Journal of Services Marketing

The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions on behavioral intentions

J. Enrique Bigné Anna S. Mattila Luisa Andreu
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J. Enrique Bigné Anna S. Mattila Luisa Andreu, (2008),"The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions on
behavioral intentions", Journal of Services Marketing, Vol. 22 Iss 4 pp. 303 - 315
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 The impact of experiential consumption
cognitions and emotions on behavioral
intentions
J. Enrique Bigné
Faculty of Economics, Department of Marketing, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Anna S. Mattila
School of Hospitality Management, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA, and
Luisa Andreu
Faculty of Economics, Department of Marketing, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain

Abstract
Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to examine cognitive and affective antecedents and consequences of satisfaction in the context of hedonic
services.
Design/methodology/approach – Two studies were conducted using hedonic services. The study sample was composed of 400 visitors to two types
Downloaded by Duke University At 09:28 12 November 2014 (PT)

of leisure and tourism services (interactive museum, and theme park).

Findings – The results indicate that the impact of satisfaction is not limited to loyalty; rather its effects extend to other behavioral responses such as
consumers’ willingness to pay more for the service. Moreover, exceeding pre-purchase expectations amplifies consumers’ on-the-spot behaviors such as
souvenir purchases. The study findings also highlight the salience of emotions in understanding consumer responses to hedonic services. Specifically,
pleasure is positively linked to both satisfaction and loyalty behaviors.
Research limitations/implications – Future research should incorporate other measures tapping into consumers’ on-the-spot behaviors; take into
account different time frames, in order to measure the effects of consumer satisfaction in the period t þ 1; and use other types of hedonic services.
Practical implications – Practical implications for pleasure-driven services, including most experiential services such as leisure and travel services,
restaurants and “hip” retail outlets.
Originality/value – This paper fulfils an identified need to study the relationships between emotional variables, consumer satisfaction and behavioral
intentions. It develops a comprehensive model to analyze satisfaction and behavioral intentions in the context of hedonic services. It introduces on-the-
spot behaviors, referring to consumers’ efforts to tangibilize the experience.

Keywords Leisure activities, Customer satisfaction, Consumer behaviour, Customer loyalty, Affective psychology

Paper type Research paper

Introduction Research in consumer behavior indicates that cognitive

Consumer needs can be roughly classified into two types:
hedonic and utilitarian (Chitturi et al., 2007; Dhar and
Wertenbroch, 2000). Hedonic goods and services focus on
the consumption experience (Hirschman and Holbrook,
1982), thus reflecting the need for pleasure, fun and
excitement (e.g., sports cars, vacations, fine-dining).
Conversely, utilitarian goods and services are mainly
instrumental or functional in nature (e.g., microwaves, and
personal computers). This study examines the drivers of
satisfaction and post-purchase behaviors with two types of
hedonic services: a theme park experience and a visit to an
interactive museum.
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models are limited in their ability to account for satisfaction
evaluations and subsequent behaviors (Bagozzi, 1997;
Erevelles, 1998; Ladhari, 2007; Phillips and Baumgartner,
2002; Smith and Bolton, 2002). In particular, the
disconfirmation model might perform poorly in explaining
satisfaction with services, since service encounters are not
easily reduced to concrete, multi-attribute evaluations. For
example, consumers interact with the service setting and
personnel during their visit to a theme park, and hence their
affective responses become important drivers of satisfaction
and subsequent behaviors. The inclusion of emotions into the
satisfaction framework is particularly critical for experiential
services, including hedonic services (e.g., Mattila and Enz,
2002). Consequently, it is important to include emotional
variables when modeling consumers’ satisfaction/
dissatisfaction (CS/D) processes (Liljander and Strandvik,
1997; Oliver et al., 1997; Wirtz and Bateson, 1999).

Journal of Services Marketing

22/4 (2008) 303– 315 Received: Aril 2005
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited [ISSN 0887-6045] Revised: May 2006
[DOI 10.1108/08876040810881704] Accepted: July 2006

