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PRACTICES MANUAL
First Edition
January 2007
Published by
V.K.Jain
Head-IDT
Institute of Drilling Technology
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Ltd.
Kaulagarh Road, Dehradun-248195, INDIA
Preparation Team
A.B.Sharma
Rajeev Dhupar
R.P.Patel
D.Das Gupta
A.K.Joshi
Ram Shanker
R.S.SHARMA
CHAIRMAN AND MANAGING DIRECTOR
MESSAGE
Drilling of oil and gas wells is a very complex operation requiring application of latest technology,
accurate procedures of different activities of drilling operation and total attention is required for
successful completion of the well. A healthy well is a requirement for optimum production of
hydrocarbons.
It is a matter of great happiness that Institute of Drilling Technology has prepared a Drilling
Operation Practices Manual to provide assistance to the field engineers engaged in drilling a well
including application of Drilling Fluid Engineering and Cementation Technology.
I am sure that this manual will help to update the technological knowledge of drilling engineers,
cementing engineers, mud engineers and other technical staff in field applications. In addition, it
would also be of help to other disciplines associated with drilling and completion of wells.
R.S.SHARMA
rsy ,oa izkÑfrd xSl vk;ksx fyfeVsM
OIL AND NATURAL GAS CORPORATION LIMITED
TEL BHAVAN DEHRADUN-248003
Phone 0135-2753372 Fax: 0135-2753524
Telex: 0585-206/207
U.N.BOSE
Director (Technology & Field Services)
FOREWORD
I am happy that earnest efforts have been made by Institute of Drilling Technology to bring out
a Drilling Operation Practices Manual for ready reference by the field personnel.
I am sure that the manual will be of immense use in providing necessary procedures & guidelines
for carrying out operations correctly and efficiently on drilling rigs.
Drilling Operation Practices Manual assumes a great importance particularly in view of the fact
that drilling activity has been growing rapidly in volume and has also become more complex during
the last few years. These complexities need immediate solution for which the Drilling Operation
Practices manual would serve as a ready reference in field applications. This will also go a long
way in streamlining the procedures being followed for various operations while drilling wells both
onshore and offshore.
I wish every field person should go through the manual thoroughly to implement the guidelines
and procedures contained therein for performing drilling operations in the most efficient and cost
effective manner.
My best wishes
U.N.BOSE
PREFACE
In the fast changing scenario worldwide in the field of drilling technology, publication of a DRILLING
OPERATION PRACTICES MANUAL was felt necessary so that our executives on the rig can follow
uniform Practices & Procedures and thereby increase the efficiency & productivity of drilling operations.
This manual has also been attempted with an aim to collect all scattered mateials required for
drilling engineers at one place. Thus, in a single reference book their need may be satisfied to the great
extent. The book provides adequate theoretical, practical background explanation before setting operations
procedures/guidelines in order to enable the users understand the procedures behind practices.
The manual has also been specially designed with the objective of providing an insight to various
operations and procedures carried out right from release of a drilling location to completion of drilling
and testing of a well. Therefore, it will be an extremely useful reference handbook to the drilling
engineers, mud engineers and cementing engineers especially to the new entrants in this field, for
performing their assignment.
The topics are devised in a way that should give a good basic understanding of the subject at
all levels. Also, the topics discussed in this manual will play significant role in proper well planning,
execution, monitoring and solving down hole complications. Proper and healthy use of this manual
is bound to develop good understanding and better co-ordination among the interdisciplinary groups
thereby creating an environment of synergy.
A Team of highly qualified and experienced young executives has prepared this manual and it
has been edited by very senior knowledgeable executives. Apart from our in-house publications,
useful materials from the publications of various companies/authors/publishers have been used in
this manual for maintaining its quality.
Suggestions received from various quarters, at different stages of finalization of this manual,
were examined critically and incorporated in the manual wherever possible.
I am confident that humble effort of brining out this manual will benefit all the concerned users
in playing a healthy role in the organization in addition to develop technical capabilities of individual.
V.K.JAIN
Head - IDT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would specially thank the C&MD and all the Directors of the Corporation for giving us the
opportunity for preparing the Drilling Operation Practices manual. A work of this nature could not
have taken shape without their constant interest, support and encouragement. Inspite of pressing
operational requirements, they could spare their time and resources in bringing out this manual.
Special thanks are reserved for Late Sh. A.T.Kali, EX-CDS for his constant association and
valuable suggestions in giving shape to this manual.
I would like to thank S/Sh M.D.Joshi, ED-CDS; A.K.Vig, GGM(D) OVL; V.I.Methew, GGM(D),
HDS, Sibsagar and other senior executives of Drilling Services for giving valuable suggestions to
improve the quality of the manual.
Again, I would like to thank Sh. Ram Shanker, Chief Engineer (D), who remained the key person
during compilation, editing and printing the manual, whose sincere efforts made the publication of
this manual possible.
I would like to thank S/Sh K.M. Bhattacharya, DGM(D), HDS-Frontier Basin; Dr. Vinod Sharma,
DGM (Chem),I/C DFE; Dr. D. Bandhopadhyay, DGM (Chem), I/C-R&D; S.K.Dobhal, Head-DTS;
D. Pramanik, Head-WCS; R.P.Patel, CE(D); A.Javed, C.E.(D), Head Monitoring Group; Rajeev Dhupar,
CE(D), Head-R&D; D. Dasgupta, CE(D), Head-CCM; A. Dutta, C.E.(D), Head-TSG as well as all
the officers and staff of IDT who extended their co-operation in preparation of this manual.
I would like to thank Shri A.B.Sharma, DGM(D), I/C-Training; who remained the key person during
editing and printing of the manual.
I would like to thank the authors of all 20 chapters i.e. S/Sh S.K. Dobhal, A.K. Joshi, Vishwajeet
Das, Ram Shanker, A.Dutta, V. Chakraborty, Vinod Kumar, Anurag Ahuja, TRK Sherwani, Ajeeth
Xavier Parapullil, A.K. Saxena, P.K.Dubey, P.S. Sehmi, Sanjay Kulkarni, A. Bhattacharjee,
G. Venkesteshwaran, R.P. Agarwal, A.N.Singh, S. Bhattacharjee, A.K. Dwivedi as well as all the
officers and staff of IDT who spared their time in writing the subject procedures and bringing out
this manual in addition to their other assignments.
My sincere thanks to the authors, companies and publishers who have permitted us to use
their publication materials in our manual as well as whose materials have been referred to during
preparation of this manual.
The following persons deserve mention of their active association in preparation of this manual
in different capacities: S/Sh A.K.Mishra, DGM (D) Mumbai; R. Manimmanan, Supdtg. Librarian now
in IPSHEM Goa.
The following companies/authors/publishers are being acknowledged thanks for permitting
reproduction of their material for this manual.
M/S. API Smith International, Security Dresser Industries Inc., Petroleum Extention Services
Division, Pannwell Publishing Company, Gulf Publishing Company (World Oil), Dowell Schlumberger
Inc., M/S Hycalog, M/S Sperry-sun Drilling Services, M/S Schlumberger Asia Services Ltd., M/S
Hughes Christensen Company, Society of Petroleum Engineers (USA).
Finally, I acknowledge the services rendered by M/S Shiva Offset Press in bringing out the
manual in this form.
V.K.Jain
CONTENTS
CHAPTER – 1
LAND RIG CLASSIFICATION AND RIG BUILDING
Based on the type of rig, the drill site for the future well must be prepared for proper placement
of equipment. The land around the well site is cleared, graded & leveled. A cellar pit is made along
with rig specific foundation. For all other auxiliary equipment placement leveled foundation strips
are made. If necessary, local roads and appropriate areas around the rig are surfaced to facilitate
transportation of rig equipments.
1
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
(ii) Branham Industries Universal Cantilever Swing lift (Type1) mast: This design is an improved
version having self-elevating sub-structure. Draw-works and surrounding floor are raised to drilling
position by use of draw-works power and mast raising line, no other rigging or wire line required.
Mast raising lines need only be moved from A-frame sheaves to the sheaves on draw-works
elevator to complete rigging for erection. Steps involved in raising of Branham type rig: -
1. A-frame erection & Raising of Mast with set back parallelogram in place
2. Raising of rear floor with draw-works.
2
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
B. Route survey
C. Rig release / Rigging Down
D. Transportation of rig equipments
E. Rigging Up
Above mentioned first two activities are performed before actual rig release from old location.
3
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
In case, if any problem related to above aspects is noticed, then it should be rectified before
start of rig shifting. Route survey team should consist of: -
z Rig In-charge
z Electrical Engineer
z Civil Engineer
z Logistics personnel
z Land acquisition man
4
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
w. Rest the mast on horse and remove monkey board, belly board, BOP trolley beams etc.
x. As far as possible, brake shoes shall not be replaced prior to lowering and raising of mast.
If it becomes necessary to replace the shoes, ensure proper break-in.
E. Rigging Up
a. Ensure all equipment reaches at new location in good working condition.
b. Align sub-base structure to the center of the well. Assemble the sub-structure and assemble
the mast.
c. Check and service mast-lifting sheaves and equalizer pulley.
d. Check mast bull lines for broken wires, corrosion, incidental damage etc. (Refer Annex-2)
e. Fix the casing line guide roller on the mast wherever it is applicable.
f. Check reeving of bull lines.
g. Reeve the traveling block, fix fast end, spool the casing line on drum and tighten the dead
end properly.
h. Check functioning of clutch, brake and ECB.
i. Check mast members for cracks and bends etc while fitting.
j. Grease all the pins before fitting and fit all the safety clips in all pin.
5
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
k. Unwanted lines like tong hanging lines, cat lines etc. should be tied to the side of the
mast to avoid entangling during lifting of mast.
l. Ensure bottom boxes and sub base extensions are fitted properly. Fill water in bottom boxes
(wherever applicable).
m. At least two power packs should be available during rig building.
n. Check the condition of bumper blocks (wooden blocks) and its clamps at crown block.
o. Lift the mast from the horse saddle about 6 inches and hold it there for 5 minutes and
observe for:
z Any cracks on foundation.
z Leakage of air/oil.
z Any other abnormality
If any abnormality observed take corrective actions.
p. Raise the mast with slowest possible speed.
q. Observe the lifting mechanism sheaves for any hindrance in rotation, and load on weight
indicator.
r. Observe casing line of tackle system for any obstruction with monkey board while lifting of
mast.
s. During the final stage of mast raising bull lines lose its tension due to fall of the mast towards
A-frame. So the fall back of the mast should be controlled with the help of hydraulic snubbing
system or snubbing line.
t. Align the mast with A-frame pinholes, fix the proper size pins and then release the snub
line.
6
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
c. Connect front sub-base extensions to middle boxes while raising and lowering of mast
only.
NOTE: Front sub-base extensions may be removed for ease of operation.
b) Sub-structure
a. Install strong back columns and braces on sub-base in DS and ODS respectively and
connect strong back spreader beam.
32 38 20 12 14
22 34 16
36
26 10
Fig. 1 : 12-Mast (a, b, c, d, & e are mast section), 14-trailer, 16-Mast pivot, 18-Front support, 22-draw
works Floor , 24-D/works support floor, 26-sub-base, 28-Rear halve of sub base, 30-Front halve of sub-
base, 31-sub-bases joining point , 32- Strong back Assembly, 34-vertical column of strong back assembly,
36-Digonal support to strong back assembly, 38-Sheave, 40-D/works support floor under structure, 42-
Front floor support under structure
38
106 104
22 104
116
88 12
18
26 32
112
108 110
80 26
Fig. 2 : 80-sheave, 88-Sheave, 104-casing line, 108-T/block hook, 110-direction of block movement, 112-
Rear floor raising bull line, 116-Rear floor raising line dead end
7
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
TO CROWN
BLOCK
BREAK OVER
SHEAVES
FRONT FLOOR
SHEAVES
38
106
104
22 120
12
88
32 18 114
24 118
108 110
26
b Install columns of rear floor (DS & ODS) in horizontal position and connect rear floor
boxes to it and connect draw-works spreaders.
c. Position the draw-works on draw-works spreaders.
d. Install front floor columns (DS & ODS) in horizontal position and connect their boxes
to it and then connect spreaders.
e. Place rotary table on rotary beams.
f. Connect mast bottom section with front floor boxes and assemble other sections of
mast, crown block. Connect ladders, electric fittings and ton-mile transmitter to the
mast, but do not connect crown safety platform, racking platform and Belly board till
front floor is raised.
g. Keep the travelling block on Dolly board and reeve the casing line.
8
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
h. Rear floor raising Reeve rear floor raising lines and fast line (d/works) as per Fig. 3
and fix dead end connections on both sides. Raise the rear floor along with draw-works
with the self-power of draw-works.
i. Connect rear support box to strong back columns and fit the braces of rear floor boxes
(DS & ODS). Connect all other joints with strong back beam.
j. The mast is rested on trailer as per drawing for front floor raising (fig.1).
k. Front floor raising Reeve front floor raising lines as per Fig. 5 and fix dead end
connections on both side. Raise the front floor with the self-power of draw-works. The
trailer must be allowed to follow the motion of mast.
l. After front floor being elevated connect front floor support boxes to strong back. Also
connect rotary spreader to strong back beam.
m. Pin column braces of front floor (DS & ODS).
n. Ensure all pins are well fitted and all member connections are perfect.
o. Reeving for raising the floor
Rear floor erection or lowering.
z Use the rear floor raising line only, when front floor is down.
z Use the front floor raising line only, when front floor is up.
Front floor erection or lowering.
z Use front floor raising line only, in all conditions.
STRONG BACK
SHEAVES TO CROWN
BLOCK
DEAD END CONN
FRONT FLOOR
SHEAVES
STRONG BACK
BEAM SHEAVES BREAK OVER SHEAVES
Mast Erection
a. Assemble (or expand if already fitted on mast) A-frame and swing its rear legs, fit it to the
pedestal in rear floor boxes.
b. Place the mast on the horse.
c. Fix Belly Board, Racking platform (monkey board) and Crown block safety platform with
handrails and other accessories.
9
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
10
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
86
line for initial motion of mast.
00
LB
d. Do not allow any slack on Bull
s
line or fast line before and while
C.G. 137600 Lbs
lowering the mast. 73’-3”
e. Guide floating sheave (in A-
frame) to align with fast line
during lowering. VIEW A-A
f. Place mast on horse.
CAUTIONS
(i) No floor raising line slack shall be allowed before or during lowering.
(ii) Do not remove any braces or pins of the floor that is not ready for lowering.
11
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
A
B
D
Sequence one “A” Frame Erection
Fig. 8
d. The Draw-works Support Braces are normally transported pinned to Bottom Boxes.
12
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
k. Assemble Mast upper section of DS and ODS, lift section and pin to middle section, lift
slightly to release mast assembly stand and move stand to front of upper section.
l. Normally the Mast top section is transported with the Crown block attached. Lift Crown
block with top section and pin to upper section.
m. Assemble flooring extension, Braces and handrails to Crown Frame. Fit Core line Sheave,
etc., to Crown Frame.
n. Fit ladders to DS from Stub Section to Crown.
o. Fit Standpipe. Clamps attached with ‘U’ Bolts to the lower and Stub Section of the Mast of
ODS. Check that the Standpipe does not interfere with Setback Spreader when raising the
Mast. If interference occurs remove Standpipe before Raising the Mast.
p. Lift Mast at Crown with the Crown Pad eyes and place it on (16’0" high stand) horse under
top Section near the Crown Frame.
13
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
“A” Frame
∅
238 x 164’ SLING LINE
(EIPS - IWRC)
“A” Frame
Fig. 9
14
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
Fig. 10
Rams, while taking up slack with Hook until pin connections line up. Pin the mast with A-
Frame on both sides. (Fig. 10)
k. Attach Ramp to Setback Support.
15
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
To Block
or
nch
eA
Lin
gle
Sin
To
Fig. 11
b. Check that
z Draw works Column Pins have been well greased
z All Bolts have been tightened.
z All pins have been fitted with Safety Clips.
z All draw works and stub section line guards have been fitted.
The A-Frame Line guards should not be fitted at this stage. Check that the bull line is reeved
correctly.
c. Slowly raise draw works with its power, ensure that the Rotary Beam connections line up and
pin Rotary Beams to Setback Spreader. Pin all Rotary and Floor Beams to Setback and draw
works.
d. Swing up draw works Lock Brace of DS and ODS pin and fit Safety clips.
e. Lower Traveling Block and remove bull line from draw works Sheaves of DS and ODS. Raise
Travel Block and hang equalizer pulley and bull line in the Mast, remove from Hook.
Or
Lower to Drill Floor, remove and store Equalizer pulley and bull line.
16
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
c. Center the mast before drilling, by an 8" drill collar hung from T/ block as a plumb. If
required provide adequate shims for centering.
(i) Jacking and lowering shall be done on one leg at a time.
(ii) No bolts shall be removed from shoes, loosen nuts only. After alignment, tighten
the nuts.
17
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
18
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
Annexure-1
19
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
20
Land Rig Classification and Rig Building
Annexure-2
SIZES OF DIFFERENT LIFTING LINES
SKY TOP MAST
SN Type of Rig Type of Line Description Remarks
BRANHAM MAST
1. E-760 Bull Line (i) 2 3/8" Φ, 6 × 37 classification, 6x49 One Open socket &
construction, IWRC, IPS, RHRL, 145’ One closed socket.
