-
ployed graduates, sometimes college students have little motivation or no interest
in pursuing a traditional college degree (Khaniya, 2007). There are many cases in
which students have dropped their programs or have frequently changed majors.

Funding and oversight

In Nepalese post-secondary education, the University Grants Commission over-
sees the funding and monitoring of all educational programs that includes bache-
lor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees. Nepalese doctoral degrees are research-based
degrees, and are rigorously evaluated by a team of experts. Constituent campuses
receive public funding and universities oversee their academic, administrative,
and financial management. Affiliated campuses do not receive public funding, but
universities are still responsible for supervision of their academic programs and
examinations. Community colleges receive a small percentage of financial sup-
port from the government through the University Grants Commission.

Technical and vocational education

The Council for Technical Education and Vocational Training (CTEVT),
constituted in 1989 as an autonomous body, offers proficiency (high school

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 216 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 217
equivalent) and short-cycle diploma level (post-high school degrees), technical
school certificates, and short-term vocational and skill training. Students with
high school degree (grade 10) can complete the technical education degree in
15 months and those who come without high school diploma can take a mini-
mum of 29 months.
CTEVT courses are offered in the field of agriculture, engineering, health,
office management, social mobilization, and tourism. CTEVT’s higher level
courses, also known as certificate/diploma tracts, require at least three years to
complete, after post-high school degree. Most of the students find jobs or can
generate income by working on their own, because these programs are designed
to address community needs. However, a direct business partnership model with
the educational institution does not exist.
Although some vocational and technical colleges (VET) offer a wide range
of programs to help students and communities in Nepal, challenges are equally
widespread. First, vocational education is frowned upon by society due to the
stigma associated with work – nobody wants to give their daughter to a plumber.
Interestingly, anyone would be happy to marry their daughters to a non-resident
Nepali (NRN), regardless of the job they do abroad. Second, vocational and
technical colleges are structured in such a way that they do not give students a
pathway to connect to university education. Third, existing curricula are differ-
ent as the Nepal CTEVT curricula are limited, less practical, and institutions have
failed to offer skills and knowledge to meet the knowledge economy demand of
the Nepalese labor market. There are also no bridge courses or two-year associate
degree programs for students to ensure employability and competency of indi-
vidual training, and life skills.

Youth unemployment and other issues

According to the World Bank (2015), there are over 28.51 million people liv-
ing in Nepal, with a 65.9& literacy rate – further classified by gender literacy
rates of males 75.1% and female 57.4%. The Nepalese higher education system
is highly traditional, without much focus on workforce market or the empower-
ment of disadvantaged and underprivileged people. Traditional college degrees
are either a three-year bachelor’s degree or a four-year degree, in all disciplines.
Current Nepalese education has failed to offer appropriate content knowledge,
skills, hands-on training for employment in partnership with local industry, and
community programs. A large number of college graduates from liberal arts, edu-
cation, and sciences are unemployed, and many of them have gone to India and
Middle East countries for labor. Over 300,000 people leave Nepal each year to
find work, much of which is backbreaking labor in Kuwait, Malaysia, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, South Korea, and India (Harris, 2014).
The literature on community colleges in Nepal is scarce, and is comprised of
news reports, commission reports, and conceptual articles. A literature gap exists
because past research offers a partial anecdotal view by using either quantita-
tive or qualitative approaches on general higher education in Nepal. There is a
need for a more complete understanding of such community colleges through

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 217 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 218 Uttam Gaulee and Krishna Bista
comparing and synthesizing both quantitative and qualitative data. The following
two questions are used to structure this study:

(1) How do scholars report the current status of higher education in Nepal?
(2) What are the perceptions of scholars on existing or emerging community
colleges in Nepal?