303
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
In this paper, we empirically test the joint effects of
cognition (disconfirmation) and emotions (pleasure and
arousal) on satisfaction in the context of hedonic services
(e.g., theme park and interactive museum). Although
previous studies have analyzed the interaction between
cognitive and affective variables in the context of utilitarian
services (e.g., Wirtz and Bateson, 1999), prior research
examining the experiential aspects of the service experience is
relatively scant (Babin et al., 2005; Chebat and Slusarczyk,
2005). In addition to contributing to the literature on
consumption-derived emotions, we introduce a new
behavioral measure coined “on-the-spot” behaviors. It
seems reasonable to suggest that extended services (e.g.,
hotels, theme parks, education, medical services) foster not
only medium to long-term behavioral intentions (e.g., loyalty
and willingness to pay more in the future), but also immediate
behavioral responses. These on-the-spot behaviors refer to
consumers’ efforts to tangibilize the experience (e.g.,
purchase of souvenirs and gifts or picture taking in a tourist
attraction).
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The balance of the paper is organized as followed. First, we
introduce our conceptual background for satisfaction
evaluations followed by hypotheses reflecting behavioral
responses to service experiences. Second, we describe the
research methodology to test the hypothesized relationships in
two hedonic services. Finally, we highlight a set of managerial
implications and provide suggestions for further research.
Conceptual background
Cognitive and affective evaluations
The debate over the interplay between affect and cognition
continues to be a hot topic in psychology (Chebat and
Michon, 2003; Dubé et al., 2003). On the one hand, there is
the emotions-lead-to-cognition approach. Zajonc and Markus
(1985) contend that an emotion can be generated by
biological, sensory or cognitive events. For example, a
thrilling roller coaster ride is likely to generate intense
feelings of arousal and pleasure or fear. On the other hand,
the cognition-leads-to-emotions school of thought (Lazarus,
1991) posits the causal role of cognition as a necessary but not
sufficient condition to emotions. For instance, a positive
appraisal of the surrounding environment might become an
input to feelings of pleasure associated with a museum visit.
Or, hands-on exhibits in interactive museums, allow visitors
to explore science and natural phenomena in surprising and
unexpected ways (Exploratorium, 2005). The cognitive-
affective relationship is reflected in the “hands-on, mind on,
heart on” process[1] associated with discovery-based
museums. Kids and adults get “into” the exhibits with their
hands and mind, which influence their attitudes towards
museums as an enjoyable learning laboratory.
On the basis of this debate, marketing scholars have mainly
relied on the cognitive theory of emotions to explain
consumer behavior (e.g., Bagozzi et al., 1999; Bagozzi and
Moore, 1994). In this study, cognitive and affective
evaluations are conceptualized as disconfirmation and
emotions, respectively. Disconfirmation refers to a
psychological interpretation of an expectation-performance
discrepancy (Oliver, 1997, p. 28). Positive disconfirmation
(exceeding expectations) leads to enhanced satisfaction while
falling short of prior expectations is likely to result in less
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Journal of Services Marketing
Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
favorable evaluations (Menon and Dubé, 2000; Oliver et al.,
1997; Wirtz and Bateson, 1999).
In addition to the cognitive disconfirmation process,
customer interactions with service providers and the service
environment generate emotional responses, in particular in
the context of leisure services. Before discussing the impact of
emotions on satisfaction and behavioral intentions, it is
important to distinguish between emotions and mood states.
Emotions are more intense than moods, and they tend to be
directly linked to a specific stimulus. Although previous
research suggests that consumers’ mood states might bias
their service evaluations (e.g., Knowles et al., 1993), this
study focuses on emotions rather than generalized mood
effects. We are thus interested in emotions elicited during the
service experience as opposed to pre-consumption mood
states that the consumer brings into the situation. Emotions
can be defined as a complex set of interactions among
subjective and objective factors giving rise to affective
experiences (Dubé and Menon, 2000).
Consistent with recent research in services marketing
(Wirtz and Bateson, 1999; Wirtz et al., 2000), we applied
Russell’s (1980) circumplex model for our emotions
framework. Particularly, emotions (E) were categorized into
two independent dimensions, e.g. pleasure and arousal
(Chebat and Michon, 2003; Mattila and Wirtz, 2000; Wirtz
and Bateson, 1999). Whereas pleasure (P) refers to the degree
to which a person feels good, joyful or happy in a situation,
arousal (A) refers to the extent to which a person feels
stimulated and active. Therefore, E ¼ P þ A. For instance,
exploratory exhibits in museums can provide a unique
experience as well as fantastic fun for visitors of all ages,
provoking both feelings of joy and excitement (e.g., W5 in
Belfast[2], Exploratorium of San Francisco, among others).
As with other products and services consumers select
hedonic services in the hope that these services will offer
certain benefits. Visitors to amusement parks and other
theme-related services (e.g. museums, parks, historic sites,
resorts, restaurants, local shops) are looking for a sense of
fantasy and escape, along with pleasurable experiences
(Zoltak, 2004). According to prior research, the discrepancy
between actual performance and pre-purchase expectations is
directly linked to consumer emotions (Menon and Dubé,
2000; Oliver et al., 1997; Wirtz and Bateson, 1999).
Specifically, falling short of expectations (e.g., negative
disconfirmation) tends to lead to feelings of displeasure
while exceeding expectations (e.g., positive disconfirmation)
is linked to increased pleasure. Accordingly, we put forth the
following hypothesis:
H1a. In the context of hedonic services, positive/negative
disconfirmation is positively/negatively linked to
feelings of pleasure.
The cognitive theory of emotions postulates that affect is a
function of the cognition of arousal (Schachter and Singer,
1962). Mandler (1975, 1992) suggests that arousal is
produced by interruptions or unexpected events that alert
the organism to cope with environmental contingencies. For
example, a funky museum environment might induce visitors
to spend more time in front of the exhibits in order to “digest”
the high level of stimulation.
Previous research in consumer settings suggests that
disconfirmation of expectations leads to arousal (Jun et al.,
2001; Wirtz and Bateson, 1999). Although arousal may be
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
either positive or negative (Chebat and Michon, 2003),
assuming an enjoyable hedonic experience, the effect of
positive disconfirmation on arousal should be positive. In
other words, if the experience is more pleasant than expected,
then feelings of joy should generate some excitement (e.g., an
active learning experience). Consequently, we test the
following prediction:
H1b. In the context of hedonic services, positive
disconfirmation has a positive impact on arousal.
Traditionally, CS/D was considered to be a cognitive state
(Oliver, 1980). Recently, the need to understand satisfaction
from a more affective perspective has been highlighted (Oliver
et al., 1997; Phillips and Baumgartner, 2002; Wirtz and
Bateson, 1999). Accordingly, CS/D can be defined as a
cognitive-affective state resulting from cognitive evaluations
(e.g., disconfirmation), as well as from emotions these
evaluations evoke. Previous work has empirically confirmed
a direct causal relationship between disconfirmation and CS/
D (Cadotte et al., 1987; Oliver and DeSarbo, 1988;
Szymanski and Henard, 2001). Consequently, we put forth
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the following replication hypothesis:
H2. Positive/negative disconfirmation has a direct
relationship with CS/D in the context of hedonic
services.
Emotions have been shown to mediate the impact of
disconfirmation on CS/D (Dubé and Menon, 2000;
Liljander and Strandvik, 1997; Oliver, 1993; Westbrook,
1987). For example, the results from Oliver’s (1993) study
show that positive and negative affect together with the
cognitive effect of disconfirmation explain consumers’
satisfaction processes. In terms of arousal, previous work
has demonstrated that arousal can amplify the effects of
pleasure on satisfaction in inherently pleasant service
environments (e.g., Ladhari, 2007; Wirtz et al., 2000). In
line with these arguments, we propose that emotional
responses (pleasure and arousal) have a positive impact on
satisfaction:
H3a. Pleasure is positively linked to satisfaction in the
context of hedonic services.
H3b. Arousal is positively linked to satisfaction in the
context of hedonic services.
Finally, Oliver et al. (1997) postulate that arousal has a
positive impact on pleasure. Accordingly, recent studies have
empirically demonstrated the path from arousal to pleasure
(Babin and Attaway, 2000; Chebat and Michon, 2003;
Ladhari, 2007; Wakefield and Baker, 1998). In our context of
hedonic services the effect of arousal on pleasure should be
positive. Therefore, we propose the following hypothesis:
H4. In the context of hedonic services, arousal is positively
linked with pleasure.
Behavioral intentions
Robust findings indicate that satisfaction is highly correlated
with behavioral responses such as complaining behavior,
negative/positive word of mouth, and repurchase intentions
(Athanassopoulos et al., 2001; Szymanski and Henard, 2001).
Satisfaction has also been linked to two slightly different
outcome variables: customer loyalty and willingness to pay
more (WPM) (Baker and Crompton, 2000; Wakefield and
Blodgett, 1999; Zeithaml et al., 1996). For example, in
Bloemer and de Ruyter’s (1999) study, both positive emotions
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Journal of Services Marketing
Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
and satisfaction were positively linked to loyalty. Yet,
Wakefield and his colleagues (Wakefield and Barnes, 1996;
Wakefield and Bush, 1998; Wakefield and Inman, 2003) show
that the consumption context (utilitarian versus hedonic)
might moderate the impact of satisfaction on key outcome
variables such as loyalty intentions and willingness to pay.
Compared to utilitarian-type services (e.g., a car wash),
hedonic services such as leisure services tend to be more
emotionally involving, thus amplifying the effects of
satisfaction on behavioral responses. Based on these
arguments, we test the following hypotheses:
H5a. The greater the consumer’s satisfaction, the greater
their loyalty to hedonic services.
H5b. The greater the consumer’s satisfaction, the greater
their WPM for the same hedonic services in the future.
Zeithaml et al. (1996) use willingness to pay as a behavioral
proxy for value. A customer who has a stronger bond with a
specific provider (e.g., loyal customer) will be willing to pay
higher prices based on greater value provided by that
provider’s products and services (Rust and Zahorik, 1993).
Therefore, it seems plausible that loyalty exerts positive
influence on WPM, as follows:
H5c. The greater the consumer’s loyalty, the greater their
WPM for the same hedonic service in the future.
Loyalty and WPM are in fact post consumption effects.
Unlike these more medium or long-term consequences of
satisfaction, on-the-spot behaviors have received little
attention (Kim and Littrell, 1999). These short-term
behavioral consequences refer to consumers’ efforts to
tangibilize the experience (e.g., purchase of souvenirs and
gifts). In the proposed model, such actions are postulated to
act as amplifiers of the service experience. We propose that
satisfaction with the experience should enhance consumers’
immediate consumption behaviors. Thus, we predict the
following:
H6. The greater the consumer’s satisfaction with the
hedonic service, the greater the level of on-the-spot
behaviors aimed at tangibilizing the experience.
Moreover, some marketing scholars have examined the
influence of positive emotions as a moderating variable
between satisfaction and brand loyalty (Bloemer and de
Ruyter, 1999; Oliver et al., 1997). According to Chitturi et al.
(2007), emotions precede choice rather than follow. Thus, in
the context of hedonic services, it seems logical to suggest that
feelings of pleasure should be positively correlated with
behavioral intentions, such as positive word of mouth and
intention to return. In other words, consumers’ main
motivation is to purchase enjoyable experience, and hence
satisfying such needs should lead to enhanced loyalty. As a
result, we propose the following:
H7. The pleasure dimension is positively linked to loyalty in
hedonic services.
While there is significant support for the impact of
disconfirmation on satisfaction, research on the effect of
disconfirmation on behavioral intentions is limited (Baker and
Crompton, 2000; Oliver et al., 1997). The relationship
between disconfirmation and consumer’s willingness to pay
more for the service is a particularly salient topic for hedonic
services such as leisure and tourism services that tend to
practice all-inclusive pricing strategies (Camp, 1997). We
postulate that visitors who positively evaluate their leisure
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
experience (positive disconfirmation) are more willing to pay
extra for the service in the future (Zeithaml et al., 1996; Baker
and Crompton, 2000; Dean et al., 2002; Wakefield and
Blodgett, 1999). We also extend these arguments to
consumers’ immediate, on-the-spot behaviors.
Consequently, positive disconfirmation should lead to
amplifying behaviors such as taking pictures of the place or
buying souvenirs/gifts. These arguments are summarized in
the following hypotheses:
H8a. Positive disconfirmation is directly linked to
consumers’ WPM in the future towards the hedonic
service.
H8b. Positive disconfirmation is directly linked to on-the-
spot behaviors aimed at tangibilizing the hedonic
service experience.
An overview of our conceptual framework is shown in
Figure 1.
Methodology
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Two studies involving two types of hedonic services were
conducted in order to test our predictions. In particular, we
selected an interactive museum and a theme park -located in the
North and Mediterranean part of Spain, respectively – as study
contexts. Both of these services are pleasure-driven, and hence
likely to induce emotional responses to the consumption
experience. The museum study (M-study) involves an
interactive museum exhibiting various facets of the world of
science in an entertaining and involving fashion. With
interactive museums, the learning process is an emotional
service on the basis of the “hands-on, minds-on, and hearts-on”
process. In the theme park study (TP-study), visitors encounter
a multitude of attractions, including shows, restaurants and
shops. Theme parks are considered a form of leisure activity
because they provide an opportunity for entertainment during
an individual’s discretionary free time (Milman, 1991).
Figure 1 A cognitive-affective satisfaction model in hedonic services
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Journal of Services Marketing
Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
The final wording of the survey instrument was fine-tuned
based on feedback from a pre-test (n ¼ 20). In order to avoid
memory bias, personal interviews were conducted within the
premises of the museum and the theme park. Duly trained
interviewers (e.g. from a marketing research institute)
collected data during the summer season. Each interviewer
was stationed outside the entrance to the hall, show or
attraction, and the 400 respondents were selected at random.
They were interviewed after their visit to the exhibition hall
or their experience in the show or attraction. The socio-
demographic characteristics of the sample were as follows:
gender (48 percent male, 52 percent female); age group 18-
24 years (16 percent); 25-34 years (25 percent); 35-44 years
(31 percent); 45-54 years (16 percent); 55-64 years (7
percent); 65 years and older (7 percent). Regarding
respondents’ monthly income, the percentages were: below,
similar to, and above 1,082 US$[3] (26.09, 32.23 percent
and 41.69 percent, respectively). A summary of the
respondent’s socio-demographic characteristics is presented
in Table I.
In addition to socio-demographic variables, the
questionnaire was comprised of four sections, each tapping
into our research constructs. Previously established scales
were used to measure disconfirmation (Wirtz and Bateson,
1999), pleasure and arousal (Russell, 1980), satisfaction
(Oliver, 1997), and behavioral intentions (Zeithaml et al.,
1996). The scale items and notes on statistical techniques are
shown in the Appendix.
Results
A fully restricted theoretical model was employed to test the
proposed model. In addition to the structural path
coefficients, the model included two correlations between
behavioral intentions measures: loyalty l WPM, and WPM
l on-the-spot behaviors. The final multi-group structural
model fits the data well and is presented in Table II. Five
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions Journal of Services Marketing
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315