(ii) 2 3/8" Φ, 6 × 37 classification, 6 × 49 Both Open end
classification, IWRC, IPS, RHRL, 135’ socket
2. E-1400 Bull Line (i) 2 3/8" Φ, 6 × 37 classification, 6x49 One Open socket &
construction, IWRC, IPS, RHRL,164’ One closed socket
(ii) 2 3/8" Φ, 6 × 37 classification, 6x49 Both Open end
construction, IWRC, IPS, RHRL, 144’ socket
3. E-2000 Bull Line (i) 2 3/8" Φ, 6 × 37 classification, 6x49 One Open socket &
construction, IWRC, IPS, RHRL, 194’ One closed socket
(ii) 2 3/8" Φ, 6 × 37 classification, 6x49 Both Open end
construction, IWRC, IPS, RHRL, 175’ socket
21
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
CHAPTER- 2
OFFSHORE RIG
Independent-leg units and mat-type units are designed to withstand certain operating limits for
(1) load capacities (2) afloat conditions and (3) elevated conditions. Any attempt to exceed these
limits will jeopardize the safety of the crew and the unit. Jacking and moving procedures must take
into account the capabilities and limitations of the unit when sitting on bottom, when afloat, or under
tow. All personnel operating the unit’s equipment should read the “Information and Operating
Instruction Book” published by the manufacturer. This book gives specific instruction on the operation
and maintenance of the unit’s machinery.
Newly classed ABS jack up rigs have emergency power sources. Check the emergency power
plant and all emergency systems at least once a week. Emergency repair supplies should be on
board, and be inspected periodically for quantity and condition.
2.1 PERSON ON BOARD: Recommended Nos. & type of persons to jack down and move drilling
units are:
22
Offshore Rig
on, stop jacking until the fixed pin (or pins) which may be stuck is disengaged. Confirmation
of the pin situation from each column should be obtained with every pin change before
proceeding with the jack-ing. This information should be obtained by telephone from personnel
in each jack house.
3. When all fixed pins are confirmed to be “OUT,” use the master jacking lever to raise the
yokes (lower the platform) in unison one full, six-foot stroke. During the stroke, the aluminum
wedges can be removed.
NOTE : The automatic leveling device incorporated within the jacking system should keep
the three yokes in line to: 1 inch relative to column 1 during the power stroke. During the
power stroke and when about 10 inches from the end of the stroke, switch all the fixed
pins to the “IN” position on the console and continue jacking in the same direction. These
pins will not move all the way in immediately as they are not centered over the respective
pin holes, but the “FIXED PIN OUT” lights will go off and the pins will be loaded up against
the columns ready to go into the column pin holes as soon as they become aligned. As
the end of the stroke nears, watch both the “FIXED PIN IN” lights and the rod-end pressure
gauges for all three columns. The green “FIXED PIN IN” lights, indicating that all fixed pins
are in, should come on before rod end pressure starts to decrease. If there is an indication
of pressure decrease before a green light activates on any one column, jacking should be
stopped until the cause of the problem can be determined (such as a stuck fixed pin, a
maladjusted limit switch, etc.).
4. When all fixed pins are “IN” and confirmed, switch yoke pins to “OUT” position on the console,
and use the master jacking lever to raise the yokes (transfer the platform load to the fixed
pins), allowing the yoke pins to disengage themselves from the columns. Confirm yoke pin
disengagement and then push the master jacking lever to the “YOKES DOWN” position for
the return stroke (six feet). Switch yoke pins back to the “IN” position, again, about six
inches before the end of the return stroke, and continue jacking until all yoke pins are “IN”
as before and confirmed.
5. Repeat steps 2, 3, and 4 as required to bring the platform down to the water. Before the
platform enters the water, a platform weight summary and platform longitudinal center of
gravity (LCG) calculations are to be made. This is required for determining the amount of
drilling water to be shifted in the platform in order to obtain even keel conditions when the
mat is free and the unit floating. The method for adjusting the platform LCG to coincide
with the floating longitudinal center of buoyancy (LCB) will normally be by shifting drilling
water only. If feasible for the particular drilling unit and location, the derrick skid unit may
also be moved to expedite the adjusting of the LCG. Continue jacking down until platform
draft exceeds the calculated floating draft by two feet. With this amount of excess buoyancy,
the mat should free itself from the sea bottom, as can be observed by a decrease in platform
draft and head end pressure on all three columns. If difficulty is encountered and the mat
will not pull loose with two feet excess draft, provisions have been made for water to be
jetted from the underside of the mat. The piping for this system terminates in column 1.
6. Using the same action it took to lower the platform, raise the mat the desired clearance
(bottom to bottom) for the move. If it is desired to raise the mat up to the uppermost position
(2’6" clearance between the molded platform bottom and mat deck), override the automatic
shutdown at columns 2 and 3. This is accomplished by holding the override button down in
the lower left corner of the console before the end of the last 4’6" stroke is reached.
23
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
7. When sufficient clearance between the bottom of the mat and sea bottom exists, pressure
up the rod ends of all cylinders (lower the yokes) with both the fixed pins and the yoke
pins engaged and the yoke down to about 1500 psi. This will prevent relative movement
between mat and platform due to wave action. If after a period of time the pressure decreases
in the rod end of the cylinders, they can be repressured to 1500 psi.
2.3.1 Procedure
Conduct the shallow gas survey
1. Perform fluid end inspections on the mud pumps and change liners as specified in the well
programme.
2. Reset relief valves (pop offs) of the mud pumps depending on the liner burst rating as required
for the liner in use, settings are specified in the manufacturers recommendations (pressure
test to be recorded on a chart).
3. Perform inspections of all BOP equipment e.g. BOPs, safety valves etc. If possible pressure
test these items with water.
4. Service all standpipes, valves, chick sans, hoses, choke and kill manifold valves, and conduct
pressure test of these if required.
5. Service / inspect all tensioning and BOP handling equipment e.g. conductor pipe or BOP
tensioners.
6. All mud handling equipment should be serviced including, shale shakers, mud cleaner,
desander, desilter and mud mixing equipment. The shale shakers should be fitted with the
correct size of screen for the top-hole section as per requirement.
7. Check the calibration and function of all drilling instrumentation e.g. gauges, chart records.
24
Offshore Rig
2.4.1 Procedure
1. A Rig Specific Procedure for handling the Master Bushings during drilling, running surface
casing, BOP and diverter operations be in place and followed.
2. When rigging up to run 30" and 20" casing, the bushings not be removed until the shoe
joint is ready to be run through the rotary table.
3. A hole cover be in place when ongoing activities, associated with the removal and
replacement of rotary table components, are suspended for any period of time.
4. A pre-spud meeting be held with all personnel involved in the operation. Minutes of these
meetings be DOCUMENTED.
5. Ensure that all the relevant fishing equipments are available.
6. Consult with the Client and service personnel to verify the wellhead systems and stack up
dimensions.
7. Specified quantities of mud chemicals, including barite and bentonite, should be on location.
8. Sufficient spud mud, with the correct properties as specified in the drilling programme, should
be mixed ready for use.
9. Specified quantities of cement and additives should be on location.
10. Drilling consumables for the first hole sections should be on location including but not
limited to wellheads, casing and its handling tools, drill bits and nozzles of various sizes
stabilizers, hole openers and reamers.
11. All drilling tools supplied by the Client should be checked for compatibility with the
Contractors equipment (e.g. correct tool joint connections). This should include both drilling
and fishing tools.
12. Prepare the BHA, pick up, drift and rack enough drill pipe to complete the surface hole
sections. Making up and racking stands during drilling operations is not permitted.
25
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
2.5.1 Procedures
1. Check the derrick, top drive, block, and crown prior to and after the hammering operations
for any loose objects.
2. Paint the shoe joint white to assist with ROV observation.
3. Run the 30" casing to one joint above the seabed then rig up the hammer and chaser joint.
4. If available the ROV will observe seabed for obstructions prior to the 30" penetration.
5. All lifting gear on the hammer assembly will be checked for rating and certification. All
shackles will be secured with split pins and checked periodically during the operation.
6. To ensure the 30" is vertical, tag the seabed and commence driving at slack tide. Record
the rotary to seabed measurement and weight of 30" from rotary to seabed in the IADC
drilling report. Once maximum bottom penetration is achieved from the weight of the 30"
alone, allow the hammer and chaser joint to rest in the top of the 30".
7. Do not allow the hammer support slings to take load while driving, continue to watch them
and slack off on the blocks simultaneously.
8. Ensure that hammer operator is also monitoring the support slings, is situated next to the
controls and is able to stop the hammer blows should the need arise.
9. Do not set slips on the 30" once driving has commenced.
10. Should the desired shoe depth not be obtained before a pre-determined maximum blow
count per foot of penetration or refusal, then it may be necessary to implement a drive /
drill procedure.
26
Offshore Rig
4. The 30" will not be driven if shallow gas is a potential problem unless the formations have
been drilled and proven to be gas free.
2.6 FLOATERS
Floaters are the drilling vessels that keep floating during the entire course of drilling and other
operations. In off-shore, drilling is much economical with jack-up rigs but their limited water depth
capability (generally 400 ft.) is a major handicap as we venture in deep waters. On the other hand,
floaters, if equipped with dynamic positioning system are independent of water depth and seabed
conditions. Also in the water depth range of jack-ups floaters also provide a solution to some problems
like punch through locations. However, the initial investment and the operating cost of floaters are
much higher than that of a jack-up rig.
i) Drillship
Drill ships are suitable for water depths 20m-3000m plus. Drill ships are suitable for drilling in
deeper waters beyond the limit of Jack-ups. Also, they can be deployed on a location where
jack-up operations is not possible due to soft/loose seabed having a gradient more than the
that required for Mat type jack-up.
They are suited in logistically difficult areas as normally they have high load carrying capacities.
However, anchor moored type ships are not suitable for harsh environments as their response
to hydrodynamic forces is not as good as compared to Semis. Therefore in harsh weathers,
downtime tends to be much more on a drill ship than a Semi. Otherwise, drill ships are more
stable in terms of survival and station-keeping in adverse weather conditions as their CG is
lower. The variable loads like casings, risers, tubulars, mud chemicals etc. are stored on a drill
ship at much lower level as compared to a Semi. This keeps the CG at much lower level and
imparts more stability to drillships. Drillships are normally cheaper than semi-submersibles for
moderate environment areas. They can carry out exploratory drilling, development drilling on
subsea templates and subsea completion of single wells.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
FLOATER JACK-UP
Vessel keeps floating during the entire course Once the vessel is jacked-up it stands firmly
of operations and is subjected to various on the ocean floor like a fixed platform.
movements like Roll, Pitch, Heave etc. which
impede operations.
30" casing is lowered in a drilled 36" hole with 30" casing is piled in to the seabed.
seawater with no returns to the rig.
26" hole is also drilled (generally) with seawater 26" hole is drilled with seawater/mud and returns
with no returns to the rig. to rig.
Every casing string lowered in the well is Every casing string lowered in the well is
terminated at the seabed (except liner casing). brought up to the surface (except liner casing).
BOP stack (generally 18 ¾” bore) is lowered The BOP stack (generally 13 5/8") has to be
and installed at the seabed after 20" casing and removed for the installation of each section of
once installed all the subsequent operations well head. Dimensionally this stack is much
right up to abandoning of the well are carried smaller in size and has less no. of rams,
through the stack .It has more functions and annulars and Kill/chocke line valves.
requires special handling system.
A string of risers about 20" bore is used which A single riser pipe is used.
needs a special tensioning system to maintain
constant tension for heave compensation. .
BOP control system is much more complex for BOP control system is same as that is used
remote operation and redundancy. on land rigs.
28
Offshore Rig
29
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
i) Penetration Test
It is carried out to check the seabed formation to ascertain the depth of conductor casing so
that it can safely withstand the weight of wellhead, subsequent casing and BOP. It is carried
out using a jetting assembly which consist of 12 ¼” bit, bit sub, 3 stands of 8" drill collars,
cross over, 5 to 7 stands of HWDP and 5" D/P. The sequence of operations in carrying out
penetration test is as under:
1. Bit and bit sub should be painted white for observation by ROV. Space out should be adjusted
so as maintain jetting assembly and bit in the hole while making first connection.
2. Gently tag seabed-using ROV and calculate KB to seabed depth with tide correction. Open
drill string motion compensator to full stroke and set pressure to compensate at 5000 Kgs.
Lower drill string until the bit is lost from view. This depth is known as murk line.
3. Continue to lower the drill string until the bit takes 5000 Kgs of weight and does not settle
any more. This depth is known as competent mud line.
4. Initial WOB and flow rate should be low and be gradually raised one at a time when there
is no progress. Seabed should be tagged at 5-10 spm and 4-6 KIPS of WOB.
5. Penetration test should be continued without rotation up to the point of refusal. The point of
refusal is the point where the formation can withstand 10 T of slack off.
6. Rate of penetration will be dependent on pump strokes mainly. Initial jetting starts with 20
SPM. Keeping parameters same gives a fairly god idea as to when formation begins to
change.
7. Plot a graph Depth vs. time & ROP.
8. Based on depth up to the point of refusal conductor casing tally is made.
Requirement
• A float valve should be installed in bit sub.
• As usual a Kelly cock should also be used to arrest gas flow in the pipe.
• A minimum of twice the pilot hole capacity of kill mud (10 ppg) should be kept ready.
• 50 bbls barite plug to be kept ready.
• Cementing unit should be kept in readiness.
30
Offshore Rig
• Captain and marine crew be kept ready for moving rig off location if situation arises.
• ROV should be stationed near the seabed.
Procedure
• Normal drilling over this section will be relatively fast hence drilling should be done at a
moderate rate so that minor gas flows if any can be identified with ROV.
• Always observe the well carefully for gas flow prior to making connection.
• If minor gas shows are seen the bit is to be pulled off bottom and observe the well.
• If the gas stream continues at a constant rate or diminishes during the flow check then a
further 3m can be drilled, circulate bottom up and observe the well. This procedure to
becontinued till such time that the gas streams is minimal.
• Once safe conditions have been established continue drilling to T.D.
• If however the gas flow increases and develops into major flow then the following procedures
need to be followed.
• Once a major flow has been noted by the ROV maintain circulation through out the gas
flow kill operation.
• Displace hole volume with 10 ppg kill mud.
• Inform captain/chief engineer/DP operator.
• If the gas stream does not diminish then pump 50 bbl barite plug at bottom.
• If the well is dead or subdued then proceed as with a minor gas flow, reaching to bottom
(TD) in 3m interval (prior to that ensure adequate kill mud is made available) or once the
well is under control then pump a cement plug above the barite pill and pull back to sea
bed to review options.
• If failed to subdue the gas flow with barite plug then prepare to pull rig off location.
iii) Spudding
Based on seabed conditions either 30" casing alongwith permanent guide base (PGB) can be
directly jetted down or 40/42" conductor alongwith float boxes and temporary guide base (TGB)
is lowered when seabed is very soft for increasing the resistance to sinking.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
• Conductor pipes are run in the conventional manner through PGB with box down and pin
up preferably with squnch joints for faster operation.
• Lower all the conductor pipes.
• Lower jetting assembly BHA (26" bit + 2 nos. of 9–1/2" d/c + 26" NRRSS + 1 no. of 9-1/2"
d/c + 1 std. of 8" d/c + 5 to 7 std. of HWDP + 5" d/p through the 30" casing using C-plate.
• Jetting assembly length should be so adjusted that bit remains about 1 to 2 ft inside the
casing shoe.
• Make up 30" running tool to the housing.
• Continue RIH with drill pipes till conductor is nearing seabed-using ROV.
• Adjust space out to avoid first connection above seabed.
• Break circulation with seawater and ensure conductor is vertical using bull’s eye of PGB.
• Jet in conductor following the parameters used for penetration test.
• Jet down and position PGB about 1.5 m above seabed.
• Inclination of the conductor should not exceed one degree at any position.
• In between flush the hole using high viscous gel.
• Once required depth is reached remove all cuttings using high viscous pill.
• Allow the conductor to settle/soak for about one hour.
• Ensure inclination is within 1°.
• Release casing running tool under surveillance by ROV.
• Check for any movement of PGB or change in inclination of slope indicator by ROV.
• Record the distance between rotary table and the top of PGB at corrected tide for further
reference.
• Mark guidelines at moon pool for reference.
32
Offshore Rig
33
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
v) BOP LOWERING
After completion of 20" casing, BOP is lowered as described below
Preparation
• Pressure test of BOP is performed up to their rated working pressure.
• The BOP stack must be in perfect working order when lowered.
• Surface & BOP mounted accumulator bottles are to be pre-charged with Nitrogen to the
calculated pressure.
Lowering
• Install guide lines in guide posts.
• Connect the riser, hanging from the hook to the BOP.
• Mount the riser angle beacon above the flex joint.
• Pressure test choke, kill, booster & hydraulic lines to recommended test pressures.
• Carryout function test on both yellow pod & blue pod.
• Check all functions are in block position.
• Switch hydraulic power unit to block position.
• Disconnect junction boxes on hose reels.
• Increase guideline tension to 8000 lbs.
• Check that tensioner’s bottle press is at calculated value.
• Stand by bottles to be at max press.
34
Offshore Rig
35
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
CHAPTER – 3
DRILLING OPERATIONS
36
Drilling Operations
• Security
• Medical Services
Procedure
1. Take the required quantity of water in mud tank.
2. Connect the turbine /motor with used bit of 12-1/4 inch dia.
3. Guide the turbine/motor/kelly by manila rope which is tied with the mast in the right direction
for controlling the back torque of the turbine.
4. Check the water line and mud pump connections.
5. Start drilling a hole through the slot provided for rat hole on the rig floor with water outside
the cellar pit.
6. Continue drilling till the depth equal to the length of Kelly + length of lower Kelly cock +
length of Kelly saver sub to be placed plus one meter is reached.
7. Case the drilled hole immediately by lowering the rat hole casing pipe of 9-5/8 inch (length
should be equal to length of Kelly plus one meter).
8. Keep the height of rat hole casing equal to one metre above the derrick floor for proper
resting of the swivel.
9. Always cover this rat hole slot to avoid accident.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Procedure
1. Pull the drill bit in side the casing.
2. Close pipe ram BOP and Kelly cock.
3. Hook up cementing unit with Kill line.
4. Flush the BOP stack, kill and choke lines with water.
5. Close gate valve on choke line.
6. Calculate the shoe test pressure. This is the sum of surface pressure and the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid being used during the test. It should be equal to the hydrostatic pressure
at the shoe of the heaviest mud that will be used in the well before running the next string
of casing.