Research method
The purpose of this study is to examine current higher education in Nepal as per-
ceived by the Nepali higher education leaders and diaspora scholars. As a cross-
sectional survey research, both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (words)

Table 16.1 Characteristics of demographic variables of participants (N = 265)

Frequency Percent

Gender
Male 164 61.9%
Female 41 15.5%
Citizenship status
Nepali citizen 208 78.5%
Non-Nepali 20 8.1%
Non-resident Nepali 20 8.1%
Current position
Student 57 21.5%
Faculty 64 24.2%
Other (admin/ 144 54.3%
professional)
Highest education
Doctoral degree 55 20.8%
Master’s degree 104 39.2%
Bachelor’s degree 42 15.8%
Field of study
Business 18 6.8%
Social sciences 73 27.5%
Education/Teaching 51 19.2%
Sciences/Medicine 54 20.4%
Country of
Residence
United States 62 23.4%
Nepal 102 38.5%
Other countries 33 12.5%
Age groups
18–25 34 12.8%
26–33 46 17.4%
34–41 51 19.2%
42–49 36 13.6%
50 and above 37 14.0%
Note. The cumulative percentage/frequency total is not the equal in each variable because of
some missing data.

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 218 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 219
data were collected using an online survey. We also look into the relationship
between the demographic variables and value of higher education/community
colleges to compare and discuss similarities and differences of existing educa-
tional system in Nepal. At the same time, context-specific opinions and views of
participants regarding the needs of community colleges in Nepal are explored
using information received from open-ended comments.
Data were collected using an online questionnaire, interviews, and document
analysis as part of a larger study. Over 1,000 professors, students, and profes-
sionals of Nepali origin or foreign citizens who have worked in Nepal from
Fulbright association as well as association of Nepali scholars were invited to
participate in an online survey. For this chapter, we used 265 responses where
participants reported their opinions on the selected statements related to higher
education and community colleges in Nepal. In the questionnaire, participants
responded to their opinions on the current status of Nepalese higher education
(five statements), the existing community-based colleges, and need of alternative
educational system to complement existing education (nine statements), need
and value of community college (two open-ended questions), and seven demo-
graphic questions. We used open-ended comments to complement the responses
received from the online questionnaire.

Findings

Sample characteristics
As shown in Table 16.1, the majority of participants of this study were male
(61.9% or 164 individuals) as compared to females (15.5%, 41). Similarly, 78.5%
(208) of total participants were Nepali citizens, 8.1% (20) were non-Nepali, and
another 8.1% (20) were non-resident Nepali (NRN). When asked their high-
est education, 39.2% (104) of participants reported earning a master’s degree,
20.8% (55) a doctoral degree, and 15.8% (42) a bachelor’s degree. The field
of study of participants was diverse: business 6.8% (18), social sciences 27.5%
(73), education/teaching 19.2% (51), and sciences/medicines 20.4% (54). The
age group 18–25 composed 12.8% (34), 26–33 constituted 17.4% (46), 34–41
equalled 19.2% (51), 42–49 totalled 13.6% (36), and 50 and above represented
14% (37). At the time of taking survey, 38.5% of participants (102) self-reported
Nepal as their country of residence, 23.4% (62) the United States, and 12.5%
(33) other countries (which primarily included Canada, United Kingdom, Korea,
and Norway)

How do scholars describe the current status of

higher education in Nepal?
In the survey (Table 16.2), 136 participants (51.3%) indicated that the current
higher education system was not satisfactory and 180 (67.9%) reported there
were not enough sufficiently community-based colleges that promote job-ori-
ented skills for Nepalese students. Similarly, 211 participants (79.6%) reported

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 219 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Table 16.2 Participants opinions (agreement or disagreement) with the following statements (N = 265)

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 220
Strongly Agree Agree Neither Agree nor Disagree Strongly Disagree
(1) (2) Disagree (3) (4) (5)

(1) Current higher 6 (2.3%) 60 (22.6%) 43 (16.2%) 107 (40.4%) 29 (10.9%)

education system in
Nepal is acceptable to
me.
(2) Central university 39 (14.7%) 78 (29.4%) 28 (14.3%) 57 (21.5%) 29 (10.9%)
systems should control
the curriculum and
examinations of colleges
in Nepal.
(3) Colleges should have 75 (28.3%) 136 (51.3%) 25 (9.4%) 6 (2.3%) 2 (.8%)
course acceptance and
credit transfer system in
Nepal.
(4) There are sufficient 7 (2.6%) 23 (8.7%) 33 (12.5%) 133 (50.2%) 47 (17.7%)
community-based
colleges that promote
job-oriented skills for
Nepalese students.
(5) There is a need for a 85 (32.1%) 104 (39.2%) 30 (11.3%) 21 (7.9%) 3 (1.1%)
more decentralized
community-based system
of colleges in Nepal