Table I Socio-demographic characteristics Table II shows the standardized and unstandardized estimates
corresponding to each of the hypothesized effects.
Socio-demographic M-study TP-study Total As shown in Table II and Figure 2, disconfirmation has a
variables (n 5 200) (n 5 200) (n 5 400) Chi-square significant effect on pleasure, and this relationship holds
Age (years) 49.44 * across the two samples, (M-study: 0.17; TP-study: 0.15).
18-24 11.50 19.50 15.50 Therefore, H1a is supported. Disconfirmation also has a
25-34 27.50 21.50 24.50 direct impact on arousal in the TP-study (0.35); thus,
35-44 22.00 39.50 30.75 providing partial support for H1b. Consistent with H2,
45-54 14.50 16.50 15.50 disconfirmation has a direct influence on consumer
55-64 12.00 1.50 6.75 satisfaction (M-study: 0.18; TP-study: 0.37).
65 and older 12.50 1.50 7.00 H3a and H3b involved predictions about the effects of
Gender 0.04
arousal and pleasure on satisfaction. As shown in Table II,
Male 47.50 48.50 48.00
pleasure has a direct impact on satisfaction in both samples,
thus lending support for H3a (M-study: 0.33; TP-study:
Female 52.50 51.50 52.00
0.32). Congruent with H3b, arousal also had a direct impact
Monthly income (US$) 0.07
on satisfaction (M-study: 0.21; TP-study: 0.14). The direct
Below 1,082 26.53 25.64 26.09
effect of arousal on pleasure was significant across the two
Similar to 1,082 31.63 32.82 32.23
samples, (M-study: 0.48; TP-study: b12 ¼ 0:71).
Above 1,082 41.84 41.54 41.69
Consequently, H4 is supported.
Place of origin 22.83 *
H5a, H5b and H6 involved predictions about the effects of
Domestic 84.50 98.00 91.25
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satisfaction on behavioral intentions (loyalty, WPM and on-