7. Pump steadily at a rate of one litre per second till the time test pressure at shoe is reached,
plot the increase in surface pressure against volume pumped. (For plotting the graph see
leak off test).
8. If the shoe is hermetical, the plot will be linear.
9. Hold the required test pressure for 15 min. The shoe is considered OK if the pressure does
not fall more than 10% of the test pressure during this time.
10. Release the pressure through choke line, and measure the volume of fluid recovered and
compare this with the volume pumped. Both the volumes should be almost equal.
38
Drilling Operations
Procedure
1. Drill down 1-2 meter fresh formation below the casing shoe.
2. Circulate to clean the hole.
3. Pull the drill bit inside the casing shoe.
4. Connect kelly and close lower Kelly cock.
5. Close the pipe ram BOP.
6. Close kill line and open both the outlet valves of casing head housing.
7. Connect the cementing unit through kill line. The pumping unit should have a graduated
suction tank in litres or fitted with a pump stroke counter so that the volume of the mud
pumped in can be accurately measured.
8. Start pumping mud in the well at a controlled rate of one litre/sec.
9. Record pressure readings after pumping each incremental volume of 50 litres.
10. Plot these values of pressures against volume of mud pumped on the graph.
11. It will be observed that pressure will proportionally increase after pumping each incremental
volume of 50 litres of mud.
12. The first reading of pressure which does not change proportionally after pumping incremental
volume of 50 litres is noted. Let it be ‘Ps’ kg/cm2.
13. Hydrostatic pressure due to mud column is calculated at the depth where leak-off is being
performed as under:
Wm X D
Hs = —————— kg/cm2
10
Where,
Hs = Pressure due to hydrostatic head (kg/cm2).
Wm = Specific gravity of mud.
D = Depth in meters.
Ps = Surface pressure at which leak takes place (kg/cm2)
Then
PLOT = Ps + Hs
10 x PLOT
LOT = ——————— gm/cc
D
After the test is completed, release the pressure and measure the volume of return mud.
14. The volume of return mud for conducting the test should be almost equal to the volume of
mud pumped.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Points to remember
a) Do not keep the pressure and volume data for plotting later on. This may lead to over pumping
and formation breakdown.
b) The first straight line portion of the graph ‘OA’ indicates elastic deformation of the formation.
When the curve starts getting visibly flat (at point A in the fig. 1.24) at the upper end of the
plot, the testing is stopped, the point ‘A’ at which this change is noticed is marked.
c) The surface pressure should not exceed 80% of the burst pressure of casing.
d) When such tests are conducted with heavy mud inside and lighter mud outside the casing,
it is the lower part of the casing which is subjected to maximum burst loading.
Calculation of Maximum Specific Gravity of Mud: The maximum specific gravity of
mud is limited by the LOT pressure at the casing shoe.
40
Drilling Operations
Test Pressure
Test pressure should not exceed minimum of the following:
1. 80% of the internal yield pressure of the weakest section of the casing.
2. Maximum allowable casing head pressure
3. Maximum allowable annulus surface pressure (MASP) while circulating out the kick below
shoe.
4. The pore pressure less the pressure exerted by the column of the gas as production
requirement.
5. Test duration is 30 minutes.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
2. Keep the hook at a desired height so that the hook’s tongue can enter the swivel bail on
pushing the block and hook system towards the swivel. When the hook’s tongue enters
the bail of the swivel, lift it up slowly and put the lock of the tongue in position. After the
positioning of the lock at correct place, lift the block and hook in slow speed.
3. Care must be taken to prevent the hitting of the Kelly into the pipe, resting on the rotary
table.
4. Hold the Kelly by a winch line to prevent its sudden coming out from the rat hole housing.
5. While pulling out the Kelly from the rat hole, the casing line should not be rubbing the
members of the mast.
SLIP TEST
1. A slip test is an invaluable aid for determining the degree of rotary equipment wears. This
test should be performed every three months and each time a new master bushings or set
of slips with set of new dies is put into service.
2. For accurate results, use a hook-load of at least 100,000 pounds:
42
Drilling Operations
3. Clean an area of pipe where there is no insert marks and clean slip inserts with a wire
brush.
4. Wrap two layers of test paper or mud sack around the cleaned section of pipe. Use adhesive
tape at the top and bottom of the paper to hold it in place.
5. Place the slip around the pipe against the paper. Hold the slips in place while the pipe is
being lowered at normal speed.
6. After the slips are set, hold them firmly around the pipe as it is raised. The slips should be
carefully removed to prevent damage to the paper. Then carefully remove the paper.
7. Observe the second layer of the paper because the outside layer will have misleading slip
impressionms.
8. If a full insert contact is indicated, the master bushing and slips are in good condition and
no further analysis is necessary.
9. If there is no full contact, the test should be conducted with new slips. If the second test
results in full contact, discard the old slips because they are worn, crushed or otherwise
distorted.
10. If the results of the second test indicate top contact only, the master bushing and/or bowls
are worn and should be inspected for replacement.
11. Change the dies of the old slip and again carry out the test to check the condition of slip. If
problem persists discard the old slip.
12. Never resharpen inserts. Doing so causes improper contact with the pipe, resulting in both
pipe and slip damage.
13. Never catch the tool joint box in the slips when the driller slacks off. This often happens
when coming out of the hole and the driller does not pick up high enough for the slips to
fall around the pipe properly.
14. Torquing tool joints properly is the most important single factor in prevention of tool joint
troubles. .
15. Torque measuring equipment should always be used to prevent under or over torquing.
16. Never use one tong as it greatly increases the possibility of bending or “hooking” the pipe
at the rotary.
17. Also line pull should not exceed recommended makeup torque with tongs at 90 Degrees
to the jerk line.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
3.10.6 Kelly
Drive Bushing Fit
1. The life of the drive section is directly related to the Kelly fit with the Kelly drive. A square
drive section normally will tolerate a greater clearance with acceptable life as compared
with hexagonal section.
2. New roller bushing assemblies working on new Kelly will develop wear patterns i.e. essentially
flat in shape on the driving edge of the Kelly.
Inspection
Inspection procedure for used Kelly:
1. Examine junctions between upset and drive section for cracks.
2. Check corners of drive section for narrow wear surface particularly on hexagonal kelly. If
wear surface does not extend at least 1/3 across flat, the Kelly drive bushings should be
adjusted if possible and/or examined for wear.
3. Kelly straightness can be checked either of two ways:
• By watching for excessive swing of the swivel and traveling block while drilling, or
• On hexagon Kelly’s, use the same method except Kelly will need to be placed in 120
degree V-blocks so that face of drive section is vertical and deflection measurements
taken on three successive sides (turning Kelly through 60 degrees each time).
44
Drilling Operations
6. Finally the D/C joints should be made up to the specified torque using both the tongs/
easy torque.
7. The drill string is then hoisted sufficiently to permit the removal of slips.
Note:
1. Clean & dry the joint which is being added to the string.
2. The box threads and shoulders should be doped, distributing the compound over the threads
and the mating surfaces preferably with a round, stiff bristle brush.
3. Do not dilute the thread compound for the ease of application. Dilution of thread doped will
reduce the amount of available metal filler and make the compound ineffective.
4. Pipe should never be made up by reversing the rotary table.
POINTS TO REMEMBER
• Evaluate bit condition after P/O to decide the new bit.
• Tripping should be done at slow rate in open hole in view of swabbing and surge specially
in 8½ inch and lower hole sizes.
• Mud system should always be in good condition.
• Before tripping out, consider the margin for ECD.
• If high mud weights are being used, the yield point is normally kept optimum to reduce
swabbing and surges.
• Mud conditioning should be done in coordination with the tripping plan.
• Consider the influence of Yield Point on Trip Margin
Yield point
MWtrip = MWbal + ——————
11.7(Dh-Dp)
Where
MWtrip = Estimated mud weight (ppg) to trip that will over come swab effect
MWbal = Mud weight (ppg) to balance formation pressure (no trip margin)
Dh = Hole dia in inch
Dp = D/P dia in inch
• To prevent wet pull out slug should be pumped in, if well condition permits.
• Ensure mud fill up/return with the help of trip tank only and as per trip sheet.
• Prepare trip schedule prior to running in or pulling out.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
3.11.4 Reaming
It is the process of re-drilling of left over formation and is essential in the process of deepening
of the hole.
Procedure
The frequency of reaming is established depending upon the ROP and method of drilling. Prior
to making a fresh connection the hole should be reamed for the length of the kelly. For wells being
drilled in hazardous and complex conditions, the frequency and technology of working over drilled
intervals may be adopted as per the conditions of that well .
46
Hydraulics
CHAPTER - 4
HYDRAULICS
Proper hydraulics is one of the main factors, which contributes in improvement of penetration rate
of bit. Proper hydraulic programme consist of selection of most appropriate nozzle sizes and circulation
rate for an existing set of conditions found at the rig
Circulation rate that can transport cuttings to the surface is determined by carrying capacity of
drilling fluid, rate of penetration and the volume of drilled solids. It depends on hole size, drill string size
and annular velocity. Maintain annular velocity about twice the slip velocity.
There are certain values of annular velocity used for different hole sizes;
47
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Note : If the desired annular velocity is not achievable due to break down of one of the pumps, then it
is advisable not to carry out further drilling.
The minimum nozzle velocity required for jet drilling is about 54 M/sec to 69 M/sec. The
following rule of thumb may be used.
Bit size in inches Minimum nozzle velocity, M/sec per inch of diameter
6-3/4 – 9 8
9-5/8 – 10-5/8 7
11 and larger 6
1. Annular Velocity
1.97 Q
V = ——————– M/min.
(Dh)2- (Dp)2
Equipment type C
1 1.0
2 0.36
3 0.22
4 0.15
0.02 WLQ1.86
P2 = ——————— Kg/cm2
d4.86
d = ID of Pipe in Inches,
48
Hydraulics
6. Jet Velocity
1.5505 Q
Vn = —————– m/sec
An
0.14
VCF = ⎜
⎛ PV ⎞
⎟
⎝W⎠
Optimization of hydraulic programme
Calculate the following parameters:
In case of soft formation annular velocity is important, while in case of hard formation jet impact is
important.
For an optimum hydraulics programme the above parameters should have a value within the
following range,
i) % BHHP = 50 to 65%
ii) BHHP/sq. inch of hole size = 2 to 5 (lower value for hard formation, higher
value for soft formation)
iii) Jet velocity = 100 to 168 M/sec.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
50
Drilling Bits
CHAPTER - 5
DRILLING BITS
51
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
5.2.3 Tripping In
1. Care must be taken while running in PDC bit through surface equipment as PDC bit being
one piece and is not flexible as roller cone bit.
2. Pass through tight spots very slowly as striking ledges can damage gauge cutters.
3. In case of tight spots, pick up Kelly and run pump at slow rate as compared to drilling.
Keep rotary speed at about 60 RPM and proceed slowly through a tight spot with maximum
WOB 1.5 -2 T. Avoid high torque while reaming.
4. Avoid PDC bit for reaming long interval in case previous bit was observed significantly under
gauged.
5. While tagging bottom with PDC bit, keep on circulating at required pump SPM & RPM to
avoid plugging of the bit.
52
Drilling Bits
6. Keep constant watch on rotary torque & weight indicator while tagging bottom. If sudden
increase in torque is observed at well bottom due to aggressive cutting structure of PDC
bits, Pick up the bit 6’’ to 12’’ off bottom. Circulate out the cuttings before resuming drilling.
5.2.4 Breaking- In
1. New PDC bit should be slowly set on well bottom at a slow rotary speed (50-60 RPM) &
WOB not more than 2 T to establish bottom hole pattern.
2. If bit does not perform well after few minutes then increase the W. O. B. in steps till it
performs well.
3. Increase the WOB to the recommended value to achieve the desired ROP.
4. Optimum WOB necessary for PDC bit is 2/3rd of that required for a roller cone bit.
Making Connections
1. Maintain normal circulation rate when Kelly is raised.
2. Bit should be washed back to bottom slowly at normal circulation rate.
3. Avoid sudden release of the drill string as this may result in damage to the PDC cutters.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
CHAPTER - 6
WELL LOGGING
6.1 PURPOSE
Logging is conducted to locate reservoir rock and to evaluate its viability as hydrocarbon
producer.. The most common reservoir rocks are sandstones (elastic rocks) and limestone and
dolomite (carbonate rocks). The effectiveness of a rock as a commercial hydrocarbon producer
depends upon its following properties:
a) Reservoir properties- Porosity, permeability and fluid saturation, which help in describing
the texture and producibility of reservoir and are essentially determined for estimation of oil
and gas reserves.
b) Physical properties- Electrical resistivity, self-potential (SP), radioactivity, elastic wave
propagation etc. help in describing nature of rock and its saturating fluids.
The well logging techniques are employed to measure these physical properties of rocks directly
in the borehole. The well log data interpretation is the methodology to translate in-situ measured
physical properties into reservoir parameters, such as porosity, fluid saturation, permeability and
other geological parameters in a more realistic manner.
Porosity: When sediments are deposited and compacted they do not form a solid mass. There
exists some space between the grains called inter granular pores. The amount of space or voids
as a percentage of total volume of formation is called the porosity. The formation fluids e.g. water,
oil and gas accumulate in these voids. The larger the porosity more is the amount of fluid a formation
will contain. It is measured in percentage.
Permeability: It is an important directional property that permits fluid flow through interconnecting
pores of the rock. It is defined as a measure of fluid conductivity of the rock. It is measured in
milidarcy/darcy.
54
Well Logging
Water Saturation: Water wet rocks are more common in oil fields as water is found present
practically throughout reservoir rocks whether they contain oil or gas. Therefore fluid distribution in
a reservoir is traditionally expressed in terms of percentage of water saturation denoted as Sw.
Other fluid saturations are inferred from water saturation.
Radioactive Properties
The rocks exhibit natural gamma ray (GR) activity by virtue of dissemination of radioactive
elements K, Uranium, thorium and their associated radioactive elements found in sedimentary rocks.
Potassium the major contributor to natural GR activity, is present as an integral part of clay. Uranium
and thorium are adsorbed at the clay lattice surface. Distribution of K, Uranium and Thorium is
thus caused by sedimentation and different geochemical activities. It is therefore observed that clay
due to their high adsorption property exhibit highest radioactivity among all sedimentary rocks. The
variation of natural GR in different rocks act as an effective tool to differentiate the lithology.
Apart from natural radioactivity, artificial radioactivity can be induced in the rocks by exciting
rock atoms by bombarding either fast neutrons or gamma rays on to rock medium. Analysis of
artificial radioactivity enables to get information on various petrophysical properties of the rocks.
Neutron excitation method involves slowing down (thermalisation) of neutrons after interaction with
the rock and emission of captured gamma rays. This provides information on porosity and lithology.
The gamma ray interaction method involves attenuation of gamma rays by photoelectric absorption
and Compton scattering, which provide information on rock density and lithology. The formation
density thus measured, is one of the major parameters for porosity determination.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
56
Well Logging
GR log is commonly used for depth correlation as it shows similar sharp features in two different
logging runs. It is also used in depth correlation with cased hole logs. GR log is most widely used
for well to well correlation as geological signatures on gamma ray are present over a wide area.
The GR log finds an important application in estimation of shale volume in shale formations. GR log
is presented as gamma ray in API units.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
As the number of detected thermal neutrons or gamma rays is controlled by the hydrogen
concentration in the formation, therefore it is a measure of porosity in terms of presence of hydrogen
atoms present in the pore fluid (water or hydrocarbon). Since hydrogen index of oil is very near to
one, the neutron log does not differentiate much between oil and water. However hydrogen index of
gas is small compared to that of water. The neutron log responds to gas indicating very low apparent
porosities. This feature is used to identify gas zones. The density log gives apparently higher porosity
in gas zones. The neutron-density log overlays in gas zone clearly show this difference in porosities.
58
Bha Selection
CHAPTER - 7
BHA SELECTION
The main consideration in BHA selection is to ensure that a specific pay zone is penetrated or
drilled as per the plan. The restriction of total hole angle may solve some problems, but it is not a cure
all. Even a typical 5° limit does not assure the well is free of troublesome doglegs.
Mr. Lubinski pointed out that the rate of change in hole angle should be the main concern and not
necessarily the maximum hole angle while selecting a particular BHA.
The main objective should be to drill a useful hole with a full gauge, smooth bore and free of dog-
legs and key seats, offsets, spirals and ledges.
Possible solutions to control deviations are;
• Packed hole theory
• Pendulum theory
2. Formation firmness
(a) Hard to medium hard formations
(b) Medium hard to soft formations
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Long(soft formation)
Straight blade
Short (medium to hard formation)
Rotating blade stabilizer
60
Bha Selection
ZONE - 1 ZONE - 1
ZONE - 1
The short drill collar size located between zone-1 and zone-2 is determined by hole size.
Short drill collar length in ft = hole size in inches + / - 2 ft
Zone - 1: Some type of long blade stabilizer directly above the bit
Zone - 2: Blade stabilizer 30 feet above zone-1
Vibration dampener/Shock sub to be used at zone-2 above stabilizer in rough drilling
conditions.
Blade stabilizer 30 feet above zone-2 (in a medium size hole, like 8-1/2”)
Zone- 3:
Blade stabilizer 60 feet above zone-2 (in a larger size hole, 12-1/4” or larger)
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
62
Bha Selection
Vibration dampener/shock sub to be used at zone-2 above stabilizer in rough drilling conditions.
a) For medium size (8-1/2”) and larger holes, a 10-15 ft long, large diameter drill collar would be
used between zone-2 and zone-3.
b) For smaller holes less than 7” in diameter would require shorter drill collar not more than
6-8ft long. The reason for this is to enhance stiffness.
One Long blade stabilizer (for soft formation)
Zone- 3
String reamer or NRRS or blade stabilizer (for medium hard formation)
A large diameter 30 ft long drill collar is required to be run between zone-3 and zone-4
Zone- 4 : The tools used in zone-4 can be the same type as tools used in zone-3
2. ROTARY BUILD UP
This assembly is run generally to finish build up initiated with motor and bent sub.