8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM
 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 221
that Nepalese institutions should adopt course acceptance and credit transfer sys-
tem. Similarly, 86 participants (32%) noted that central university systems (e.g.,
Tribhuvan University) should not control the curriculum and examinations of
colleges in Nepal. In another question, 189 participants (71.3%) indicated a
strong need for a decentralized community based system of colleges in Nepal.
While running further analysis, male participants were not statistically signifi-
cant in their opinions regarding the current status of Nepalese higher educa-
tion (in all above five statements, p >.5). While running ANOVA/Kruskal-Wallis
tests other demographic variables such as citizenship status (whether the partici-
pants were Nepalese, non-Nepalese, or non-Nepalese resident), current position
(whether they were student, faculty, or professionals), highest education received
(doctoral degree, master’s degree, or bachelor’s degree), field of study (business,
social science, education, or science), and age group (five levels) were not statisti-
cally different on these five statements.
However, a statistically significant difference was found among the three
group of countries of residence (Nepal, the United States, or elsewhere) on the
following items: “Current higher education system in Nepal is acceptable to me”
(F(2,193) = 4.534, p = .012); “Central university systems should control the cur-
riculum and examinations of colleges in Nepal” (F (2, 191) = 3.396, p = .036);
and “Colleges should have courses acceptable and a credit transfer system in
Nepal” (F (2, 193) = 3.234, p = .042). Participants who were living in the United
States and Nepal differed significantly on their views regarding current higher
education in Nepal (p = 0.48) as well as central university systems controlling the
curriculum and examinations of colleges (p = .028).
When asking participants to identify or categorize existing colleges in Nepal
(Table 16.3), 38.5% of survey participants (102) reported that Tribhuvan-affil-
iated campuses are not community colleges, whereas 21.9% (58) believed they
were. Similarly, 31.7% of participants (84) considered those colleges with tech-
nical and vocational programs (affiliated with CTEVT) as community colleges
in Nepal, whereas 22.7% (60) did not think so. Similarly, 44.7% of participants
(119) agreed that the Nepalese college curriculum does not correspond to com-
munity needs, and 33.9% of participants (90) reported that college degrees do
not support workforce development in Nepal.
Regarding the need and scope of community college programs, the majority of
participants agreed on the following statement: “Community colleges should be
considered in the Nepalese higher education structure” (65.9%, 175); “Commu-
nity college would help reduce socio-cultural discrimination in Nepal” (60.8%,
161); “The establishment of community colleges could provide an opportunity
for youth to acquire tangible workforce skills” (67.1%, 178); “There is a need of
practical job-oriented two-year associate degree programs” (67.5%, 179); and
“A new system of community colleges would be complementary to what exists
in Nepal” (63%, 167).
Further analysis revealed that participants who identified as “Nepali” and
“non-resident Nepali” (NRN) differed significantly on their views regarding
two statements: “The establishment of community college could provide an

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 221 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 222
Table 16.3 Participants opinions (agreement or disagreement) with the following statements (N = 265)

Strongly Agree Agree (2) Neither Agree Disagree (4) Strongly

(1) nor Disagree (3) Disagree (5)

(1) University-affiliated campuses (e.g., 14 (5.3%) 44 (16.6%) 47 (17.7%) 83 (31.3%) 19 (7.2%)