International 15.50 2.00 8.75
the-spot behaviors). As shown in Table II, the direct effect of
Note: * p , 0:01 satisfaction on loyalty does not differ across the two contexts,
thus supporting H5a (M-study: 0.31; TP-study: 0.38).
Conversely, the effect of satisfaction on WPM was
structural paths of the final model were significant at p , 0:05 significant in the M-study (0.40) but insignificant in the
across samples. Specifically, these model comparisons TP-study. Consequently, H5b is only partially supported. The
revealed differences in the paths from: relationship between satisfaction and on-the-spot behaviors
.
disconfirmation to arousal (insignificant in M-study); failed to reach statistical levels of significance in either sample,
.
arousal to pleasure; and hence, this path was dropped from the model. An
.
disconfirmation to satisfaction; explanation of this finding could be that the consumer
.
disconfirmation on WPM; and satisfaction does not have immediate effects. The
.
satisfaction on WPM (insignificant on TP-study). consequences of satisfaction become important only when

Table II Final multi-group structural equation model results with partial metric invariance constraints
M-study TP-study
Unstandardized Unstandardized
estimates Standardized estimates estimates Standardized estimates
Structural patha n t-value n n t-value n
DISC ! PLEA (H1a) g11 0.13 (4.36) 0.17 0.13 (4.36) 0.15
DISC ! AROU (H1b) g21 0.07 (0.91) 0.06 0.28 (5.23) 0.35
DISC ! SAT (H2) g31 0.13 (2.91) 0.18 0.32 (6.87) 0.37
PLEA ! SAT (H3a) b31 0.33 (6.27) 0.33 0.33 (6.27) 0.32
AROU ! SAT (H3b) b32 0.15 (3.50) 0.21 0.15 (3.50) 0.14
AROU ! PLEA (H4) b12 0.33 (8.08) 0.48 0.73 (15.60) 0.71
SAT ! LOY (H5a) b43 0.32 (7.41) 0.31 0.32 (7.41) 0.38
SAT ! WPM (H5b) b53 0.79 (5.00) 0.40 20.16 (2 1.08) 20.13
LOY ! WPM (H5c) b54 0.56 (2.20) 0.29 0.56 (2.20) 0.38
PLEA ! LOY (H7) b41 0.30 (6.64) 0.29 0.30 (6.64) 0.34
DISC ! WPM (H8a) g51 20.47 (2 5.84) 2 0.32 0.24 (3.03) 0.23
DISC ! INT (H8b) g61 0.29 (4.14) 0.17 0.29 (4.14) 0.23
SAT ! INT (H6)b b63 – – – –
Notes: DISC ¼ disconfirmation; PLEA ¼ pleasure; AROU ¼ arousal; SAT ¼ satisfaction; LOY ¼ loyalty; WPM ¼ willingness to pay more; INT ¼ intensifying;
Fit indices are as follows: x2(21, n ¼ 200, n ¼ 200Þ ¼ 37:56; comparative fit index ðCFIÞ ¼ 0:98; Tucker-Lewis index ðTLIÞ ¼ 0:96; root mean square error of
approximation ðRMSEAÞ ¼ 0:04; x2/df ratio ¼ 1:79; a The structural estimates reported are from a multi-group analysis in which the structural model was
estimated simultaneously with partial metric invariance constraints for the museum and theme park samples using EQS 5.7.b. Coefficients that do not differ
significantly (p , 0:05) across the two samples are in italics. The structural analysis considers a correlation between behavioral intentions: LOY-WPM (c54) and
WPM-INT (c65). Results show that c54 is not significant in both models (p . 0:05), and c65 is significant in TP-study (c65 ¼ 0:31, p , 0:01); b This link was
dropped in this model because the path did not differ significantly across samples