The purpose of this standard build up assembly:
i) To complete the build up before the straight hole section
ii) To ream the hole prior to run stiff “hold” assembly.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
3. HOLDING BHA
1. Bit
2. Stabilizer near bit (full gauge)
3. 9 m Monel
4. Stabilizer (full gauge)
5. Required drill collars
6. 1-2 HW drill pipe stands
7. Drilling jar
8. HW drill pipe stands
9. Drill pipes
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Drill String
CHAPTER - 8
DRILL STRING
The drillstring consists of Kelly, drill pipe, BHA etc. BHA consists of bit, reamer, jar, stabilizers,
D/C and HW drill pipes etc.
Drillstring Design depends on
1. Hole Size
2. Well Depth
3. Mud Weight
4. Margin of Over pull
5. Weight on bit
6. Well Trajectory
8.1 TRANSPORTATION
Onshore
1. Thread protectors must be installed on both ends of pipe, prior to commencement of loading
operations.
2. Load with either all the pin ends or all of the box ends of the tool joints to the same end of the
truck.
3. Care should be taken to prevent chafing of tool joint shoulders on adjacent joints. Proper
spacing practices should be observed to prevent chafing of drill pipe by hard banding on tool
joints.
4. After load has been hauled a short distance, retighten load binding chains loosened as a
result of load settling.
Offshore
1. Pipe is to be placed on wooden stringers, which are spaced at approximately 10-foot intervals
and shimmed to the same horizontal plane.
2. Wooden strips are placed so as to separate each layer of pipe; strips should be lined up on
a vertical plane with the deck stringers.
3. Tubular should be secured to the deck or hull of the vessel by the use of load binding cables
or chains attached at structurally adequate points. The boat captain according to expected
sea conditions usually determines the number and size of such cable or chains. Properly
sized steamboat ratchets or turnbuckles are used to maintain proper chain or cable tension.
Each layer of pipe should be blocked.
8.2 STORAGE
1. Do not pile pipe directly on ground, rails, steel or concrete floors. The first tier of pipe should
be about 12 inches above the ground to keep moisture and dirt away from pipe.
2. Pipe should rest on supports properly spaced to prevent bending of the pipe or damage to the
threads.
3. Provide wooden strips as separators between successive layers of pipe so that no weight
rests on the tool joint. Use at least three spacing strips.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
4. Place spacing strips at right angles to pipe and directly above the lower strips and supports
to prevent bending of the pipe.
5. While stacking drill pipes at the ground, the height of the stack should not be more than 10
feet.
8.3 HANDLING
Drill Pipes
1. Drill pipes should be stacked in such a way at rig site that the box ends are facing the rig
floor.
2. Remove rubber protectors (bettis) while storing drill pipes. Corrosion may form circumferential
groove on pipe body if rubber protectors are left on.
3. Apply protective coating on pipe surface to prevent corrosion.
4. Thread protectors must be screwed on to both, box and pin ends of drill pipe while handling.
5. The pin and box threads should be lubricated with drill pipe thread compound before mounting
the protectors.
6. Always use recommended thread compound (compound containing 40-60% finely powdered
zinc by weight as recommended by API).
7. All drill pipes should be marked and recorded. Pin and box threads and shoulders of tool
joints should be thoroughly cleaned before the joint is made up.
8. Threads must be free from foreign materials and must not be damaged .
9. Tool joint shoulder should be free from any cut mark or wash out.
10. If new drill pipes are to be used for first time, threads should be cleaned with suitable solvent
and soft bristle brush.
11. The tool joint should be kept as close to the rotary slip as possible during make up or break
out.
12. Always use both tongs while making up or breaking out drill pipes.
13. Always make up tool joints with appropriate recommended torque.
14. Down ward motion of the drill pipe must be stopped with the brakes and not the slips.
15. In every third trip working joints of drill pipe stands must be changed to facilitate the checking
of non- working joint.
16. Set back area should be cleaned before stacking the drill pipe stands in fingers.
17. Mount thread protectors while laying down drill pipe on catwalk.
18. Threads and shoulders of the box and pin of a dry connection should be carefully checked.
19. Do not use specially made API modified compound for casing and tubing on drill pipe tool
joints.
20. Check for any notch (i.e. slip mark, spinning chain marks, tong marks and cuts etc.) on pipe
body. If any circumferential or transverse notch is found on pipe body, do not use the drill
pipe.
21. Check for any longitudinal cracks on tool joint body because of heat cracking. Do not use the
drill pipe if such parallel longitudinal cracks are present.
22. Do not thin, thread compound for ease of application.
23. Do not allow the pin end to strike the box shoulder while tagging.
24. Do not spin pipe too fast. If joint wobbles and bends, high speed can burn threads.
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Drill String
Drill Collars
1. Thread protectors should be used and screwed fully on both pin and box ends when handling
drill collars.
2. Use cast steel protectors on pin and box end of drill collars while picking up from catwalk to
derrick floor.
3. Check that slips and elevator for handling the drill collars are of proper size.
4. A safety clamp should be invariably used while making up or breaking drill collars which do
not have slip and elevator recess (i.e. non magnetic drill collar etc.)
5. Before make up, clean the threads thoroughly. Check for any burrs or damage and lubricate
properly.
6. Always use a good thread compound. Thread compound should contain 60% finely powdered
metallic lead.
7. If lift subs are used, its pin threads should be cleaned, checked and lubricated on each trip.
8. A new joint should be carefully lubricated, made up, broke out, relubricated and made up
again on initial make up.
9. Always use chain tong for initial tightening of drill collars.
10. A torque gauge should be used on tong line to measure the make up torque.
11. On every third trip, change the working joints of drill collars.
12. Make close visual inspection of every non-working joint while pulling out.
13. Avoid rotary for making up or breaking out of drill collar connection.
14. Do not over torque or under torque a drill collar connection during make up. Insufficient torque
or too much torque both may cause problems.
15. Do not jerk the line while making up D/C.
Kelly
1. Always use new drive bushing roller assemblies with new Kelly.
2. The rollers of drive bushing assemblies must be adjusted for minimum clearance, if possible.
3. Drive assemblies should be replaced periodically to ensure minimum clearance from wear.
4. Always use Kelly saver sub. It protects the lower pin thread of Kelly from excessive wear.
5. Lubricate the drive surfaces so that Kelly slides freely through the drive bushings.
6. Visual inspection at regular intervals should be made to check the wear of drive bushings and
Kelly corners.
7. Do not move or transport Kelly without scabbard. It provides the support to limber Kelly.
8. Do not use bend or crooked Kelly as it results in rapid wear of Kelly and drive rollers.
9. Do not weld on the drive corners of Kelly for rebuilding the worn Kelly.
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Drill String
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70
Wire Rope
CHAPTER- 9
WIRE ROPE
9.1 NOMENCLATURE
The wire rope is made of number of strands laid helically around a core. Wire rope is the
combination of wires, strands, and core. Wire rope consists of strands laid around a main fibre or
steel core. The multi wire strands that are helically laid around the core are of two types i.e. flattened
strand & round strand. In case of flattened strand, the no. of wires in each layer of strand is described.
In round strand the make up is named as Seale, Filler, Warrington.
The wire rope is spooled on the drum of the draw works, reeved on the crown block and traveling
block and is used for drilling operation.
Example - 1” X 5000’, 6 X19 S PRY RRL IMPS IWRC
Where
1“ - Diameter of line in inches
5000’ - Length of line in feet
6 - Number of strands per line
19 - Number of wires per strand
S - Seale pattern
PRY - Pre formed strands
RRL - Right Regular Lay
IMPS - Improved plow steel
IWRC - Independent Wire Rope Core
9.3 CLASSIFICATION
Regular Lay
The wires are laid in one direction and the strands in other so that the visible wires appear
running parallel to the rope axis.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Lang’s Lay
In Lang’s lay the wires and strands are laid in the same direction so that the visible wires run
at an angle of about 30 degree to the rope axis.
Direction of Lay
The direction of lay or rotation of the strands is normally right hand but the wire ropes also are
of left hand lay.
2. Sand Line
Shallow 1/4 to 1/2 inch 6 X 7 Bright or Galv. , RRL or IPS, FC
Intermediate 1 /2* to 9/16
Deep 9/16 to 5/8
7. Winch Line-Heavy Duty 5/8 to 7/8 inch. 6X26WS or 6X31WS, RRL, IPS or EIP,
IWRC
8. Offshore Anchorage Line 7/8 to 1-1/8 inch. 6X36 WS,PF,RRL,IPS or EIP, IWRC
7/8 to 2-3/4 inch. 6X19 class, Bright or Galv., RRL, IPS or
EIP, IWRC
1-3/8 to 4-3/4 in. 6X37 class, Bright or Galv., RRL, IPS or
EIP, IWRC
3-3/4 to 4-3/4 in. 6X61 class, Bright or Galv., RRL, IPS or
EIP, IWRC
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Wire Rope
10. Guideline Tensioner Line 3/4 6X25 FW, RRL, IPS or EIP, IWRC11.
Riser Tensioner Lines 1-1/2 , 2 6X36 WS or 6 X 41 WS or 6X41 SFW or
6X49 SWS, RRL , IPS or EIP, IWRC
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
8. After properly securing the wire rope in the drum socket, the number of excess or dead
wraps or turns specified by the equipment manufacturer should be maintained.
9. Whenever possible, a new wire line should be run under controlled loads and speeds for a
short period after installation as it will help to adjust the rope to working condition.
10. If a new coring or swabbing line is excessively wavy when first installed, two to four sinker
bars may be added on the first few trips to straighten the line
11. Ensure that clamps used for fastening the rope to dead end do not kink, flatten or crush
the rope.
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Wire Rope
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
11. Dead anchor should be equipped with a drum and strong clamping device to withstand the
wire rope loading. Diameter of anchor drum or sheave should be minimum 12 times the
normal rope diameter.
12. All sheaves should be properly lubricated to ensure minimum turning efforts.
13. Wire rope should be securely seized on each side of the cut before cutting the rope. It will
prevent the rope from untwisting.
14. Do not subject the wire rope to severe stresses due to impact and shock loading.
15. If rope is operated with heavy loads or if the metal is too soft, scouring or corrugation of
drums and sheaves will occur. Repair the drums if corrugated impressions are made by
wire line.
9.10 SPOOLING
• It is most important to get the first drum layer full and tight without over crowding so that it
will support the succeeding layers. That is to say the first layer acts as a sort of a “grooving”
for following layers. One way to assist proper drum winding is by means of a riser strip or
wedge on the dead end side. Turn-back rollers or kick plates prevent piling up of wraps at
the flange.
• Wear due to crossover points cannot be completely avoided. It can be reduced by controlled
spooling, which is provided by grooved drums. In any type of spooling there must necessarily
be two crossover points with each wrap. As a lower layer proceeds in one direction across
the spool, the next layer must proceed in the other direction. Two ropes are crossed over
in each drum revolution.
• An improvement in spooling methods is the controlled crossover system. This is a grooving
system where the crossover points are controlled thereby reducing wear and vibration.Instead
of being a helical shape like a coiled spring, most of the grooves are parallel to the drum
flanges. Normally at the crossover points, pitch changes rapidly where the line is crossed
from one groove to the next. In controlled spooling the change in pitch is less severe. In
controlled pyramid spooling wear and cutting-in is parallel and there is no tendency for the
line to slip over.
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Wire Rope
U-BOLTS ARE
STAGGARED, ONE
CLIP IS ON THE LIVE
LINE
Fig. 3. Correct Method to Attach Clips Fig. 2 Incorrect Method to Attach Clips to
to Wire Rope Wire Rope
The correct way to attach U-bolts is shown at the top; the “U” section is in contact with the rope’s
dead end and is clear of the thimble.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Wire Rope
FORMULA FOR WORK DONE: Total work done by line during trip is equal to;
⎛ C⎞
D(Ls + D) Wm + 4D ⎜ M + 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
T =
5280 x 2000
where;
D = Depth of the hole in meter ft,
Ls = Length of drill pipe stand, meter ft
N = Number of stands of drill pipe,
Wm = Effective weight of drill pipe lb/ft.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Wire Rope
Derrick Formation Total work of drilling line before the first cut off
or Mast Hardness 1” 1 1/8” 1 1/4” 1 3/8” 1 1/2”
Height (ft)
Ton miles Ton miles Ton miles Ton miles Ton miles
Note: All the ton-miles in the table have been calculated using a safety factor of 5.Every body is
aware of that this safety factor often falls consistently below 5
1.5
10
1.0
7
TON
6 MILE
SERVICE
5 FACTOR
0.5
4
2
Based on cutoff program
indicated in Fig. 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
126-129 22.3 22.3 23.1 21.9 23.9 23.9 23.5 22.7 24.3
-131 17½ 15½ 14½ 12½ 12½ 11½ 10½ 9½ 9 ½
66 11.0 12.0
12½ 11½
(1) In order to change the point of cross over on the drum, where wear and crushing are most sever, the
laps to be cut are given in multiples of one-half lap.
Note: Cut off length in metre is mentioned in bold letters in top line whereas no of wraps to cut off is
given below the cut off length.
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Wire Rope
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
84
Well Head Fitting
CHAPTER -10
WELL HEAD FITTING
After WOC, casing head housing which is the first well head component to be installed is fitted
on the surface casing. Casing head housing serves as a connector from the surface casing to the
BOP stack during drilling and then to other subsequent well head components. It has a bowl to
accept a casing hanger to suspend the intermediate casing. The following procedure is adopted.
1. Remove false conductor / Riser.
2. Cut the surface casing at a suitable height from the bottom of the cellar pit. The height
is calculated as under:
Deduct the total height of all the well head components except the tubing spool from the depth
of the cellar pit. The height obtained is the height at which the surface casing should be cut from
the cellar pit bottom. Care should also be exercised so that welding of the surface casing to the
casing head housing can be done easily.
1. The marks are put all around the surface of the casing at a number of points and then a
circular marking is done.
2. Cut casing and chamfer properly on the inside.
3. The weld –on housing of the casing head is slipped on the cut casing and is kept perfectly
horizontal and welded from both inside and outside using the proper type of welding
electrodes.
4. The welded casing head housing is allowed to air cool.
1. THREADED BOTTOM
The threaded bottom housing is furnished with API casing threads so that they may be screwed
on to the casing pipe. Both the female as well as male threaded housing are available.
a) Female Threaded Bottom
This housing is screwed directly on casing and is considered standard since one housing
can be used for all weights and grades of a particular size casing.
b) Male Threaded Bottom
In order to screw the casing head housing directly on to the coupling of the casing, housing
with male threaded bottom are used.
The use of such housing is discouraged due to the following reasons:
1. In terms of strength the API casing head material is equivalent to J-55 casing. This
means that in the event that a male threaded housing is screwed on N-80 or P-110
grade casing, the male thread on the casing head would be the weakest connection
because it would be equivalent to J-55.
2. The bore through such type of casing housing must match the casing ID which will
vary not only for different casing sizes but also for the different pipe weights within a
given range.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Well Head Fitting
A D
B E
C F
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Well Head Fitting
4. Remove the ½” LP plug from the Casing Head. Weld the Casing to the Casing Head taking
into consideration the material of the Casing Head (Low Alloy Steel) and Casing material
combination and stress relieve.
5. After the welds have cooled, seal test the welds via test port to a maximum Working
Pressure, but do not exceed 80% of the casing collapse pressure. After successful test,
place ½” LP Plug.
6. Nipple up BOP and riser with the flange connections.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
5
2
1
4
1. Casing shall be spaced so that there shall be no collar located between the points of assembly
above the BOP stack and the casing head / spool which would prevent the hangers from
sliding down the BOP into position.
2. Hold the casing to desired tension. Do not slack off.
3. Position two boards across the top of the BOP stack / casing head.
4. Remove the hinged pin (Item No.4) to open out the slip assembly
5. Wrap the slip assembly around the casing, place it on the boards and reinstall the hinge pin.
6. Remove the support boards. Lower the slip assembly through the BOP stack / casing head /
spool and land it in the casing head / spool.
7. Slack off the casing tension slowly to actuate the slips. No movement of the casing assures
that the slips have gripped.
8. Part the BOP stack.
9. Mark and cut off casing approximately 4" (102 mm) above the upper surface of Casing Head
Flange.
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Well Head Fitting
Guidelines For Installing Bcmbfns Casing Hangers (Slip Seal Assembly) : Fig.2
2 3
8
1
6
1. Casing shall be spaced so that there shall be no collar located between the points of assembly
above the BOP stack and the casing head / spool which would prevent the hangers from
sliding down the BOP into position.
2. Hold the casing to desired tension. Do not slack off.
3. Position two boards across the top of the BOP stack / casing head.
4. Remove the hinge latch pin (Item No.4) to open out the slip assembly.
5. Wrap the slip assembly around the casing, place it on the boards and re-install the hinge latch
pin.(Ensure that Item 6 (Shouldered Screws) is free to move and not binding on the body)
6. Remove the support boards. Lower the slip seal assembly through the BOP stack / casing
head / spool and land it in the casing head / spool.
7. Slack off the casing tension slowly to actuate the slips. No movement of the casing assures
that the slips have gripped.
Note : If the slip assembly has not gripped, slip teeth are to be checked for sharpness.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Well Head Fitting
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Well Head Fitting
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
CHAPTER - 11
BOP STACK
C. Service conditions
Service conditions refer to the following aspects:
1. Environment operations i.e. urban, rural or isolated place to ensure required degree of protection
for men, equipment and ecological environment.
2. Corrosiveness of drilling fluids and formation fluids:
e.g. H2S environment requires H2S trim blowout prevention equipment to resist Sulphide stress
cracking. Some blends of drilling and completion fluids can have detrimental effects on elastomer
compounds. The original equipment manufacturer should be consulted regarding compatibility
with drilling and completion fluids.
3. Availability of BOP spare parts at drill site, storage facilities (specially for rubberized parts),
inventory management, etc. Nitrile elastomeric components may be suitable for H2S service
provided drilling fluids are properly treated.