Tri-Chandra Campus) are considered
community colleges in Nepal.
(2) Colleges with technical and vocational 14 (5.3%) 70 (26.4%) 59 (22.3%) 49 (18.5%) 11 (4.2%)
programs (e.g., CTEVT) are considered
community colleges in Nepal.
(3) Community colleges should be considered 48 (18.1%) 127 (47.9%) 23 (8.7%) 3 (1.1%) 1 (0.4%)
in the Nepalese higher education structure.
(4) Community colleges would help reduce 44 (16.6%) 117 (44.2%) 32 (12.1%) 5 (1.9%) 7 (2.6%)
sociocultural discrimination in Nepal.
(5) The establishment of community college 47 (17.7%) 131 (49.4%) 26 (9.8%) 2 (0.8%) 1 (0.4%)
could provide an opportunity for youth to
acquire tangible workplace skills.
(6) Nepalese college curriculum corresponds to 10 (3.8%) 26 (9.8%) 45 (17%) 84 (31.7%) 35 (13.2%)
community needs.
(7) College degrees support workforce 12 (4.5%) 59 (22.3%) 42 (15.8%) 69 (26%) 21 (7.9%)
development in Nepal.
(8) There is a need of practical job-oriented 91 (34.3%) 88 (33.2%) 10 (3.8%) 6 (2.3%) --
two-year associate degree programs.
(9) A new system of community colleges would 57 (21.5%) 110 (41.5%) 29 (10.9%) 7 (2.6%) --
be complementary to what exists in Nepal.

8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM
 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 223
opportunity for youth to acquire tangible workplace skills” (p = 0.006) as well as
“There is a need of practical job-oriented two-year associate degree programs”
(p = .033).
Similarly, “students” and “faculty” were statistically significant on their views
on “University-affiliated campuses (e.g., Tri-Chandra Campus) are considered
community colleges in Nepal” (p =. 000). Participants who hold a doctoral
degree and master’s degree (p = .007), or between doctoral degree and bach-
elor’s degree (p = .000), or participants aged group 34–41 or higher differed
significantly on whether university-affiliated campuses were considered commu-
nity colleges. However, their current status (whether student, or faculty, or pro-
fessional), highest education status (doctoral or master’s degree or a bachelor’s
degree), and age groups did not make any statistical different on their views on
other survey items.

What are the perceptions of scholars on existing or emerging

community colleges in Nepal?
Participants shared mixed views regarding the existing community colleges
through open-ended comments when asked how they define community-based
colleges or whether they would consider such colleges as an alternative road for
quality education. Several participants referred to affiliated colleges or CTEVT
colleges as community colleges. For example, one participant said:

I think the concept of CTEVT is somehow related to community college.

Initially, CTEVT degree were considered non-academic and the students
were not allowed to enter the higher academic programs. I think, now they
can go to higher degrees if they want. The problem is though CTEVT is
supposed to provide 80% practical and 20% theory, in reality CTEVT is not
achieving that target. They just hire 1–2 teachers and run entire program.
To be straightforward, they are just selling the certificates to a large extent.
It has been more a business than to produce medium level skilled workforce
for the country.

Some participants who have worked in Nepal as well as in the United States
assumed CTEVT programs or technical job-oriented programs, which are run
locally, as a part of community college degrees, but they questioned the facts such
course credits are not transferable to regular universities. One participant said:
“Most of the affiliated colleges in some ways resemble the ‘community college’
structure but almost all of them severely lack the diversity of programs that a typi-
cal community college would offer.” Another participant added the challenges of
defining community colleges, “All of them [colleges] are controlled or promoted
by their respective universities in all aspects such as academic, administrative and
economic activities.”
Some participants gave a comparative perspectives of Nepalese community
colleges and American colleges. One participant suggested that we should

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 223 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 224 Uttam Gaulee and Krishna Bista
call “professional development college” for Nepalese colleges considering the
geopolitical limitations. Another participant echoed the similar frustration/
limitation:

There are some community colleges but the diversity of qualification in

higher/further education is lacking. Community colleagues should essen-
tially serve the needs of local markets, society and cultures, but colleges in
Nepal have strong economic underpinning that is geared towards mod-
ern industrial economy that nurtures the powerful commercial organisa-
tions. This produces workforce that is either of poor quality and cannot be
employed or of good quality that flies away to serve the industrial/developed
societies. What we need is education and skill training that is contextually
relevant. Politically, it is also important to resist the manipulative force of
globalisation and neoliberalism that weaken local indigenous capacities and
knowledge from flourishing.

Some of them called such colleges “a misnomer” or “financial gain opportuni-

ties” instead of community-based colleges. A participant said: “There are com-
munity colleges in Nepal in name and legal document but in service they are
really not.” Another participant reported: “I do not think there are commu-
nity colleges which produce skilful workforce. Those named community colleges
obviously certify the graduates but they lack college values like life skills.”
A few participants shared local challenges how it was difficult to reform the
current Nepalese higher education. They indicated limited resources, lack of
commitment of government or the private sector, although people have realized
a need for improvement of the communities. One participant commented:

Community colleges in Nepal are very rare species. Because, the partici-
pation of community people at the decision level making in education is
not encouraging. The community schools/plus-two colleges [11th and
12th grades] are places of political representatives and affiliates, often in
conflicts.