307
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
Figure 2 Diagram of multi-group structural models
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thinking about future behaviors such as loyalty and
willingness to pay more.
We also predicted a direct link between loyalty and WPM
(H5c). As indicated by path coefficients, this relationship is
significant in both settings (M-study: 0.29; TP-study: 0.38).
Pleasure has a direct influence on loyalty (M-study: 0.29; TP-
study: 0.38), thus supporting H7. Congruent with H8c and
H8d, our results further indicate that disconfirmation
influences WPM (M-study: 2 0.32; TP-study: 0.23) and
on-the-spot behaviors (M-study: 0.17; TP-study: 0.23). In
other words, disconfirmation has a dual impact on WPM:
indirect positive effect through satisfaction (in both studies)
and a direct effect with a negative/positive sign (in M-study
and TP-study, respectively). To sum up, Table III summarizes
our research findings for hypotheses relating to the interplay
between emotions, satisfaction and behavioral intentions.
Discussion
Building on recent advances in service satisfaction (Mattila
and Wirtz, 2000; Wirtz et al., 2000), this study extends the
existing literature by jointly investigating the impact of
emotions (arousal and pleasure), disconfirmation and
satisfaction on customers’ behavioral intentions such as
loyalty and WPM. Moreover, this study introduces a new
behavioral measure that taps into consumers’ immediate or
on-the-spot consumption. A comprehensive model including
the cognitive and affective sequence of satisfaction and
behavioral intentions was tested in the context of two hedonic
services.
First, our results indicate that positive disconfirmation
influences consumers’ emotional responses, consumer
satisfaction and behavioral intentions. These findings are
congruent with previous research showing a direct link
between disconfirmation and pleasure (Oliver et al., 1997),
and disconfirmation and satisfaction (Mano and Oliver, 1993;
Phillips and Baumgartner, 2002). In addition, we found a
positive relationship between disconfirmation and consumers’
propensity to tangibilize the experience. In other words,
positive disconfirmation of expectations seems to have an
308
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Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
amplifying effect on immediate, on-the-spot behaviors such
picture taking or souvenir shopping. Our results also suggest
that the relationship between disconfirmation and WPM
might be context-dependent. Disconfirmation had an adverse
impact on WPM among museum visitors while opposite
effects were observed in the theme park context. This can
perhaps be explained by the divergent nature of the two
services. It might be more difficult to “delight” visitors in a
museum setting than in amusement parks, thus partially
explaining our results.
Consistent with the “cognition leads to emotions” approach
(Lazarus, 1991; Bagozzi et al., 1999), we argued that
disconfirmation influences consumers’ emotional responses.
Accordingly, pleasure and arousal had an impact on
satisfaction judgments. Moreover, the direct impact of
pleasure on loyalty provides some additional insight into the
emotions-behavior link. However, our results regarding
arousal are somewhat ambivalent. As expected (e.g., Babin
and Attaway, 2000; Chebat and Michon, 2003; Wakefield and
Baker, 1998), arousal had an amplifying effect on pleasure in
our context of hedonic services. Conversely, the impact of
positive disconfirmation on arousal was less clear. Exceeding
expectations had a positive impact on arousal in the theme
park setting while its effects were minimal among museum
visitors.
Finally, satisfaction was directly linked to loyalty. This
positive relationship is consistent with previous research in
various settings (Baker and Crompton, 2000; Wakefield and
Blodgett, 1999). Moreover, satisfaction with the consumption
experience influenced WPM in the museum context. It is not
surprising that such as relationship was not observed for
theme parks. Admission to theme parks is relatively expensive,
and hence, mere satisfaction is not enough to induce people
to pay more for the same experience. Finally, our results
indicate that satisfaction does not necessarily translate into
immediate, on-the-spot consumption behaviors. It seems that
positive disconfirmation of expectations is necessary for such
behaviors to kick in.
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
Table III Research findings
Research hypothesis in hedonic services
Antecedents of emotions
H1a In the context of hedonic services, positive/
negative disconfirmation is positively/negatively
linked to feelings of pleasure
H1b In the context of hedonic services, positive
disconfirmation has a positive impact on arousal
Antecedents of satisfaction
H2 Positive/negative disconfirmation has a direct
relationship with CS/D in hedonic services
H3a Pleasure is positively linked to satisfaction in the
context of hedonic services
H3b Arousal is positively linked to satisfaction in the
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context of hedonic services
Relationships between emotional dimensions
H4 In the context of hedonic services, arousal is
positively linked with pleasure
Consequences of satisfaction
H5a The greater the consumer’s satisfaction, the
greater their loyalty to hedonic services
H5b The greater the consumer’s satisfaction, the
greater their WPM for the same hedonic services
in the future
H6 The greater the consumer’s satisfaction with the
hedonic service, the greater the level of on-the-
spot behaviors aimed at tangibilizing the
experience
Effects of pleasure on loyalty
H7 The pleasure dimension is positively linked to
loyalty in hedonic services
Effects of disconfirmation on WPM and short term
behavioral intentions
H8a Positive disconfirmation is directly linked to
consumers’ WPM in the future towards the
hedonic service
H8b Positive disconfirmation is directly linked to on-
the-spot behaviors aimed at tangibilizing the
hedonic service’ experience
Managerial implications and recommendations
The findings of this research have a number of practical
implications for pleasure-driven services, including most
experiential services such as leisure and travel services,
restaurants and “hip” retail outlets.
First, our results show that feelings of pleasure are directly
linked to satisfaction and loyalty. Hence, service managers
need to make sure that the experience is as pleasurable as
possible. This can be achieved by various means. For
example, the servicescape can be manipulated according to
Journal of Services Marketing
Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
the preferences of the firm’s target markets. Or, the service
delivery system can be designed so as to minimize perceived
Study waiting time. For instance, television monitors panels can
research display information and entertainment about the main
findings attractions or exhibitions while people are lining up for
admission tickets.
Fully
These findings emphasize the importance of measuring
consumer emotions throughout the service process. Since
supported
consumers’ affective responses during the service delivery
process are strongly linked to satisfaction (Dubé and Menon,
Partially
2000), service organizations need to make sure that all the
supported
service encounters evoke positive feelings or even better excite
(only the customer. To that end, customer-contact employees need
TP-study) to be trained to read customers’ emotional displays in order to
deliver “customized” service, which in turn results in
Fully pleasurable experiences (Mattila and Enz, 2002).
supported Second, our findings indicate that positive disconfirmation
Fully influences consumer satisfaction. For instance, visitors to an
supported
oceanographic attraction probably expect enjoyment and get
the unexpected benefit of learning as well. In contrast,
Fully
museum visitors probably expect a learning experience but
supported
they can be pleasantly surprised by the enjoyment value of
their visit. In both of these examples, positive disconfirmation
Fully is likely to enhance satisfaction. Managers, therefore, should
supported take into account visitors’ evaluations on an ongoing basis.
Often times the sheer size of museums and theme parks can
take a toll on the customer experience. To avoid
Fully disappointment, it might be useful to provide ample
supported information displays and signage to guide the visitors’
Partially throughout the site.
supported Third, our results show that positive disconfirmation
(only influences pleasure in both settings. For theme-park visitors,
M-study) disconfirmation is also linked to arousal. However, this
Fully relationship does not hold in the museum context. Since both
supported arousal and pleasure are highly related to satisfaction,
managers should take into account ways to leverage arousal,
even in less active environments. To that end, managers of
interactive museums should reinforce the principle of “hands-
on, minds-on, and heart-on” in order to engage the visitor in
Fully the process.
supported Fourth, the findings of this study indicate that exceeding
customer expectations has a strong, positive impact on
immediate consumption behaviors such as souvenir shopping.
Consequently, marketers need to make sure that their external
Partially
communications create reasonable expectations that, in turn,
supported
can be exceeded by seamless service delivery. The use of call
(only
centers for advance bookings is a relationship marketing tool
TP-study) that enables customization. For instance, it is easy to capture
Fully demographic information (e.g., nationality, if they go with
supported children, senior citizen) at the time of booking and then use
this information to communicate relevant attractions or points
of interest.
Fifth, as expected, disconfirmation has a positive impact on
WPM. However, satisfaction alone is not enough to induce
willingness to pay more for the same service in the theme park
context. Even though the visitor enjoys their experience and
they are satisfied, other variables not included in our model
could moderate the relationship between satisfaction and
WPM (e.g., entrance fees in the theme park). Accordingly,
most theme parks offer season’s passes and other sales
promotions to provide value for their customers. In contrast,
disconfirmation has a negative effect on WPM. Even though
people might enjoy their museum visits, they tend to consider
309
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
museums as free or inexpensive entertainment options, in
particular when such institutions receive public support. Yet
this interpretation is limited to countries where museums are
free-of charge to the general public (e.g., many European
countries). Cross-cultural studies regarding WPM could be
an interesting topic for further research.
Finally, the relationship between satisfaction and short-
term behavior (e.g., souvenirs purchase) is not significant.
Tourist attractions such as interactive museums or art
museums can offer restaurants or shops as complementary/
supplementary services. Complementary services are included
in the visit, and only people who buy the entrance to the
tourist attraction can use these services. In this case, even
though visitors are not satisfied with their experience, they can
tangibilize their experience, buying specialized items about
science or cultural topics for their children and/or friends.
Limitations and further research
This study has several limitations that need to be addressed in
future research. First, additional research using other types of
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hedonic services would increase the generalizability of our
findings. Second, our empirical testing is limited by
measurement issues. Future research should develop and/or
refine existing emotions scales. The measurement of emotions
in the marketing literature tends to be heterogeneous, and
therefore, we feel that further work along these lines would be
highly beneficial.
Future research should incorporate other measures tapping
into consumers’ on-the-spot behaviors. Examining the
antecedents of such behaviors could also be a fruitful
avenue for future research. The Knowles et al. (1993) study
highlights the importance of examining how consumers’
affective states influence their responses to the service
encounter. Along the enjoyment of hedonic services,
consumers’ affective states (emotions, mood states)
influence their responses. In this study, we focus on
emotions to explain long and short-term behavioral
intentions. Further studies could analyze the role of both
affective states, and study the influence on customers’
responses towards the service encounter.
Finally, our one-time, survey-based methodology poses
some limitations. As Dubé and Menon (2000) point out,
consumers’ emotional reactions are dynamic throughout the
consumption episode. Future research could take into
account different time frames, in order to measure the
effects of consumer satisfaction in the period t þ 1.
Notes
1 Children’s museums often describe themselves as “hands-
on” and “minds-on”. According to Russell and Sinker
(1998), to that list of descriptors must be added “hearts-
on”. The best learning in museums takes place when
people are engaged cognitively, motorically, and
emotionally (Csikszentmihalyi and Hermanson, 1995).
This “hearts-on” element plays a critical role in long-term
learning.
2 See, for instance, www.w5online.co.uk and www.
interactives.co.uk/hearts_exploratory.htm
3 The average salary per household unit in the country is
1,082 where the study was undertaken.
310
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Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
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Appendix