4. Infrastructure facilities to repair test and replace BOP and its sub assemblies.
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BOP Stack
Table
2M 16 ¾ 65 -
21 ¼ 73 -
3M 7 1/16 45 -
9 49 -
11 53 -
13 5/8 57 -
20 ¾ 74 -
5M 7 1/16 46 -
11 54 -
13 5/8 - 160
16 ¾ - 162
18 ¾ - 163
21 ¼ - 165
10 M 7 1/16 - 156
9 - 157
11 - 158
13 5/8 - 159
16 ¾ - 162
18 ¾ - 164
21 ¼ - 166
15 M / 20 M 7 1/16 - 156
9 - 157
11 - 158
13 5/8 - 159
M = 1000 psi
11.2 NOMENCLATURE
Blowout prevention system consists of blowout preventer stack, kill line, choke line, choke and kill
manifold, closing unit, diverter and auxiliary equipment.
Component code adopted for designation of BOP stack configuration as per API RP-53 is given
below:
G - Rotating head
A - Annular type blowout preventer
R - Single ram type preventer
Rd - Double ram type preventer with two sets of rams.
Rt - Triple ram type preventer with three sets of rams.
S - Drilling spool with side outlets for connecting choke and kill lines.
M - 1000 psi rated working pressure.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Components are listed reading upwards from the uppermost piece of permanent well head equipment
or from bottom of the preventer stack. A blowout preventer stack may be fully identified by a very simple
designation such as : 5M, 13 5/8”, RSRdA.
This preventer stack would be rated 5000 psi working pressure and would have through bore of 13
5/8”.
Ram type preventers should be equipped with extension hand wheels for manual locking or
hydraulically operated locks.
c) Drilling Spools
Choke and kill lines may be connected either to side outlets of the BOPs or to a Drilling spool
installed below at least one Ram BOP. Utilization of the BOP side outlets reduces the number of
stack connections and over all BOP stack height. However, a drilling spool is used to provide
stack outlets (to localise possible erosion in the less expensive spool) and to allow additional
space between preventers to facilitate stripping, hang off, and/or shear operations.
Choke Manifold
Recommended practices for installation (Surface installation):
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BOP Stack
a) Manifold equipment subject to well and/or pump pressure (normally upstream of and including
the chokes) should have a working pressure equal to or greater than the rated working pressure
of the ram BOPs in use.
b) The choke manifold should be placed in a readily accessible location, preferably outside the
rig structure.
c) All choke manifold valves should be full bore. Minimum two valves are recommended in choke
line immediately after the BOP stack with rated working pressure equal or greater than the
rated working pressure of Ram BOP in use. One of these two valves should be remotely
controlled. During operations, all valves should be either fully opened or fully closed.
d) A minimum of one remotely operated choke should be installed on 10000 psi and above rated
working pressure manifolds. Generally, remote operated choke is not installed in 5000 psi
working pressure manifold. If conditions dictate like for example the frequency of use of chokes
is high, it will be prudent to use a remote choke (in addition to adjustable choke) in 5000 psi
working pressure choke manifold. Choke manifold configurations should allow for re-routing of
flow without interrupting flow control.
e) Pressure gauges suitable for operating pressure and drilling fluid service should be installed
so that drill pipe and annulus pressures may be accurately monitored and readily observed at
the station where well control operations are to be conducted.
f) Rig air systems should be checked to ensure their adequacy to provide the necessary pressure
and volume required different controls. The remotely operated choke should be equipped with
an emergency back up system such as a manual pump for use in the event air becomes
unavailable.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
to a side outlet on the BOP stack. The location of the kill line connection to the stack depends on the
particular configuration of BOPs and spools employed; the connection should be below the ram type
BOP most likely to be operated.
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BOP Stack
10. Lift double ram BOP so that the BOP’s upper position in on the top side. Top rubber seal of the
rams should be on the upper side. The arrow marking on BOP also indicates top position.
11. Place the correct ring gasket in the groove on the drilling spool.
12. Slowly tower BOP (the direction of the BOP handles should be so kept that BOP rams can
be easily operated) and rest BOP on the drilling spool.
13. Tighten the double ram BOP on the drilling spool (in case the studs can not be put from
below the drilling spool or from above the BOP then the same are to be positioned in the
drilling spool before lowering BOP).
14. Clean the top ring groove of the ram type BOP, put the ring gasket of correct size and rating.
15. Lift annular BOP and slowly install it above double ram BOP taking proper care to keep the
fluid outlet valves on the sides so that the fluid lines can be easily fitted.
16. Clean the ring groove above the annular BOP and install the ring and the flow nipple to
facilitate the flow of mud from the well bore to the shale shaker.
17. Connect BOP handles on the double ram BOPs ensuring that manually operated shafts
and wheels must extend beyond the substructure boundary and be easily accessible.
18. Erect a shield of wooden planks over control wheels of preventers and on the wall in front of
the hand wheel, the direction and number of turns which are required for preventer closure
should be displayed by an arrow in red paint.
Choke Line
1. Install the adapter spool (if required).
2. Connect one valve (stand by valve).
3. Install the remote control hydraulic valve.
4. Connect choke flow line having flanges of required rating at both the ends between the
hydraulically operated valve and the choke manifold.
Choke Manifold
1. As chokes get worn out due to erosion or plugging with large formation particles it is essential
to provide chokes in parallel to the flow line, thereby necessitating the installation of a
manifold called the choke manifold.
2. Hydraulically operated or manually operated chokes are installed in the choke manifold.
3. Strategically placed gate valves will permit the use of one choke while the others are
disconnected.
4. Two valves should be installed ahead of each choke to be used for regulating the flow.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
5. The choke manifold should have one connection from the manifold after the choke to the mud
tank and one connecton to the flare line.
6. The pressure rating of various valves in the choke line prior to choke and in the full bore line
should be equal to or more than the pressure rating of the BOP.
11.5 RECOMMENDED PROCEDURE FOR TESTING BOP STACK AND ALLIED EQUIPMENT
Since all the equipments used in well control are essential to the safety of the well, the crew
members, the rig and the surrounding environment; testing procedures of these vital surface BOP
equipment becomes an important integral part of the drilling programme. For optimum control of any
well kick situations successful functioning of the blowout preventer stack, choke and kill lines and
other related equipment at their rated capabilities becomes pertinent.
The only way to make certain and ensure that the equipment will perform at its rated capacity
when needed is by adhering to regular test procedures. The situation requires both rigorous test
procedures that evaluate pressure integrity of all parts in the system and at the same time exposing
the equipment to periodical function tests will keep the equipment in readiness for operations in
addition to suggesting if any maintenance work is required to be carried out in advance.
All the important considerations for BOP stack testing and the test procedures are discussed.
11.6 REASONS OF FAILURE OF BOP STACK AND CHOKE AND KILL MANIFOLD
• Equipment may not have been installed properly.
• Vibrations and extra loading during drilling operation may cause leak.
• Lines and fittings may be abraded by mud flow.
• Cement, baryte and sand may sometimes accumulate or settle out and plug.
• Corrosion may cause damage to choke lines & equipment.
• Partially closed valve may get eroded.
• With passage of time, rubber sealing elements may get deteriorated and fail when subjected
to test conditions.
• Badly stored items, when used may not perform at rated capacity.
• Normal wear and tear also results in malfunction of the equipment.
• Rubber sealing elements and packers may not be compatible with the mud system or
subsurface environment such as temperature.
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BOP Stack
• Test fluids
• Test pressures
• Testing equipments
• Test procedures and their frequency
• Test duration
A. Test Fluids
In normal application, clear water is considered as the best test fluid, as drilling fluid may plug
small leaks. It should be ensured that air is removed from the system before test pressure is
applied.
B. Test Pressures
All BOP components that may be exposed to well pressure should be tested first to a low pressure
of 200 to 300 psi and then to a high pressure.
i. Low pressure test:
The stack is generally washed and cleaned with water before testing. However, it is possible
that existence of dry mud particles may be covering a potential leak spot. In such cases
high pressure test may pack the mud particle in the leak spot and affect a temporary seal.
Hence low pressure test of 200 to 300 psi is recommended for rams , annular preventers,
manifolds, lower kelly cock, etc. Also in performing a low pressure test, do not apply a high
pressure and bleed down to low pressure. Should a leak occur at low pressure, corrective
remedial measure may be taken accordingly at this stage.
ii. High pressure test:
After initial installation of BOP on well head,
i. Rams, choke manifold and choke/ kill lines should be tested to the rated working pressure
of the ram BOPs or to the rated working pressure of the well head on which the stack is
installed, which ever is lower.
ii. Annular BOPs may be tested to 70% of the rated working pressure or to the test pressure
applied to the ram BOPs, which ever is lower.
iii. Lower kelly cock, kelly, upper kelly cock and drill pipe safety valve should be tested to the
rated working pressure.
iv. In case of instances where available BOP stack and / or the well head has higher working
pressure than are required for the specific well bore conditions due to equipment availability,
a site specific well control test programme can be followed.
Subsequent high pressure test of ram BOPs and choke manifold should be limited to a pressure
greater than the maximum anticipated surface pressure but not to exceed the working presure of
the ram BOPs. The maximum anticipated surface pressure should be determined by the operator
based on specific well conditions.
Annular BOPs should be tested to a minimum of 70% of their working pressure or to the test
pressure of ram BOPs, which ever is lesser. In case of downstream valves of choke and kill lines,
test pressure on initial as well as subsequent tests should be limited to 50% of its rated working
pressure.
C. Test Duration
A stable low test pressure as well as stable high test pressure should be maintained for at least
5 minutes.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
D. Test Frequency
Function test: All operational components of the BOP equipment systems should be function
tested at least once a week.
Pressure test: Pressure test on the well control equipment should be conducted at least
a) Prior to spud or upon installation
b) After the repair/ disconnection of any pressure containment seal in the BOP stack, choke line
or choke manifold, but limited to the affected component.
c) Not to exceed 21 days.
E. Testing Equipment
Following equipments are usually used while testing BOP equipment :
a) Pumps: The pumps used to generate pressures for testing may be any type i.e. capable
of attaining the desired pressures. A small high pressure pump is generally used in
most of the testing applications. Cementing units with of desired high pressure rating can
safely be used if conveniently available.
b) Test plugs: While testing BOP stack and other equipment, test plug must be used to
isolate the entire casing and open hole from the applied test pressures. These test plugs are
set in the bottom of the preventers, there by preventing communication of pressure below the
test plug.
c) Commonly used test tools are :
• cup tester
• test plug
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BOP Stack
Cup Tester
It has a mandrel with box connection on top, a cup and a sub with pin connector on bottom.
The cup of the tester gives effective sealing in the casing. At the time of pressure testing, the
cup tester is made up on drill pipe and should be lowered to be placed in the casing opposite
to the slips in the casing spool or casing head. After filling the stack with water, the pipe rams
or the annular is closed. Pressure is built up by pumping down the kill lines to provide desired
pressure. The limitations of the cup tester:
1. Since cup tester is freely hanging in the casing, tension load on pipe will increase with
increase in test pressure. Higher grade of drill pipe to be used as test pipe other wise yield
strength of drill pipe may limit the test pressures.
2. BOP pressure test will be limited to 70-80% of the burst rating of upper part of casing.
3. This can not be used to test blind/ shear blind rams.
Test Plug
Test plugs have mainly a box on top to connect test pipe and pin on bottom to add some
weight on it. These test plugs are designed to seat in well head. With seal on the body it
isolates the upper part of the well head and the well bore. This plug is to be lowered and landed
into the well head with a test drill pipe joint after adding few stands of HWDP or equivalent
weight to the bottom. This added weight of drill collars will help in seating properly in the well
head and give proper sealing. To test the blind or shear blind ram, test pipe should be removed,
leaving the test plug resting on the well head.
Care must be taken while using test plug for its designed compatibility with the existing well
head used. Different makes of well head have different types of test plugs. So, while lowering
test plug it should be confirmed this plug is compatible with the well head used other wise it
may get stuck and can lead to another problem which will result in loss of valuable rig time.
d) Casing ram test sub: To facilitate testing of casing ram it is essential to have the casing
ram test sub. It can be connected between the test plug and test joint after making suitable
end connections so that the sub is positioned against the casing ram to be tested.
F. Testing Procedure
Testing procedures are integral part of the drilling program and as such a specific programme
of equipment testing is mandatory.
Testing procedures are discussed under heads:
• function (actuation) testing
• pressure (hydraulic) testing
FUNCTION TEST
Function test is performed to verify the component’s intended operations.
i. The test (ram BOP and annular BOP) should be conducted when the drill string is inside
casing.
ii. Test should be conducted after installing FOSV/ inside BOP on drill string.
iii. Both pneumatic and electric pump of accumulator unit should be turned off after
recordinginitial accumulatorpressure.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
iv. All the ram preventers ( except blind/shear) and HCR’s in choke/kill line should be
functiontested and closing time should be recorded.
v. Blind ram should be operated for function test when drill string is out of hole.
vi. Pipe ram should be closed against correct size pipe in the hole.
vii. Operation of shear ram should be kept to bare minimum.
viii. Closing time should not exceed 30 seconds for all ram preventers and annular preventers
smaller than 18 3/4” closing time should not exceed 45 sec for annular preventer of 18 3/4”
and larger size.
ix. Function test should be carried out alternatively from main control unit/derrick floor panel/
auxiliary panel.
x. Record final accumulator pressure after all the functions should not be less than 1200 psi
or 200 psi above the pre charged pressure of accumulator which ever is maximum.
xi. All the gate valves and blow out preventers should be returned to their original position and
continue normal operations.
xii. All the results should be recorded in the prescribed formats.
PRESSURE TESTING
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BOP Stack
35 40
36
34 39 41
37 LEGEND FLOW DIRECTION
33 38 42
VALVE CLOSED
VALVE OPEN
FROM MUD ANNULAR
PUMPS
29
CHOKE MANIFOLD
PIPE RAM 13 25
14
BLIND RAM 20
43 15 26
21
FROM CEMENTING KILL LINE CHOKE LINE
PUMP
4 5 6 9 10 11 16 22 30
23
12 17
PIPE RAM 24
18
27
1 7 19
2 3 8
28
CASING HEAD
TESTING PLUG WITH PORTS
31
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
35 40 TEST PRESSURE
36 THROUGH DRILL
PIPE
34 39 41
33 37
38 42 LEGEND FLOW DIRECTION
VALVE CLOSED
FROM MUD
VALVE OPEN
PUMPS
ANNULAR
29
CHOKE MANIFOLD
PIPE RAM
13 25
14
BLIND RAM 20
43
15 26
FROM CEMENTING KILL LINE CHOKE LINE 21
PUMP
32 4 5 6 9 10 11 16 22 30
23
12 17
PIPE RAM
18 24
27
1 2 3 7 19
8
CASING HEAD 28
TESTING PLUG WITH PORTS
31
ix. Apply test pressure through drill pipe and raise pressure to 200 to 300 psi and hold for
5 minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding, increase the pressure upto final
test pressure and hold for at least 5 minutes.
x. Check for leaks and release pressures.
xi. Open annular preventer.
xii. Now close upper pipe ram with 1500 psi.
xiii. Check closing line and preventer for leaks.
xiv. Again, apply test pressure through drill pipe and raise pressure upto 200 to 300 psi and
hold for five minutes. Check for any leakage. If the pressure is holding, then increase the
pressure upto final test pressure and hold for at least 5 minutes.
xv. Test pressure should be limited to the pressure rating of the weakest member exposed
to the test pressure.
xvi. Check for leaks and release pressures.
xvii. Open pipe rams with 1500 psi.
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BOP Stack
Testing of Kill Line, Choke Line, Manifold Valves, Flanges and Fittings (Ref fig. 3)
From the previous test with the test plug seated in casing head, the procedure mentioned
below is followed to conduct the above test:
i. Kill and choke lines and manifold fittings are flushed with water. For this purpose, close
upper pipe ram and open all valves and chokes on choke manifold to allow the flow of water
through each outlet.
ii. Close valves 3,6,7 and9 keeping upper pipe ram closed.
iii. Apply test pressure through drill pipe and raise pressure upto 200 to 300 psi and hold for 5
minutes. Check for any leakage. If pressure is holding, then increase the pressure up to
the rating of the weakest member exposed to test pressure (same as that of ram BOP)
and hold for 5 minutes.
iv. Next, open valves 3,6,7 and 9 and close 2,5,8 and 10. Repeat step 3.
v. To test check valve 1, open valve 2 and repeat step 3. Next close valves 44,32 and open
valve 2. Repeat step 3 to test check valve 4.
vi. Close valves 6,45 and open valve 2. Repeat step 3 to test 44 and 45.
vii. Open valves 44,45 and close 46. Repeat step 3 to test 46.
viii. Remove the spring loaded valve in the check valve no. 4 , so that other valves in the kill line
can be tested.
ix. Now close valves 43,11,12 and open valves 8,10. Repeat step 3.
x. Open valve 43 and close valve 37 and open valve 11 and close valves 15,16 and 17. Repeat
step iii.
xi. Open valve 37 and close 36,38,39 on kill line side. On choke manifold, open valves 15,16,17
and close valves 14,18 21,22 and 23. Repeat step iii.
xii. Next open valves 36,39 and close valves 33,34,35,40,41,42 on kill line side and open valves
14,18,21,23 and close choke 13,19,20,24 on the manifold. Repeat step iii.
xiii. Now open chokes 13,19,20,24 and close valves 25,26,27 and 28.
xiv. Apply test pressure and raise upto 200 to 300 psi and hold for 5 minutes. Check for any
leakage. If pressure is holding, increase the pressure up to 50 % of the rated working
pressure of components down stream of chokes. Hold pressure for at least 5 minutes.
xv. Finally, open valves 22,25,26,27,28 and close valves 29,30,31. Repeat step xi.
xvi. Check all valves, flanges and seals which are subjected to test pressure for leaks.
xvii. Release pressure and rectify the leakages if any. Re test the rectified components.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
35 40
36
PIPE RAM
13 25
14
BLIND RAM 20
43 15 26
KILL LINE CHOKE LINE 21
FROM CEMENTING
PUMP
4 5 6 9 10 11 16 22 30
12 17 23
PIPE RAM 24
18
27
1 2 3 7 19
8
CASING HEAD 28
TESTING PLUG WITH PORTS
31
Fig. 6. Testing of Kill Line, Choke Line, Manifold Valves, Flanges and Fittings
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BOP Stack
Casing Test
1. After testing of BOPs and choke and kill manifold,, the following sequence of operation are
followed to test casing.