Participants who were working in Nepalese institutions of higher education or

did not have work experience elsewhere were not familiar with the community
college structure. All local participants (Nepal) did not consider Nepalese col-
leges as community colleges or reported that “institutions offering trade skills
e.g., plumbing, masonry were in high demand, but these positions were not
recognized as respected jobs by the community.” A few participants in the open-
ended responses also shared misinformed responses or gave different opinions on
how or who should control such colleges.
There were 98 open-ended entries that highlighted a need of establishing
a community college system in Nepal where college degrees are effective and
workforce oriented. A participant noted “Access and affordability are the rea-
sons community colleges exist and that attracts students to them. They prepare
the students to attend the universities and also prepare them for certain jobs.”

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 224 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 225
Another participant echoed similar sentiment with the promising future of com-
munity colleges in Nepal:

Community colleges with a focus on skill based courses would provide more
students basic professional skills as a skilled workforce for the nation. There-
fore, it is good idea to develop such colleges to enhance employability of
graduates of colleges and also provide them opportunity to continue higher
education after they get set of skills required for employment.

Nepalese educators who have worked in US higher education also offered how
the government of Nepal would strengthen the existing community-based col-
leges or keep different from current system. One participant mentioned:

They [colleges] need to be kept separate from the centralized planning of

Tribhuvan University that can promote politicizing education. . . . such pro-
grams would have been very useful following the 2016 earthquake, when
engineers and masons were (and still are) in great demand.

Another highlighted the benefits of colleges:

I think community colleges are run by local board of directors and per-
haps run by local or nation grants. This means local economy may prosper
through grants and employment. Also, if credits could be transferred to uni-
versities, students might opt to attend community colleges since they are
relatively cheaper.

One or two participants questioned the ideal dream of community colleges sys-
tem, its quality, its affordability, its autonomy, and its curriculum and pedagogy,
considering unstable government and limited resources, “otherwise, this will
only create opportunities to politicians to recruit some of their cadres to job”.
Another scholar suggested: “It will require a serious policy work and more, but it
should be a good option, esp. since more and more students will be completing
grade 12th and existing colleges may not have enough seats for all.”

Conclusions and discussion

Results indicated that the existing community-based colleges and their pro-
grams were complex in nature and away from meeting the workforce needs
of the local communities. Most of the available literature in Nepali higher
education also points out the lack of responsiveness from the higher educa-
tion sector to community needs (e.g., Regmi, 2019). The reason for this
is that existing community colleges follow a curriculum prescribed by the
university that they are affiliated with. At the same time, the link to the local
community, access to students who live in non-metropolitan cities, are true
characteristics of community colleges. Participants who worked both in Nepal
and outside (particularly in the United States and Canada), or faculty and