Table AI Measurement of research constructs

Constructs Number of items Measurement Main sources
Disconfirmation 2 items, 5-point Overall, the amusement park/museum experience was Churchill and Surprenant (1982); Oliver
semantic differential worse than expected (1) to better than expected (5) (1980); Wirtz and Bateson (1999)
scale Overall, I expected something better (1)) to something
worse (5).
Emotions (pleasure and 12 items, 5-point, Pleasure: angry-content; unhappy-happy; displeased- Russell (1980)
arousal) semantic differential pleased; sad-joyful; disappointed-delighted, and bored-
scalea entertained
Arousal: cheerful-depressed; quiet-anxious; enthusiastic-
calm; nervous-relaxed; active-passive, and surprised-
indifferent
Satisfaction 5 items, 5-point Likert- 1) This is one of the best museums/theme parks I could have Oliver (1997)
type scale visited
2) I am satisfied with my decision to visit this museum/
theme park
3) My choice to visit this museum/theme park was a wise
one
4) I have really enjoyed myself in this museum/theme park
5) I am sure it was the right thing to visit this museum/
theme park
Loyalty 4 items 1) Say positive things about the museum/theme park Zeithaml et al. (1996)
2) Recommend this museum/theme park to others
3) Encourage friends and relatives to visit it
4) Come back to this theme park/museum in the future
Willingness to pay more 2 items 1) Come back to the museum/theme park even if the price Zeithaml et al. (1996)
increases
2) Pay a higher price than for other museum and theme
parks.
Intensifying the 2 items 1) Make purchases in the museum/theme park shops Kim and Littrell (1999)
experience (on-the-spot 2) Take souvenir pictures
behavior)
Note: a In the museum and theme park samples, two items of arousal (quiet-anxious and nervous-relaxed) exhibited low item-to-total correlations and were
thus removed from the analysis

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Measurement AIII through Cronbach’s alpha also show evidence of good

The survey instrument contained scale items (see Table AI)
measuring the constructs of the research model.
Measurement model analyses
Prior to investigating how structural paths of interest compare
across groups, we tested for configural invariance across our
two contexts (see Steenkamp and Baumgartner, 1998). A
seven-construct confirmatory factor model was estimated
using EQS 5.7b (Bentler, 1995; Byrne, 1994) to assess the
measurement properties of the constructs (see Table AII). In
both samples, the results indicate that the overall
confirmatory factor model fits the data well.
Once the fit of the seven-factor measurement model was
verified, the construct reliability and construct validity were
estimated. Construct reliability estimates provided in Table
levels of reliability (. 0.70) for all measures except
disconfirmation and arousal in M-study and on-the spot
behaviors in TP-study, except for arousal in M-study.
Discriminant validity was assessed based on confidence
intervals (Anderson and Gerbing, 1988). All possible
correlations between the seven factors represented in the
scales were calculated, as well as the confidence interval ^ 2
standard errors. The condition that there can be no values of
1 within the interval was met in the present research, thus
confirming the discriminant validity of the scales analyzed.
Composite scores of each set of items (sums of scores divided
by the number of items) were used for the path model in
Figure 1. Correlations, means, and standard deviations of the
composite measures of the model constructs are presented in
Table AIII.