2. Run in drill string and bit, up to the top of the cement.
3. Break circulation and test casings to 200 psi greater than the anticipated shoe test pressure.
Do not exceed 80% of the burst rating of the casing.
Shoe Test
This test is done to determine the complete of cement job around the shoe.
1. Pull the drill string in the casing.
2. Close pipe ram BOP and kelly cock.
3. Make cementing unit connection with choke line.
4. Flush the BOP stack, kill and choke lines with water.
5. Close gate valve on kill line.
6. Calculate the shoe test pressure. This is the sum of surface pressure and the hydrostatic
pressure of the fluid being used during the test. It is equal to the hydrostatic pressure at
the shoe of the heaviest mud that will be used in the well before running the next string of
casing volume pumped. (for plotting the graph see leak off test).
7. If the shoe is hermetical, the plot will be linear.
8. Hold the required test pressure for 15 min. The shoe is considered OK if the pressure does
not fall more than 10% of the test pressure during this time.
9. Release the pressure through choke line, and measure the volume of fluid recovered and
compare this with the volume pumped. Both the volumes should be almost equal.
10. Open Kelly cock.
Note: In case the shoe does not hold up to the required pressure, squeeze cement and report
all the procedure for testing shoe.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
This system is used when a casing load suspension system is required but it is not to
be used to run and tieback at the mud line.
The MLH system is ideally suited for use on development platforms, and allows a major portion
of the casing loads to be suspended at the mud line during drilling and completion of platform wells
with traditional surface equipment. It can also be used during jack-up drilling operations.
There is standard casing connections on top and bottom of each mud line casing hanger
Shoulders support the loads of the concentric casing strings, transferring the loads through the
collet to the previously installed hanger.
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BOP Stack
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
7” Running Tool
Clamp
9-5/8” Casing Hanger
7” Casing Hanger
Landing Joint
Split Centraliser
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BOP Stack
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
CHAPTER - 12
WELL CONTROL
KICK
It is defined as an influx or flow of formation fluid into the well-bore & can occur any time the
formation fluid pressure is greater than the bottom hole pressure being exerted in the well bore.
BLOWOUT
It is an uncontrolled flow of formation fluid at the surface or sub surface from the well bore. A
Blow-out is the result of an uncontrolled kick.
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Well Control
well may not flow until enough fluid has entered to reduce the hydrostatic pressure below the
formation pressure.
Therefore, while pulling out the well should be filled continuously by using trip tank and
differences of calculated and actual mud volume be recorded at regular interval. Similarly while
running in drill string, trip tank should be used to monitor displacement volume correctly at
regular intervals.
If the hole is not filled to replace the steel volume, the fluid column in the wellbore shall go
down and reduce the hydrostatic pressure. At the same time the pulling out of drill string
causes a reduction in BHP due to swabbing effect. Therefore to avoid the possibility of any
formation fluid entering the bore hole due to combination of above two factors the hole should
be properly / regularly filled during tripping out.
In the field normally the practice is to fill up the hole either on a regular fill up schedule or to fill
up continuously with a re-circulating trip tank. Irrespective of the practice being used an
accurate method of measuring the amount of fluid actually being taken by hole should be
monitored and an accurate record of actual volume v/s theoretical volume should be kept. If at
any stage during pulling-out it is observed that the actual filled in volume is significantly less
than volume of steel that has been removed, it means that some formation fluids must have
entered the wellbore.
b) Swabbing
Swab pressures are created by pulling out the drill string from the borehole. It reduces the
bottom hole pressure. If the reduced bottom hole pressure becomes less than the formation
pressure, a potential kick may enter the well bore. Various factors conducive to swab pressures
are pipe pulling speed, mud properties, filtration cake, annular clearance, hole configuration
and effect of balling up of BHA & bit.
c) Abnormal pressure
In case of wild cat or exploratory drilling, most often the formation pressures are not known
accurately. While drilling, sometimes the bit suddenly penetrates an abnormal pressure
formation. As a result the mud hydrostatic pressure becomes less than the formation pressure
and may cause a well kick. There are various geological reasons for abnormal pressures.
e) Lost circulation
Lost circulation is another factor which reduces the hydrostatic pressure. When a kick occurs
due to lost circulation, the problem may become more severe. A large volume of kick fluid may
enter the hole before the mud level increase is observed at the surface. It is a recommended
practice to keep the annulus always topped to avoid considerable reduction in BHP when lost
circulation is encountered.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Well Control
cuttings have a tendency to explode off bottom. A change in cutting shape will be observed
along with an increase in the amount of cuttings recovered at the surface and this could
indicate that formation pressure in the well is increasing.
vi) Change in Mud Property
As the pressure in the formation increases faster than the pressure of the mud column, more
cuttings & cavings will dissolve into the mud and increase the viscosity of the mud.
vii) Increase in Chloride Content in Mud Filtrate
Drilling through high pressure formations having higher porosity results in contamination of
drilling fluid with considerable volume of saline water from pores. This increases chloride
content of the drilling fluid and its filtrate. A higher chloride trend can warn about increasing
pore pressure.
viii)Increase in Flow Line Temperature
The temperature gradient in abnormal pressure formation is usually higher than normal
pressure formation. The continuous measurement of the mud temperature at the flow line
gives an indication of change in temperature gradient associated with abnormally pressured
formation. The temperature may take a sharp increase (5-7oF/100 ft.) in transition zones.
ix) Increase in Trip, Connection and Back-ground Gas
An increase in trip and / or connection gas should be considered as an indication that pore
pressure is increasing. Gas readings are arbitrary and are not proportional to actual gas
concentration in the mud. These vary considerably from one mud logging unit to another.
Therefore absolute values of gas readings do not have much significance in detecting abnormal
pressures. Increase in back ground gas is not very reliable in detecting pore pressure increase.
This is because gas concentrations can change drastically in the formation being drilled
without any increase in pore pressure.Gas analyzers are used to establish trend line which is
called background gas. A gas feed in from a permeable zone will change this trend line. The
amount of feed in will determine the intensity of the trend change. Connection gas will normally
occur on bottoms-up (calculated lag time) and if not re-circulated will not change the overall
trend line except for short interval of time. The most common error with gas cutting is the
tendency to maintain the mud weight at its original value with addition of barite and without
removing all the gas. Since moderate gas cutting contributes so little to bottom hole pressure
reduction, additional barite may increase the mud weight enough to cause lost circulation.
x) Change in ‘d’-exponent
Jordan and Shirley developed an equation for normalized penetration rate in which it was
defined as a function of measured drilling rate, weight on bit, bit size and rotary speed in the
equation as below:
d = log (R/60N)/log (12W/103 Db)
Where,
R = rate of penetration in ft/hr
N = rotary speed rpm
W = weight on bit in 1000 lbs
Db = bit diameter in inches
Since the d-exponent tends to indicate the pressure differential between formation pressure and
well bore pressure, mud weight will effect d -exponent. The original calculation should be corrected
as follows:
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
dc = d× (MW1 ÷ MW2 )
where,
dc = modified d-exponent
MW1 = mud density equivalent of formation fluid at normal pressure condition
MW2 = mud density being used in well
dc values are plotted on a semi log graph paper at every 15 or 30 ft. interval depth to give normal
trend line. Abnormal pressure transition zone top is detected at the depth where dc exponent
values against shale tend to decrease in comparison to normal values.
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Well Control
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
b) To allow mud returns to be weighted up and re-circulated within the capabilities of available
mud mixing system.
c) To allow longer reaction time for choke adjustments.
d) To allow sufficient time for disposal of kick fluid /de-gassing at the surface.
e) To reduce the annular pressure losses.
The common practice so far had been to select a rate which is about half the pump speed at the
time of drilling. This practice was fairly good with duplex mud pump earlier in use on drilling rigs. Now
with the use of triplex pumps this convention gives much higher speeds than the actual requirements.
Theoretically speaking the kill rate or slow circulation rate should be the minimum possible pump
speed at which pump can run smoothly without any knocking etc. But since at minimum pump speeds
more time will be required to kill the well, a compromise has to be made which can meet all the
requirements. Therefore slow circulation rate should be 1/2 to 1/3 of pump SPM at the time of drilling.
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Well Control
Corrected choke line friction losses for new mud density can be calculated as follows:-
New mud density
Choke line friction losses with old mud × -————————
Old mud density
Drill pipe pressure should be recorded at two or more slow circulation rates. Choke line pressure
should also be measured over the same range of rates. Both drill pipe pressure & choke line pressure
losses can be plotted separately on Log-Log paper and extrapolated to provide respective estimated
pressure losses at various pump rates because due to high friction losses in the choke line it may be
necessary to circulate out a kick at a very slow rate if formation breakdown is to be avoided.
MGS
a) Line up for soft shut-in :
Manual choke
B
U
Distribution
F
Block
F
Drilling
E
Spool R
HCR To
T Waste
HCR Bleed/Vent Line pit
A
Manual valve
N
K
Remote choke
Fig. 1
Shale shaker
LINE-UP FOR SOFT SHUT-IN
Choke line manual valve : Open
HCR : Close
Line between HCR & Choke : Open
Remote choke : Open (partially)
Line from choke to MGS : Open
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Manual choke
B
Distribution Block U
F
F
Drilling
Spool
E
R
HCR To
Bleed/Vent Line Waste
Valve T
HCR Pit
A
N
K
Remote choke
Shale shaker
Fig. 2
LINE-UP FOR HARD SHUT-IN
Choke line manual valve : Open
HCR : Close
Line between HCR & Choke : Open
Remote choke : Open (partially)
Line from choke to MGS : Open
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Well Control
i) Open HCR Valve / Manual valve on choke Close Blow Out preventer (Preferably
line. Annular Preventer)
ii) Close Blow Out Preventer (Preferably Open choke line HCR valve with choke
Annular Preventer) is fully closed position.
iii) Gradually close adjustable choke, Make up kelly and open FOSV
monitoring casing pressure.
iv) Make up kelly and open FOSV Allow pressure to stabilise and record
SIDPP, SICP and Pit gain.
v) Allow the pressure to stabilise and record
SIDPP, SICP and Gain.
12.7.3 While String is Out of Hole on Land and Jack Up Rig (Soft Shut In)
a) Open HCR valve on choke line.
b) Close shear or blind ram.
c) Close choke.
d) Record SICP and pit gain.
Note : In case of hard shut-in the sequence at a) & b) above shall be interchanged.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
12.7.6 When String is Out of Hole or Above the BOP on Floating Rig (Sub-sea)
a) Open fail safe valve on choke line when choke is in close position.
b) Close blind shear ram.
c) Record shut-in pressure & pit gain.
The shut in drill pipe pressure should be read & recorded from the gauge on the choke control
panel. Since true SIDPP is determined for the calculation of kill mud density, it is recommended to
read and record the SIDPP immediately after the closure and subsequently after every 3-5 minutes.
The recorded values of SIDPP should be tabulated/plotted to ascertain the true value of SIDPP.
Once the well is closed initially the SIDPP starts increasing till the BHP becomes equal to the
formation pressure. The time taken for stabilisation depends upon the permeability of the formation.
SIDPP may further increase but at a slower rate if the influx is gas/gas mixture.
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Well Control
Example
A well was shut in after a kick, given below are the tabulated values of SIDPP and SICP. Find out
the stabilized value of SIDPP.
Solution
As evident from tabulated values, SICP is increasing faster than SIDPP up-to 0620 hrs but later
both the pressures are rising by same amount. This shows that the pressures have stabilised at 0620
hrs and subsequently due to close well gas migration both the pressures are rising by same amount.
Therefore the value recorded at 0620 hrs i.e. 400 psi is the true SIDPP. The proper recognition of
stabilised value of SIDPP is very important as this value is used for the calculation of kill mud weight
and formation pressure.
Example
A well was shut in after a kick, given below are the tabulated values of SIDPP and SICP. Find out
the stabilised value of SIDPP.
Time SIDPP(psi) SICP(psi)
0800 150 200
0815 250 320
0830 340 420
0845 420 510
0900 500 600
0915 500 600
1000 500 600
1100 500 600
1115 505 605
1130 510 610
1145 520 620
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Solution
As is evident from tabulated values, SIDPP and SICP were increasing considerably up to 0900
hrs & later there is no change in the pressures up to 1100 hrs Therefore the value recorded at 0900
hrs i.e. 500 psi is the stabilised value of SIDPP. Further increase in both the pressures is due to
closed well gas migration.
Formulae Required
SIDPP (psi)
a) Kill Mud Weight (ppg) = Old Mud Weight + ———————-
(ppg) 0.052 × TVD (ft)
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Well Control
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Well Control
Formulae required
SIDPP (psi)
a) Kill Mud Weight (ppg) = Old Mud Weight + ———————-
(ppg) 0.052 × TVD (ft)
b) Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP) = SIDPP(psi) + KRP (psi)
ICP – FCP
g) Pressure drop / 100 strokes = —————————— × 100
Surface to bit strokes
COMPARISON OF METHODS
Driller’s Method
Advantages Disadvantages
1. Simple to understand Higher annulus pressure
2. Minimum calculations Higher casing shoe pressure in gas kick.
3. In case of salt water kick, sand settling Minimum two circulations are required.
around BHA is minimum. More time on choke operation.
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Well Control
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Well Control
As indicated by SIDPP value (0 psi) the bit nozzles are plugged, therefore the well has to be killed
by Volumetric method.
Calculations
a) For Bleeding Process
Let the incremental increase in casing pressure would be 100 psi
Mud Gradient = 0.052 × 10 = 0.52 psi/ft
Height of mud column for 1 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 1 /0.52 ft
Height of mud column for 100 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 100 / 0.52 ft = 194 ft
Volume of Mud for 100 psi hydrostatic pressure = 194 × 0.047 = 9.04 bbl
As the SIDPP may not be known SICP may be taken in place of SIDPP. But if the value of SICP
is very high then SIDPP can be calculated by assuming some gas gradient by the following
formula :-
SICP – SIDPP
Influx gradient = Mud Weight × 0.052 – ————————
Height of influx
Since kill mud is to be placed only in the top section of the well which is being occupied by gas,
the height of gas column is to be calculated.
Total pit gain = Initial pit gain + Total amount of mud bled
= 20 bbl + 100 bbl (say) = 120 bbl
120
Height of gas column when gas is at the surface = ——— = 2553 ft
0.047
500
KMW = 10 + —————— = 13.76 ppg
0.52 × 2553
Kill mud gradient = 13.76 × 0.052 = 0.715 psi/ft
Height of kill mud column for 1 psi of Hydrostatic pressure = 1 / 0.715 ft
Height of kill mud column for 100 psi of Hydrostatic pressure 100 / 0.7155 = 139.76ft
Volume of kill Mud for 100 psi hydrostatic pressure = 139.76 × 0.047 = 6.57 bbl
1. Bleeding
a) Allow the casing pressure to increase to 650 psi, this causes the BHP to increase by 150
psi, don’t start bleeding now (this 150 psi may be kept as safety margin).
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
b) Allow the Casing pressure to increase by another 100 psi to 750 psi, this causes the BHP
to increase by 250psi. Since it is planned to keep only 150 psi extra pressure at the bottom
as safety margin, we can now reduce 100 psi of BHP by bleeding 9.04 bbl of mud. While
bleeding mud the surface casing pressure should not be allowed to reduce more then 100
psi which may require the bleeding to be completed in number of steps.
c) Allow the pressure to increase by another 100 psi to 850 psi and bleed 9.04 bbl of mud in
the same way.
d) This procedure should be repeated until gas reaches surface. Thereafter, Lubrication technique
is to be used for reducing the casing pressure.
1100
C
A 1000
S
Bleeding is continued until gas is at top
I 900
N
G 800
700
P
R 600
E Safety margin 150 psi
S Initial SICP 500 psi
S
500
9.04 18.08 27.12 36.16 45.20 54.24 63.28
Volume of mud bled off from annulus (bbl)
Fig. 6. Mud Bleeding Process
2. Lubrication
The lubrication technique is used to Kill the well / reduce the casing pressure when gas is at the
surface so that other operation such as tripping / stripping can be performed.
1. Slowly pump the calculated volume of mud (6.57 bbl) which shall give 100 psi equivalent
hydrostatic pressure into the annulus. Allow the mud to fall through the gas. This is a slow
process, but can be speeded up by using a low yield point mud.
2. Bleed gas from the annulus until the surface pressure is reduced by 100 psi or the amount
equal to the hydrostatic pressure of the mud pumped in. In no case mud is to be bled off.
3. Repeat the process until all of the gas has been bled off and the well is killed or the desired
surface pressure is reached.
Note : During the pumping and gas bleeding process, it will usually be necessary to decrease the
volume of mud pumped before gas is bled off particularly near the end of the operation. This
is because the annular volume occupied by the gas decreases with each pump & bleed
sequence. Watch the pumping pressure closely and when it reaches 50-100 psi above the
shut in casing pressure, stop pumping. Measure the volume of mud pumped, calculate the
hydrostatic pressure of that volume in the annulus and bleed sufficient gas to drop the
casing pressure by the amount of hydrostatic pressure plus any increment of trapped
pressure because of pumping operation.
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Well Control
0 0 1900
6.57 100 1800
13.14 100 1700
19.71 100 1600
26.28 100 1500
32.85 100 1400
39.42 100 1300
45.99 100 1200
52.56 100 1100
59.13 100 1000
65.70 100 900
72.27 100 800
78.84 100 700
85.41 100 600
91.98 100 500
98.55 100 400
105.12 100 300
111.69 100 200
118.26 100 100
124.83 100 0
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line and is replaced with mud, another sharp fluctuation will take place and could result in over
pressurizing the formation if not quickly adjusted to re-establish correct drill pipe pressure.