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 225 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 226 Uttam Gaulee and Krishna Bista
graduate students or senior professional, as well as experts agree that there is a
need for a more decentralized community-based education that offers course
acceptance and credit transfer, addresses workforce skills and affordability.
Results indicated that the existing education has included some “community
colleges” elements with limited vocational programs or two- or three-year
technical certifications for students after completion of high school (grade
10). In addition, there is no structure of Nepalese community colleges in
which a student can attend a college and then transfer completed academic
work to a university.
The non-traditional student outreach of existing community colleges of Nepal
and the location outside of major cities share commonalities with US community
colleges. For instance, these colleges are an important component of mainstream
education and they enhance the quality and relevance of higher education for
promoting effective management and financial sustainability of academic institu-
tions. They also provide access for academically qualified under-privileged stu-
dents, including girls, Dalits and educationally disadvantaged Janjatis, to higher
education through financial assistance and enhanced capacity of higher secondary
schools (World Bank, 2015).
As participants shared in this study, Nepalese community colleges could play
an important role in reforming higher education. It remains possible that a
new community college model, similar in style to the US or Canadian model,
could facilitate changes to help higher education transformational approaches to
address unemployment and social and cultural disparities in Nepal. Nagasunda-
ram and Deosthale (2013) suggested that “the establishment of community col-
leges could provide an opportunity for the youth to acquire tangible skills that
are directly transferable to the marketplace” (p. 24) as well successfully complete
the degrees. A few aspects of American community colleges can be applicable for
a developing country like Nepal to strengthen workforce education. Traditional
universities (Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu University, Mid-Western Univer-
sity, and other affiliated campuses) do not have precise programs and resources
to address the workforce need of the entire country. Existing Nepalese college
degrees also do not fully support workforce development. Today, there is a dire
need of technical, vocational, and workforce suitable degrees in the Nepalese
labor market.
Nepalese community-based colleges can offer more practical job-oriented
associate degrees and make a pathway to university education. In collaboration
with the university, CTEVT, and the US Agency for International Develop-
ment (USAID), Nepal has a high potential to develop a strategy for a career-
suitable program, faculty recruitment, and professional development. Based
on Alphonse’s (2013) suggestion to consider the need of the communities
and people, a new e-curricula can include many components, such as life cop-
ing skills, computer skills, developmental English, work skills, internship, and
preparation for employment. These elements are important to make the sys-
tem applicable to community people. Valeau (2013) believed that the aim of
these community colleges is to empower disadvantaged groups through skills

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 226 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 227
development leading to gainful employment. Bearing in mind Nepal has a
growing agro-based economy, social stratification based on caste and cultural
variations, low literacy rate, and high unemployment, education received by a
workforce-based colleges could provide a successful bridge between quality life
and social transformation.
Since there is no credit transfer system in any college degrees in Nepal, the new
model of community college could be a practical gateway to help students not
only to earn a college degree but also later transfer credit to another college or
university in Nepal or elsewhere. Having developed such a credit-transfer process,
Nepalese students coming from community college can pursue future education
in the United States, Canada, and elsewhere. In fact, a new system of community
colleges would be complementary to what exists, because the existing universities
operate without much community engagement or industry partnership. While
they behave like “ivory towers”, they complain that they are having to admit too
many students. They cannot focus on quality education and scholarship due to
the growing pressure of higher education access. A new system of community
colleges could therefore address the issues of access, as well as employability,
while allowing the university system to be as “selective” as they would like to be
and also focus their attention more on research.
Nepal can promote social justice, support the job market, and build mecha-
nisms to reduce poverty, unemployment, and gender inequality by successfully
establishing and implementing a community college education. A new model
can be replicated and refined by its programs and courses depending on local
needs, the economy, and infrastructure. Such education system will not only
allow Nepalese students to be productive contributors to the local economy;
it can also better equip the multitude of Nepalese youth with critical skills in
seeking employment or further education abroad. In order to have such reform
in existing education, Nepalese educators, policymakers, and researchers should
examine the best practices of community colleges in the United States and other
countries. This will allow them an opportunity to consider local resources, poten-
tial future collaboration, and restructuring current programs in higher education.
Based on our higher education experience and expertise in the United States and
Nepal, we strongly believe that a community college education system would be
an effective educational transformation for preparing all students for success if
implemented carefully, as one of our participants cautioned:

The vast majority of economically marginalized young people of Nepal need

education that is affordable, practical, and capable of bringing the best out
of people and society by being relevant to life and professions and society
locally. And that is why it is extremely important to not try to import a for-
eign idea – not least for the sake of having a shared terminology – without
seriously trying to adapt it to the realities on the ground. If the idea/practice
is fully explored and adapted, however, community colleges, or rather pro-
fessional development colleges, have tremendous value and potential for
social and economic progress of Nepal.