Table AII Means, standard deviations, and standardized loadings for the measures
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M-study TP-study
Measures and items M SD STD M SD STD
DISC1 Worse/better than expected 3.63 0.92 0.67a 3.44 1.18 0.87a
DISC2 Poorer/better than I (had) expected 3.24 0.90 0.50b 2.99 1.01 0.58b
Pleasure (PLEA) (aM 5 0:93, aTP 5 0:93)
PLEA1 Angry-content 4.75 0.57 0.90a 3.88 0.92 0.86a
PLEA2 Unhappy-happy 4.72 0.61 0.86 3.94 0.84 0.87
PLEA3 Displeased-pleased 4.64 0.71 0.80 3.87 0.89 0.84
PLEA4 Sad-joyful 4.67 0.63 0.83 b 3.93 0.94 0.85b
PLEA5 Disappointed-delighted 4.60 0.78 0.84 3.92 0.89 0.81
PLEA6 Bored-entertained 4.75 0.57 0.77 3.96 0.89 .81
Arousal (AROU) (aM 5 0:65, aTP 5 0:80)
AROU1 Depressed-cheerful 4.62 0.79 0.74a 3.96 0.90 0.83a
AROU2 Calm-enthusiastic 3.50 1.58 0.37b 3.60 1.08 0.55b
AROU3 Passive-active 4.02 1.13 0.52 3.83 0.98 0.82
AROU4 Indifferent-surprised 4.29 0.92 0.61 3.56 0.93 0.60
Satisfaction (SAT) (aM 5 0:82, aTP 5 0:89)
SAT1 One of the best museums/theme parks I have ever visited 4.14 1.00 0.47 b 3.10 1.15 0.52b
SAT2 I am pleased to have visited this museum/theme park 4.66 0.61 0.92 a 3.74 0.87 0.87a
SAT3 I was a good idea to visit this museum/theme park 4.65 0.63 0.92 3.72 0.95 0.86
SAT4 I have really enjoyed myself at this museum/theme park 4.66 0.61 0.89 3.68 0.94 0.89
SAT5 I don’t regret having visited this museum/theme park 4.72 0.61 0.50 3.71 1.03 0.88
Loyalty (LOY) (aM 5 0:77, aTP 5 0:86)
LOY1 Say positive things about the museum/theme park 4.68 0.61 0.75a 3.88 0.76 0.92a
LOY2 Recommend this museum/theme park 4.76 0.53 0.92 3.92 0.76 0.94
LOY3 Encourage friends and relatives to visit it 4.77 0.56 0.83b 3.88 0.75 0.86b
LOY4 Come back to this one in the future 4.26 1.04 0.57 3.46 0.99 0.58
Willingness to pay more (WPM)
(aM 5 0:77, aTP 5 0:86)
WPM1 Come back even if the price increases 4.14 1.10 0.97 3.05 1.09 0.94
WPM2 Pay higher price than for other museum/theme park services 3.96 1.19 0.83a 2.97 1.10 0.82a
Intensifying the experience (INT)
(aM 5 0:72, aTP 5 0:63)
INT1 Make purchases in the museum/theme park shops 2.78 1.43 0.93a 3.31 1.43 0.59a
INT2 Take souvenir pictures 3.12 1.52 0.61b 4.09 1.29 0.77b
Notes: STD refers to standardized loadings; a Unstandardized item loading is set to 1 across samples to define the scale of the latent construct in the multi-group
measurement and structural model analyses; b Unstandardized item loading constrained across samples in the multi-group measurement and structural model
analyses with partial metric invariance; All measurement loading estimates are significant at p , 0:001. M-study: x2(df ¼ 254Þ ¼ 580:71, p , 0:001;
CFI ¼ 0:90; TLI ¼ 0:90. TP-study: x2(df ¼ 254Þ ¼ 505:50, p , 0:001; CFI ¼ 0:93; TLI ¼ 0:91

313
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions Journal of Services Marketing
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315

Table AIII Latent construct intercorrelations and reliability estimates

M-study TP-study Correlations
Construct CR AVE M SD CR AVE M SD DISC PLEA AROU SAT LOY WPM INT
DISC 0.51 0.35 3.43 0.74 0.70 0.54 3.21 0.95 – 0.35 0.35 0.53 0.39 0.29 0.20
PLEA 0.93 0.69 4.68 0.55 0.93 0.71 3.91 0.78 0.29 – 0.78 0.60 0.60 0.21 0.07 *
AROU 0.65 0.33 4.11 0.80 0.80 0.50 3.74 0.77 0.06 * 0.49 – 0.53 0.52 0.14 * 0.03 *
SAT 0.87 0.59 4.57 0.54 0.91 0.67 3.59 0.82 0.29 0.43 0.37 – 0.57 0.21 0.15
LOY 0.86 0.60 4.62 0.56 0.90 0.70 3.78 0.70 0.14 * 0.37 0.23 0.45 – 0.44 0.26
WPM 0.89 0.81 4.05 1.08 0.87 0.77 3.01 1.02 20.18 0.20 0.30 0.43 0.53 – 0.38
INT 0.76 0.62 2.95 1.30 0.64 0.47 3.70 1.16 0.21 0.08 * 20.06 * 0.13 * 0.14 * 0.00 * –
Notes: Correlations below the diagonal are for the museum sample (n ¼ 200). Correlations above the diagonal are for the theme park sample (n ¼ 200).
CR ¼ composite construct reliability; AVE ¼ average variance extracted; * Correlation is not significant at p , 0:05 (two-tailed t-test). All other correlations
are significant (p , 0:05)