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Well Control
iii) It can broach through outside of shallow casing leading to instability of bottom supported rigs.
iv) Risk of crater, fire & loss of rig is very high.
A typical approach to a shallow gas kick is to allow the well to flow through a diverter. The diverter
system is designed to pack off around Kelly, casing or drill string. It does not shut in the well, but
allows the flow to be diverted through a vent line to a safe distance away from the rig. Well is allowed
to flow and simultaneously mud or water is pumped through the drill string at maximum rate to keep as
much fluid in the well as possible. Either the well shall flow till the formation depletes (or annulus
bridges) or the well is brought under control by increasing the mud weight.
While Tripping
a) Set pipe on slips.
b) Install FOSV and close it.
c) Open diverter line valves depending upon wind direction.
d) Close diverter packer.
e) Connect Kelly or circulating head.
f) Open FOSV.
g) Circulate out with available drilling fluid at maximum possible pump rate.
(Note : Step b and f are not required if string contains a float valve)
h) Remove the non essential personnel from the rig.
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Down Hole Complications
CHAPTER - 13
DOWN HOLE COMPLICATIONS
Complication is a problem in the well bore that prevents safe drilling, logging, casing lowering,
cementation, production testing and completion of a well.
Fishing is any operation or procedure to release, remove or recover tubular or any material left in
the well bore that affects drilling, logging, casing lowering, cementation, production testing and well
completion.
Common types of drilling complications are:
1. Stuck up.
2. String failure.
3. Bit failure.
4. Casing failure.
5. Mud loss.
6. Well activity.
7. Cementation failure.
13.1 STUCK UP
Stuck up occurs due to one of the following reasons:
a) Differential sticking.
b) Mechanical sticking.
c) Key seating.
d) Well bore instability.
e) Mud loss.
f) Cement sticking.
a) DIFFERENTIAL STUCK UP
As it is well known, no well is perfectly vertical. At all times the drill string is in contact with the
well bore. Assuming the weight of the drilling assembly below a certain point is W & hole angle
is á then the side force acting on the drill string which causes the string to press against the
well bore is equal to W x sin α.. During drilling through a porous & permeable formation a thick
mud cake is deposited on the side of the well bore due to filtrate loss into the well bore. During
drilling or tripping, the string is lubricated by mud and the hydrostatic pressure acting on all
sides of the string is equal. When the drill string is stationary the portion lying on one side of
the well bore against a permeable & porous formation is isolated in such a way that the mud
cake restricts pressure communication due to the seal. The pressure acting on the side in
contact with the well bore is equal to the formation pressure whereas on the remaining side it is
equal to the hydrostatic head of mud. The differential pressure so caused results in the string
being pressed against the well bore and subsequently getting differentially stuck although
circulation is normal. String cannot be rotated and movement of the string will be ceased. A
force (F) equal to the net force exerted against the sealed area multiplied by the coefficient of
friction is required to move the assembly to release the stuck pipe.
Force F = P x A x C
Where F = Force required to release the stuck pipe
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that of oil spotting except that diesel is used as a spacer between acid and mud. Acid being
corrosive, a suitable anti corrosive inhibitor is added to the acid to prevent corrosion of the string.
Acid spotting is not done through the rotary hose or in case the fish is caught with an over shot as
it corrodes the rotary hose & damages the seals of the over shot.
z Find out the free point of the drill string. (Although a logging unit is preferred, it may not be
readily available especially in wells drilled onshore. In such cases in normal wells driller’s
method of free point location may be done).
z Calculate the volume of acid required such that the entire annulus from the stuck point to the
bottom of the string is covered by the acid & the height of acid inside the drill string is 100 to
150m more than that of the annulus.
z The annular volume must consider the caving factor assuming that the hole is not gauged.
z Pump a spacer of diesel such that it occupies a height of 50m of drill pipe inside volume.
z Displace it by mud such that the height of acid inside the string is 100-150m more than in the
annulus. This will ensure a back pressure on the acid reducing the chances of its migration
during soaking period.
z Work the pipe as the acid rises in the annulus.
z After displacing the acid close the kelly cock or the stand pipe valve to prevent migration of
acid into the drill string.
z The pipe is generally kept in compression during soaking period except in exceptional
circumstances. In case of stuck drill string the minimum weight that should be slacked off
is equal to the air weight of the assembly below the stuck point.
z The soaking period is generally 4 hours but may vary according to operational requirements.
z After the soaking period the string is worked vigorously.
z If the string is not released then the acid inside the drill string is displaced into the annulus
in a phased manner at equal intervals. (e.g. 100 liters every hour). The string is worked
intermittently to try and release the string otherwise it is left in compression.
Note : Unlike diesel / crude oil spotting technique the spent acid once discarded into the cuttings
pit is neutralized and hence is non-polluting. Since acid is corrosive and although its corrosive
effect on drill string is controlled by using anti corrosive inhibitor, still it should not be pumped into
the well using mud pumps and circulatin hose as it will corrode the rubber elements in the circulation
system. Acid pumper should be used. If Kelly is connected at the time of stuck up, it should be
backed off and string made up to surface. Line is to be made to the acid pumper. The other draw
back is if the fish is caught by an over shot where as oil spotting can be done, acid spotting cannot
be done. As in the case in Ahmedabad & Mehsana after back off, the fish was engaged by a
matching pin and acid spotting could be done to release the stuck up.
b) MECHANICAL STUCK UP
(i) Hole pack off – improper hole cleaning
The behavior of drilled cutting & cutting beds vary according to the angle of the well bore. The
degree of difficulty of hole cleaning vs. the hole angle is as below.
z Angle less than 30 deg. – vertical, least difficult to clean.
z Angles between 30 deg. and 65 deg. – transitional, most difficult to clean.
z Angles between 65 deg. and 90 deg. – horizontal, cutting beds are more stable but
more difficult to clean than wells with angle less than 30 deg.
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Mud weight
z It provides buoyancy to help lift the cuttings – better transport ratio.
z It affects the momentum of the fluid.
z It affects the friction the fluid can impart to the cuttings.
z Higher the mud weight greater is the buoyancy & lesser is the slip velocity.
z Frictions provides greater lift & drags the cuttings off the wall.
Note: We do not increase the mud weight to improve hole cleaning as it can result in differential
stuck up, poor ROP, poor log quality & poor productivity.
Annular velocity
z Second most important factor affecting hole cleaning.
z Provides lifting force through momentum transfer & friction.
z The lifting force is directly proportional to annular velocity in laminar flow.
z The contribution of annular velocity depends on mud weight. – if mud weight was
zero there would be no contribution to hole cleaning from annular velocity.
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Rate of penetration
z Controls the size & quantity of cuttings.
z Higher the ROP more is the hole cleaning efficiency to be improved.
z Drill only as fast as the cuttings can be removed.
z Loading of the annulus with drilled cuttings will result in hole pack off / plugged nozzles.
Time
z If sufficient time is not given to circulate out the cutting prior to tripping it can result in
stuck pipe.
Hole inclination
z Angle 0 to 30 deg. – Vertical
z 30 to 65 deg. – Transitional
z 65 – 90 deg. – horizontal.
z As the angle increases to 30 deg. the cuttings migrate to the wall.
z The re-cycling of cuttings is more severe as the angle is greater than 30 deg.
z As the angle approaches 45 deg. The time cuttings spend on the wall greatly increase.
z In the transitional angles the cutting beds are always unstable.
z At angles between 45 & 65 deg. the cuttings slide down even while circulating.
z At angles above 65 deg. cuttings form beds but are more packed but harder to disturb.
z Sliding of cuttings is more with OBM than WBM.
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z The hardest to clean is the 30 – 65 deg section because the cutting tend to slide and are
unstable even with circulation.
z In the horizontal section the cutting will be transported as a heterogeneous suspension above
the cutting beds.
z Laminar flow is desirable in vertical sections
z Turbulent flow in angles greater than 55 deg.
z Most challenging is the 45 – 55 deg section.
z Mud properties
z As angle increases the effect of mud weight is less. It slows the boycott settling effect.
z It has same effect on momentum transfer
z The cutting con. Increases drastically between 35 – 45 deg at low MW.
z Cutting bed height is substantially reduced with slight increase in MW.
z Sliding of cuttings is reduced at higher MW.
z Cutting beds are more fluidized in heavier mud and more easily disturbed
z The minimum velocity needed to initiate cutting rolling is less with heavier mud.
z An increase in mw makes it easier to erode the cutting beds.
Conclusions
z Water in turbulent flow provides the best hole cleaning in angles more than 65 deg.
z In absence of pipe rotation cutting beds are always present
z Cutting beds do not exist in turbulent flow.
z Change in reology has less effect when pipe is rotating
z Pipe rotation is required more with high vis. mud than with low vis. mud.
Flow rates
z Annular velocity is the most important factor in hole cleaning of high angle wells.
z Annular velocity that prevents cuttings deposition is desired.
z This will result in very high flow rates and surface pressures.
z In absence of pipe rotation there will always will be cutting deposition
z Cutting beds slide more with OBM than WBM.
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z At low angles cutting are recycled on the low side of the well but they are heterogeneous and
no beds are formed.
z At moderate angles cutting beds are formed on the low side and easily disturbed.
z In higher angles of inclination cuttings beds are well packed and tend to be stationary
z Rate of penetration.
z Has no effect in high angle wells.
z It has no effect on bed height.
z As more cuttings are generated they are transported above the bed height.
z Pipe rotation and other methods are required to disturb the cutting beds.
Time
z It takes more time to transport cuttings along an inclined well bore than a vertical well.
z Circulation stroke factors (CSF).
z CSF or no. of bottoms up to clean hole.
Preventive measures
z Maintain adequate flow rates specially in high angle wells
z Rule of thumb for vertical wells – annular velocity should be twice the cuttings settling rate.
z If pumping out of hole circulate with same or more discharge as was being done during drilling.
z It is a good practice to wash last few stands to bottom.
z Control the rate of penetration.
z Stop drilling when hole conditions dictate.
z Plan wiper trips
z Circulate cuttings out prior to tripping out and away from the bha prior to connection.
z Maintain a high YP / PV ratio
z Use high viscous pill sweeps for vertical wells.
z Use low, high viscous pills sweep combination for high angle wells
z Minimise connection time
z Establish over-pull limits.
z Pulling too hard into a pack off will prevent the pipe from being freed downward
z Use small increments of over-pull.
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Warning signs
z Insufficient cuttings return for the rate of penetration.
z Erratic returns.
z More solids coming out of the shaker than being drilled.
z An increase in PV, viscosity, mud weight out, sand content, or low gravity solids.
Connection trends
z Increase in over-pull over slips and a pressure surge to start circulation.
z Increase in pump pressure to break circulation.
Drilling trends
z A linear increase in pump pressure.
z Erractic pump pressure.
z Increase in both torque and drag.
Tripping trends
z Swabbing.
z String pistoning during pumping out.
z Excessive or erratic drag.
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Fishing procedure
z Backoff above free point & wash over.
z Carefully select the length of the wash over pipe.
z Wash over pipe tend to get differentially stuck.
z After wash over run a fishing assembly with both up & down fishing jars.
Indications
z Drilling of loose uncemented sand, gravel or conglomerates in top hole. Observing excessive
amount of loose solids coming over the shale shaker and being discharged from desander
and/or desilter.
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z Erratic drag / over pull after connections. Tendency for hole to pack-off.
z Experiencing seepage or partial loss.
Note : Previous experience of drilling in the area along with information provided in the G.T.O. will
provide valuable information in this regard.
3. Fractured & or Faulted Formations: Formations like limestone, chalk or shale can be naturally
fractured and / or run along fault line(s). If the horizontal stress distribution is unfavorable, the well
bore will destabilize resulting in large pieces of formation dislodged from the well bore. If the
circulation rate is unable to lift these cuttings, hole pack off will occur. If the instability is on
account of severe losses, it is crucial to take immediate action to cure it. The string should be
pulled above fractured zones. Before going in hole, attempts should be made to control losses.
Ream back to bottom cautiously and sweep the hole at regular intervals.
Indications
z Large pieces of cuttings or dislodged formation observed over the shale shaker during the
drilling phase. It will restrict circulation and could ultimately result in a complete pack-off of
the annulus.
z Erratic drag, over pull and fill after connections, particularly during loss situation. Erratic
torque and vibration when drilling ahead.
z Reaming during or after wiper trip/round trips.
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z Use the mud motors to reduce the whipping action of the drill pipe to prevent caving .
z Use large size nozzles during drilling of fractured formations to reduce the stand pipe
pressure.
z Pull out the string upto the problematic zone before situation deteriorates. Ream back
cautiously if needed.
z Spend additional time to circulate the hole clean. Use low / high viscosity sweeps as
required.
z If mud loss is significant, attempt to cure before drilling ahead.
4. Mobile Formations: Drilling of plastic salts or shales, which have a tendency to deform plastically
or creep into the hole, will have the potential to reduce the hole clearance. The hole may become
under gauged during the drilling phase or when the string is pulled above the zone. Salts or shales
which have the tendency to be mobile must be highlighted in the planning and preparation phase.
Indications
z Mobile salts or shales mentioned in the G.T.O. although an accurate prognosis remains
difficult.
z Tight pull while pulling out BHA across plastic salt or shale zone.
z High and erratic torque while reaming to bottom after a wiper trip or round trip.
z No significant change in the circulating pressure.
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Indications
z During the drilling phase, the cavings are likely to cause an increase in torque, drag and
over pull.
z Distinctive splintery and spalled cavings, which should not be confused with cavings coming
out from shallower zones. Cavings can be small in size in the initial stage.
z The presence of cavings is usually accompanied by increasing levels of background gas, trip
gas & higher R.O.P.
z If these indications are ignored, bridging and hole pack off will occur.
6. Tectonically Stressed Formations: Tectonically stressed formations have unusually high horizontal
stresses in one or more directions that can result in sedimentary rocks being fractured or squeezed.
If the rock fails, block size cavings can fall around the drill string resulting in stuck pipe. This can
also result in key seat formations preventing the pulling out of B.H.A. / bit.
Indications
z Significant problems during running in and pulling out.
z Large block size cavings on the shale shaker.
z Increase in stand pipe pressure indicating hole pack off.
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7. Reactive Formations: Formations that fall under this category are relatively young shales
(sloughing shales) that react to untreated water. The invasion of untreated water causes hydration
stress resulting in cracks and swelling of the shales. Attempts should be made to reduce water
invasion and subsequent hydration, by using inhibitors like salts (K, Na or Ca), or polyglycols.
Indications
z An increase in PV, YP and MBT mud reology parameters. Cuttings will be mushy and if not
dispersed sufficiently might cause clay balls to reach the flow line.
z During roundtrips, bit/ BHA will get balled up with clay causing over pull and/or swabbing.
z Increase of pump pressure, torque and drag are also possible particularly in larger size holes.
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Down Hole Complications
a) Doglegs
Majority of well bore related sticking is due to doglegs.
Doglegs result in:
z Key seats
z Ledges
z High side loads
z Torque
z Poor cementation of casing
z Trouble running casing & logs
z String failure, production equipment failure, casing wear during drilling
Key seats
z Rotating drill pipe against a dogleg cuts a slot in the formation which is smaller than the BHA.
z While tripping out the drill pipe can pass but the larger and stiffer BHA cannot.
z Factors affecting key seat formation.
z There must be dog leg for a key seat.
z A side force is necessary
z Pipe must be rotating & rotating long enough.
z Hardness of the formation at the dog leg
z In vertical wells the shallower the key seat the more troublesome it will become.
z In horizontal wells although a huge dog leg is created it does not create troublesome key
seats because the side load is less.
z The string is usually in compression while rotating through the dog leg.
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z The most indicative of the key-seat presence is increase in over-pull in subsequent over-pull.
z In the same interval of the key-seat tripping in is not a problem
z Prevention of stuck pipe due to key-seats:
z Avoid sharp doglegs specially high in the well.
z Ream and wipe out doglegs when suspected.
z Install a key-seat wiper in the string.
z Avoid rotating off bottom.
z Driller must be aware where his BHA is with respect to well bore geometry.
z Pull slowly when BHA is passing the keyseat.
z Use greater length of HWDP so as to have more set down weight.
Warning signs
z Sudden set down weight as the BHA enters a dogleg.
z Tripping in with a stiffer BHA.
z High torque when rotating into a dog leg.
z Wear on stabilisers or part of the BHA.
z High torque and drag during pull out
z Prevention of stuck pipe due to stiff assembly
z Limit dog leg severity.
z Take totco frequently.
z BHA changes to be minimised.
z Minimise the set down weight in doglegs.
z Ream the dogleg section.
z Be always aware where the BHA is with respect to dogleg section.
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Down Hole Complications
Freeing procedures
z Jar in the opposite direction the pipe was moving prior to getting stuck.
z While jarring up never apply torque.
Warning signs
z Fluctuating ROP.
z Increase in torque & drag while picking up.
z Increasing torque while drilling
z Trend of bottom & off bottom torque.
z Making several directional changes or sliding with motor
Freeing procedure
z Jar in the opposite direction the pipe was moving prior to sticking.
z Spot lubricants, spotting agents, acid in carbonates.
z Low frequency resonance tools.
b) Ledges
z Mainly caused in inter-bedded formation
z Harder formation in gauge , softer formation washed out
z Doglegs can lead to ledges.
z Also form around factures & faults.
z They give trouble when running casing.
z Stabiliser blades can also hang up on ledges.
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Warning signs
z Fluctuating rate of penetration
z Cyclic over pull during trip out
z Sudden & erratic over pull at the stabiliser blades or bit hits a ledge.
z Sudden set down of casing or drill string.
z Known inter bedding, fractures, or faults
Prevention
z Prevent doglegs.
z Use better mud program to prevent hole enlargement – inhibitive mud.
z Care during tripping.
z · Ream troublesome ledges.