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 227 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 228 Uttam Gaulee and Krishna Bista
This statement pretty much sums up the whole scenario and gives an indication
toward what is necessary and also provides an important caveat. Because Nepal’s
higher education suffers from the elite gaze, a disruption is necessary. At a time
when countries seek to redefine their education policies towards stabilization,
prosperity, and democratization of opportunities, the idea of the community col-
lege offers a powerful connective solution to community, industry, and national
economies. The powerful but flexible idea of a community college infrastructure
is open for adaptation through a wide range of unique economic contexts around
the developing world (Gaulee, 2018; Raby & Valeau, 2012). Nepal’s problems
are rooted in the misalignment between community needs, curricula, assessment
systems, and national educational and industrial policies. Given the continued
exodus of young men and women to foreign lands every day, a respondent’s
sarcastic remark suggested that if the remittance-dependent country just wants
to export its precious human resources to other countries, then the educational
institutions should focus on teaching Korean, Arabic, Malay, or Japanese lan-
guages along with standard tests such as the IELTS, GRE, and ToEFL “At least,
they would be better prepared to do what they are doing now”, said the respond-
ent. We suggest that the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal should establish
institutions of higher learning which promote the values of democracy and fed-
eralism. Easy access to higher education based on the needs of the community
is the key to consolidating democracy. Healthy competition among the states in
providing greater access and alignment of resources to achieve connective solu-
tions to education and the economy would create a good model for other devel-
oping countries to replicate.

Acknowledgments
The authors are thankful to reviewers as well as colleagues, Rosalind Latiner Raby,
Shyam Sharma, Dionne Hudgins, Thaddeus Price Jr, Roshelle Lemon-Howard,
Mia Johnson, and Khadijah Ali-Coleman, who provided comments on the earlier
draft. This chapter is based on previously published material (Bista & Gaulee,
2018). Some information has been updated and new set of data analysis has been
included. Some data and materials are reprinted with permission.

References
Alphonse, X. (2013). The Indian community college system: Inspiration from com-
munity colleges in the United States. In N. Jha (Ed.), The U.S. community college
model: Potential for applications in India (pp. 17–22). New York, NY: Institute of
International Education.
Bista, K., & Gaulee, U. (2018). Re-envisioning community colleges in Nepal: Pre-
paring all students for success. In R.L. Raby & E.J. Valeau (Eds.), Handbook of
comparative studies on community colleges and global counterparts (pp. 161–176).
New York, NY: Springer.

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 228 8/2/2019 5:58:29 PM

 Assessing Nepal’s higher education 229
Gaulee, U. (2018). Community college infrastructure: Open for adaptations in
unique contexts. In U. Gaulee (Ed.), Global adaptations of community college infra-
structure (pp. 1–11). Hearsay, PA: IGI Global.
Harris, G. (2014). In Nepal, a better life with a steep price. The New York Times.
Retrieved from www.nytimes.com/2014/08/15/world/asia/in-nepal-a-better-
life-with-a-steep-price.html?_r=1
Khaniya, T.R. (2007). New horizons in education in Nepal. Kathmandu, Nepal: Kishor
Kaniya Office Support Service Center.
Ministry of Education. (2015). Nepal education in figures 2015: At a glance. Singha-
durbar, Kathmandu: Government of Nepal.
Nagasundaram, M., & Deosthale, D. (2013). Community colleges and socio-eco-
nomic growth in India: The U.S. community college as a model for global higher
education system. In N. Jha (Ed.), The U.S. community college model: Potential
for applications in India (pp. 23–26). New York, NY: Institute of International
Education.
Raby, R.L., & Valeau, E.J. (2012). Educational borrowing and the emergence of
community college global counterparts. In A.W. Wiseman, A. Chase-Mayorla, T.
Janis, and A. Sachdev (Eds.), International perspectives on education and society
(pp. 19–46). New York, NY: Emerald.
Regmi, K.D. (2019). Higher education in Nepal: A handmaiden of neoliberal instru-
mentalism. Higher Education Policy, 1–19.
Tribhuvan University. (2016). Monthly archives. Retrieved from http://tribhuvan-
university.edu.np/2016/09/
UGC. (2012). Education management information system: Report on higher education
2011/12. Bhaktapur, Nepal: University Grants Commission.
Valeau, E.J. (2013). The Indian community college in India: An evolving model. In
N. Jha (Ed.), The U.S. community college model: Potential for applications in India
(pp. 34–36). New York, NY: Institute of International Education.
World Bank. (2015). Nepal. Retrieved from www.worldbank.org/en/country/nepal

15032-3066e-2pass-r02.indd 229 8/2/2019 5:58:30 PM