About the authors particular interest in the topic covered may then read the article in
toto to take advantage of the more comprehensive description of the
J. Enrique Bigné (PhD, University of Valencia) is Professor of research undertaken and its results to get the full benefit of the
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Marketing at the University of Valencia. His research interests material present.

include consumer behavior, strategic marketing, services
marketing and advertising. He has published articles in the
International Journal of Advertising, European Journal of
Marketing, Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising,
Journal of Promotion Management, Journal of Services Marketing,
Annals of Tourism Research, Tourism Management, Journal of
Marketing Management, among others. He has presented papers
at several conferences organized by the European Marketing
Academy and the Academy of Marketing Science. J. Enrique Bigné
is the corresponding author and can be contacted at:
Enrique.Bigne@uv.es
Anna S. Mattila (PhD, Cornell University) is Associate
Professor of Marketing at the College of Health and Human
Development at Pennsylvania State University. Her research
topics focus on consumers’ emotional responses to service
encounters and cross-cultural issues in services marketing.
She is particularly interested in the study of emotional loyalty
and the impact of culture on service recovery. Her work has
appeared in: Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science,
Journal of Consumer Psychology, Journal of Retailing, Journal of
Service Research, Psychology & Marketing, Journal of Services
Marketing, International Journal of Service Industry
Management, Cornell Hotel & Restaurant Administration
Quarterly, Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, Journal
of Travel Research, among others.
Luisa Andreu (PhD, University of Valencia) is Associate
Professor of Marketing at the University of Valencia. Her
research interests include consumer behavior, tourism
marketing and cross-cultural issues in service marketing.
She has published articles in Annals of Tourism Research,
Tourism Management, European Journal of Marketing, Journal
of Travel and Tourism Marketing, among others. She has
presented papers at several Conferences organized by the
European Marketing Academy and the Academy of Marketing
Science.
Executive summary and implications for
managers
This summary has been provided to allow managers and executives
a rapid appreciation of the content of the article. Those with a
The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and
emotions on behavioral intentions
How can you tell if someone is having a good time? Easy, you
might say. It is the smiles, the cheery disposition, the shouts of
support or victory at a sports stadium, the interested and
thoughtful looks on people’s faces at a museum or exhibition,
the whoops and screams of someone on a roller coaster.
But how much did they enjoy it? Was it better or worse than
expected? Would they do it all gain? Would they recommend
the experience to friends? Would they like a photo, or other
souvenir, to remind them of just what a good time they had?
And would they be prepared to pay more for that experience
than something similar that other leisure service providers
were offering?
The challenge for management of pleasure-driven services,
such as leisure and travel services, restaurants, and “hip”
retail outlets is to train their customer-contact employees to
read customers’ emotional displays in order to deliver
“customized” service, which in turn results in pleasurable
experiences. It is also important to try to measure consumer
emotions throughout the service process. Since consumers’
affective responses during the service delivery process are
strongly linked to satisfaction, service organizations need to
make sure that all the service encounters evoke positive
feelings or, even better, excite the consumer.
J. Enrique Bigné et al., using a study of hundreds of visitors
to two different types of leisure and tourism services
(interactive museum and theme park), found that feelings of
pleasure are directly linked to satisfaction and loyalty and that
service managers need to make sure the experience is as
pleasurable as possible.
However, the study introduces a new behavioral measure –
coined “on-the-spot” behaviors – which refer less to medium
and long-term intentions (such as repeat visits,
recommendations, willingness to pay more in the future,
etc.) than to immediate responses (such as buying souvenirs
and other gifts, or having a picture taken).
Findings indicate that exceeding customer expectations has
a strong, positive impact on immediate consumption

314
 The impact of experiential consumption cognitions and emotions
J. Enrique Bigné, Anna S. Mattila and Luisa Andreu
behaviors such as souvenir shopping. Consequently,
marketers need to make sure that their external
communications create reasonable expectations, which in
turn can be exceeded by seamless service delivery. The use of
call centers for advance bookings is a relationship marketing
tool that enables customization. For instance, it is easy to
capture demographic information (e.g., nationality, if they go
with children, senior citizen) at the time of booking and then
use this information to communicate relevant attractions or
points of interest.
Tourist attractions such as interactive museums or art
museums can offer restaurants or shops as complementary/
supplementary services. Complementary services are included
in the visit, and only people who buy the entrance to the
tourist attraction can use them. In this case, even if visitors are
not satisfied with their experience, they can tangibilize their
experience, buying specialized items about science or cultural
topics for their children and/or friends.
Making the experience as pleasurable as possible can be
achieved by various means. For example, the servicescape can
be manipulated according to the preferences of the firm’s
Downloaded by Duke University At 09:28 12 November 2014 (PT)
target markets. Or, the service delivery system can be
designed so as to minimize perceived waiting time. For
instance, television monitors panels can display information
and entertainment about the main attractions or exhibitions
while people are lining up for admission tickets.
The findings also indicate that positive disconfirmation
influences consumer satisfaction. For instance, visitors to an
oceanographic attraction probably expect enjoyment and get
the unexpected benefit of learning as well. In contrast,
museum visitors probably expect a learning experience but
To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com
Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints
315
Journal of Services Marketing
Volume 22 · Number 4 · 2008 · 303 –315
they can be pleasantly surprised by the enjoyment value of
their visit.
In both of these examples, positive disconfirmation is likely
to enhance satisfaction. Managers, therefore, should take into
account visitors’ evaluations on an ongoing basis. It is often
the case that the sheer size of museums and theme parks can
take a toll on the customer experience. To avoid
disappointment, it might be useful to provide ample
information displays and signage to guide the visitors
throughout the site.
A further result shows that positive disconfirmation
influences pleasure in both settings. For theme-park visitors,
disconfirmation is also linked to arousal. However, this
relationship does not hold in the museum context. Since both
arousal and pleasure are highly related to satisfaction,
managers should take into account ways to leverage arousal,
even in less active environments. To that end, managers of
interactive museums should reinforce the principle of “hands-
on, minds-on, and heart-on” in order to engage the visitor in
the process.
Even though disconfirmation has a positive willingness to
pay more, satisfaction alone was not enough to induce
willingness to pay more for the same service in the theme park
context. There was even a negative effect for the museum,
possibly because many people feel they should be free or
inexpensive.
(A précis of the article “The impact of experiential consumption
cognitions and emotions on behavioral intentions”. Supplied by
Marketing Consultants for Emerald.)
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