Freeing procedure
z Jar with light strokes initially to prevent fall of loose formation.
z If assembly going down is free, then rotate past the ledges while trip out.
z If the casing is stuck going down upward motion may be free and the casing may be rotated
to bottom.
z Acid pills in carbonate formations
c) Squeezing Formations
z Commonly salts, marls, plastic shale.
z Squeezing is caused by overburden, tectonic forces, or hydration swelling.
z No problem drilling, but during trip out the stab. & bit wedge into lesser diameter.
z Salt is very plastic.
Warning signs
z Presence of salt or coal.
z A lack of cuttings.
z Increase in chloride concentration.
z Increase in ROP.
z Increase in torque & drag
Prevention
z Avoiding the salt or creeping formation.
z Raise mud weight.
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Down Hole Complications
Freeing procedure
z Jar in the opposite direction the string was moving prior to sticking.
z A fresh water pill can be spotted to dissolve salt
Warning signs
z Poor ROP due to bit wear.
z In case of salts ROP increases.
Freeing procedure
z Jar up when the pipe is stuck going in.
z Acid pills.
z Spotting fluids.
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Identification
z Unable to reverse circulate.
z Unable to pull out the cementing string.
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Down Hole Complications
Immediate action
z Pull to the maximum safe limit of the string.
z Attempt to circulate at a higher pressure than that available with rig pumps ( use
cementing unit).
Preventive action
z Technical water should be tested for designing cement slurry.
z Simulate down hole conditions prior to cement job.
z Make all arrangements for reversing out in advance.
z Cementing units and mud pumps should be checked prior to taking up cementing job.
z Contamination of the cement with mud should be prevented by using spacers.
Recovery process
z Back off and wash over the cemented string.
z During a cement squeeze job using a packer. Even when a packer is utilized for a squeeze
job, several problems may result in cementing the pipe in the hole.
z The packer can leak.
z The casing being squeezed can leak from a point above the packer setting depth.
Both these instances can lead to the string getting stuck above the packer identification:
If a pressure gauge is installed on the annulus of the cementing string, it allows close monitoring.
Should there be leak occur, anywhere, the pressure in the annulus will indicate it.
Immediate action
z If there is any pressure change which indicates cement is entering the annulus of the cementing
string. The squeeze operation should be stopped immediately. Unseat the packer and reverse
out the cement in the annulus.
z Recovery process
z If the pipe is cemented in place inside a casing the following will decide the recovery techniques
to be followed:
The length of the cemented section.
The depth at which the pipe is cemented.
The strength of the cement bond.
The annular clearance between the cementing string and the casing.
Except in large size casings, the annular clearance between the cemented string and the casing
rules out wash over as a means of recovery. One option, depending on techno economics, is to mill out
the cemented string. Another option is sidetrack from above the stuck pipe or plug and abandon.
Preventive action
While carrying out a squeeze job using a open end string is to place a balanced cement plug. Pull
the string above the cement plug. Reverse out 11/2 times the annular volume and then squeeze.
z While using a packer to squeeze monitor the annulus pressure. Any build up of pressure
will indicate a leaking packer. Stop the squeeze job. Unseat the packer and reverse out the
annulus volume.
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13.3 STRING FAILURE: The main causes of drill string failure are:
a. Fatigue failure.
b. Washout.
c. Twist off
d. Tensile failure.
e. Collapse.
f. Burst.
g. Down hole vibrations.
h. Slip crushing.
a) Fatigue failure
z Mostly drill pipe failures are caused by fatigue.
z Fatigue is the combined effect of tension, torsion and bending.
z The cyclic reversal of stress that results in as the string is rotated.
z Fatigue is accelerated when string is rotated in a section of directional & crooked hole.
z Failure of the drill pipe due to fatigue takes place in the pipe body generally in the area
where slip is set.
z Fatigue fractures are progressive beginning as micro cracks that grow under the action of
cyclic stress.
z The rate of propagation is related to the applied cyclic load. Since the crack develops from
the inside of the drill pipe and no plastic deformation occurs these cracks are very difficult
to detect.
z Fatigue results in washouts and twist off, in drill collars it takes place in the connection with
the pin being left in the box.
z Fatigue results in washouts and twist off. Fatigue also results in heat checking of tool
joints.
z Tool joints which are rotated under high lateral force against the wall of the hole may be
damaged as a result of frictional heat checking.
z The heat generated at the surface of the tool joint by the friction with the wall of the hole under
high radial thrust may raise the temperature of the tool joint steel above its critical temperature.
z The hardness of the affected surface is normally 3/16” below the OD.
z The heat checking in the presence of mud causes alternate heating and quenching.
z This results in numerous irregular heat check cracks often accompanied by longer axial
cracks sometimes extending through the full section of the joint and wash outs may occur.
z Surface imperfections caused by slip marks, cuts, tong marks, grooves caused by rubber
protectors, welding and down hole notches caused by junk greatly affect the fatigue limit.
b) Washout
z A washout is a place where a small opening result in forcing the drilling fluid through pipe.
z It is usually the result of a fatigue crack penetrating the wall of the pipe.
z Wash out may also be caused by a damaged shoulder of box and/or a damaged pin.
z Wearing out and tool joint gets worn out and connection not made up to its recommended
torque.
c) Twist off
Usually caused by the fatigue crack extending around the pipe and causing the pipe to break. This
type of failure usually occurs in the following manner :
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Down Hole Complications
z Most failures occur when rotating or when picking the pipe off bottom immediately after
drilling rather than pulling on stuck pipe.
z Most failures occur within 1m of the tool joint on either end of the pipe.
z Failure that originate from the outside of the pipe are usually associated with slip marks or
other surface damages such as gouges, welding arc spots, marks made by drill pipe
protectors, etc. Progressive growth is indicated in such damages.
z In case of stuck pipe, failure frequently occurs in a location where a fatigue crack has developed
but has not progressed to the point of failure.
d) Tensile failure
z The drill string can fail due to tension alone i.e. the total weight of the drill stem member
together exceeds the pipe yield value. The design of the drill stem for static tensile load
requires sufficient strength in the top most member of each size, weight, grade and class of
drill pipe to support the buoyed weight of all hanging load below it. Rated tensile capacity is
the product of the minimum yield strength and its cross sectional area. The actual tensile
strength will be more because the yield strength is normally high than the minimum specified
tensile strength.
z The tensile failure will in most cases be located between the upsets.
z Although this type of failure is usually near the top of the string, but variation in wall Fthickness
and tensile strength between different pipes can cause pipe to fail somewhere lower in the string.
z Tensile failure of the tool joint is rare because the tool joint has a greater cross sectional
area than the pipe body.
z The exception is when a slim undersized connection is used or the tensile capacity of a pin
neck is weakened by higher make up torque.
z In tensile failures the pipe body usually bottle necked near the fracture.
z Tension factures surfaces often show extensive plastic deformation. Facture surfaces will
be oriented 45 degrees to the axis of the pipe.
e) Collapse failure: Drill pipe may be subjected to an external pressure higher than the internal
pressure. This condition usually occurs during drill stem testing and may result in collapse of
the drill pipe. The collapse pressure is the maximum in the lower most drill pipe. The drill pipe
will be mashed flat or into a half moon shape.
f) Burst failure: Also this type of failure is extremely rare but it can occur in any operation with a
high differential pressure from inside the pipe, for example when well testing or fracturing.
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z These vibrations cause three component of motion in the drill string and bit axially, torsional
and lateral).
z All three dynamic motions may coexist and one motion may cause the other.
z There are number of mechanisms which can cause severe down hole vibrations. For
mechanisms, their symptoms and methods of control are described below :
i) Slap stick
z Non uniform bit rotation in which the bit slows or even stops rotating momentarily,
causing the drill string to torque up and then spin free.
z This mechanism sets up the primary torsional vibration in the string. Primary symptoms
are surface torque fluctuations (greater than 15% of average), increased MWD shock
counts, cutter impact damage, drill string washout/ twist off, connections over-torque or
back-off.
z This can be controlled by reducing WOB & increasing RPM, modify mud lubricity,
reduce stabilizer torque (change blade design or no. of blades, use non rotating
stabiliser or roller reamer), adjust stabiliser placement, smooth well profile and rotary
feed back system.
ii) Drill string whirl
z The BHA (or drill pipe) gears around the hole.
z The violent action slams the bit against the hole.
z The mechanism can cause torsional and lateral vibrations.
z Symptoms are: drill string washout/twist-offs, localized tool joint or stabiliser wear,
increased average drilling and off-bottom torque.
z To control this, lift bit off bottom and stop rotation, drill with reduced RPM.
z Avoid drill collar weight in excess of 1.15 to 1.25 times WOB, use packed hole assembly,
reduce stabiliser torque, adjust stabiliser placement, modify mud properties, consider
drilling with down hole motor.
iii) Bit whirl
z Eccentric rotation of a bit about a point other than its geometric centre.
z This causes high frequency lateral vibrations of the bit and drill string. Symptoms are:
cutter damage, uneven bit gauge wear, over-gauge hole & reduced ROP.
z To control this, lift bit off bottom and stop rotation, then reduce RPM & increase WOB,
consider changing bit (flatter profile, anti whirl), use slower RPM when tagging bottom
and during reaming, pick off bottom before stopping rotary use stabilised BHA with full
gauge near-bit stabiliser or reamer.
iv) Bit bounce
z Large WOB fluctuations causing the bit to repeatedly lift off & impact the formation.
z This mechanism often occurs while drilling with roller cone bits in hard formation. Symptoms
are large axial vibrations (shaking of hoisting equipment) large WOB fluctuations, cutter
and/or bearing impact damage, fatigue cracks and reduced ROP.
z To control this run shock subs, adjust WOB/RPM, consider changing bit style, change
length of BHA.
h) Slip crushing: A majority of the drill pipe failures occur in the slip area. These type of failures are
caused by:
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Down Hole Complications
z Highly concentrated stresses originating from axial and transverse loads that are not equally
distributed over the full gripping surface of the slip.
z Improper handling methods which result in abnormal markings and stressing in the slip area.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
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Down Hole Complications
13.5.1 Leaks
Casing leaks are the most common failures and often occur in association with most other
failures. The major causes for leaks are:
z Improper make up during running.
z Drill pipe wear during drilling.
z Wear due to running stabilizers in cased hole.
z Mechanical wear during fishing and specially milling.
z Corrosion and to a lesser extent erosion and mechanical wear during production life of the
well.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
z Wear reduces body strength so the external pressure may cause the casing to collapse.
z Anything that reduces wall thickness, including wear or corrosion increases susceptibility
to collapse.
z Casing may collapse due to squeezing or treating below a packer set in the casing.
z Worn or poorly designed production casing may collapse when the hydrostatic head is
reduced by compressor / nitrogen application.
z Some times casing collapse may be due to shifting or flowing formations like massive salt
sections.
Casing repairs are best reviewed & evaluated by considering the following
z How does the failure affect future & current operations? The first thing that needs to be
evaluated is whether the failure needs to be repaired. The failure may not have an adverse
effect on operations; if not, and no other hazardous conditions exist; do not repair the casing.
z Is the internal diameter restricted? An immediate repair may be needed if the restriction is
preventing the running of full gauge tools / completion string and other operations. There are
some exceptions like a partially collapsed larger diameter casing above a drilling liner which is
not impeding the normal operations. A partially collapsed casing above a conventional
completion like an intact packer and tubing with no annulus pressure build up may not be
repaired.
z Can the failure be repaired by normal future operations? A casing failure may not pose
a problem in current operation and can be effectively repaired or effectively eliminated by future
operations. For example a drill pipe can cause a hole in deep surface or intermediate casing.
If this does not create an immediate drilling hazard, drilling operations can continue without
making a repair. The hole can be covered later by a production casing or liner that extends
over the hole.
z Can the failure be patched off or packed off the leak? Some casing repairs can be made
by a simple casing patch or packing off the leak.
z Can the casing be plugged off and repaired later? This applies mainly to production
casing. If the casing fails in the lower section, one procedure would be to set a plug and
isolate the failure. Production testing of the upper objects can be done. If the well is deepened
later, repaire the failure.
z Can an extra casing be run? It may be possible to repair the casing by running another
string of casing, a liner, or a stub liner.
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Down Hole Complications
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
cement job. Running another string of smaller diameter casing or tie back or stub liner may
be applicable.
z Failure in cemented casing: This is one of the more difficult casing repair job. Generally the
cemented casing cannot be repaired by replacing the casing above the failure. Pulling the
uncemented pipe and milling the remaining casing till the bottom of the damaged casing is
removed may not be an economically viable alternative. If the failure is such it restricts the
inside diameter of the casing then the diameter should be restored by rolling out or swaging or
milling out and squeezing if necessary. Running another string of casing or liner may be a
viable alternative.
SWAGE BACK
OR OFF
ROLL LEAVE
OUT MILL TOP THREA
CLEAN D UP
RUN
RUN CASING
CASING WITH
WITH ALLIGNMENT
EXTERNAL TOOL AND
PATCH MAKE UP
RESUME OPERATIONS
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Down Hole Complications
Example
String stuck at 4200m in 8-1/2" hole with mud density 1.4.
Drilling String:
1500m of 5", 19.5 ppf# (NC50) E grade class 2 drill pipe weight per meter 31.02 Kg/m.
1500m of 5", 19.5 ppf# (NC50) G grade class 2 drill pipe weight per meter 32.63 Kg/m.
1000m of 5", 19.5 ppf# (NC50) S grade class 2 drill pipe weight per meter 33.64 Kg/m.
200m of 6-1/2" x 2-13/16" drill collars weight per meter 136.4 Kg/m.
Step I :
Calculate the margin of over pull (MOP).
Weight of the drill collars in air = 200 x 136.4 = 27.280T
Weight of E grade drill pipe in air = 1500 x 31.02 = 46.53T
Weight of G grade drill pipe in air = 1500 x 32.63 = 48.945T
Weight of S grade drill pipe in air = 1000 x 33.64 = 33.64T
Buoyancy factor in mud of 1.4 SG is 1 - 1.4 x 8.33 = 0.822
65.5
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Hence while working on pipe or during calculation of the free point the hook load of the string
should not exceed 128.56 + 49.73 = 178.3T
Step II:
Apply a pull (P1) of 160T and make a mark of the string. Release the string weight to 128T and
again pull to 160T. Make another mark of the string. Mid point between the two marks is point A.
Apply a pull (P2) of 175T and make a mark on the string. Release the weight to 128 T and again
pull to 175T. Mid point between these marks is point B.
The distance between A and B is the stretch for a differential pull of (P2-P1) i.e. 175-160 = 15T.
Let us assume this distance is 62.8 cm i.e. 0.628m
Step III:
2
Apply the formulae with A = 34.03 cm , e = 0.8m, P2-P1 = 15T
2.1 x 1.05 x 103 x 34.03 x 0.8
Length of free pipe = —————————————— = 4001.93m
15
Back Off of a stuck pipe
1. Before back off first determine the free length of drill string by either the differential stretch
method or more accurately by electro-logging technique.
2. Make up the string to the maximum of 80% of the torsional limit.
3. Put the neutral point on a level with the joint to be backed off.
The weight indicator tension is given by:
PxA
T = W + ————
1000
where
T = Weight indicator tension in tons.
W = Buoyant weight of free drill string plus weight of kelly, traveling block, hook, etc. (tons)
P = Hydrostatic pressure at the point of back off (kg/cm2)
A = Area of the mating surface of the tool joint, cm2
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Down Hole Complications
4. Work 80% of left hand torsion of that applied in step 2 to the point of back off.
5. Run in the string shot to point of back off desired and detonate the string shot.
6. If the string is not fully opened, count the number of turns released. If it is less than that
applied in point 4, then the joint is partially opened and by working the torque down the joint
may get fully opened.
Note: If back off is done without the kelly connected, then in this case the weight of kelly & swivel
etc. is not be considered.
13.6.3 Precautions While Backing Off with String Shots (Deviated Holes)
z When taking the free point with a logging unit, the tool pusher and logger should be in the
logging cabin with the logging engineer to study the behavior of the tensionand torque indicators
and to get an idea of the string reaction to the pull and torque required to overcome friction.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
z Always record the tension reading first, prior to taking torque readings. Especially in deviated
holes, residual torque can give false indications of the pipe being free when applying tension.
z After every torque reading, rotate the string a few turns to the left to get rid of any residual
torque.
z Check any reading taken on the indicators with the logging unit monograph to see if the meter
point readings confirm. After the free point is determined, the left hand torque has to be worked
down the hole before the string shot.
z · Sometimes in deviated holes it is necessary to use the kelly to work down the torque, even if
it is required to back off high up the hole first to be able to install the kelly.
Note : If a fish is left in the hole after a back-off, then the actual weight of the fishing string is
known. When this fishing string has been latched onto the fish, then the total string weight to the
next lower back off point can be calculated as :
The neutral weight of the fishing string PLUS the weight of the stuck string down to the new back
off point MINUS the percentage buoyancy and friction loss previously calculated for the original
string. Counter check this figure again with the remainder of the fish in the hole and the neutral
point of the string when it was still free.
When running back in the hole with a fishing string, recheck all connections and make them up to
maximum tightness. Remove the rubber protectors because they can account for approximately
10% of the total friction.
Procedures
1. Run in the string shot to 500 m below the sea bed/wellhead
As an example, assume that:
Rotating weight (neutral) = 95T
Weight going up = 135T
Weight going down = 70T
Free weight (to back off pt.) = 80T
Loss weight due to buoyancy and friction = 31% (calculated same way as in example)
Make up torque equivalent = 200 Amperes
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Down Hole Complications
From the observations during the free point indicator runs, it was observed that there was a lot of
friction in the hole (see the weights going up and going down). Assume that with 1 rubber protector per
2 singles, 10% of the friction is caused by the protectors.
2. The torque must be worked down the hole, turn by turn, as follows
a) Pick up the string to the weight going up, then lower down to the neutral weight.
b) Apply 1 turn of torque (observe Ampere meter) and lock the rotary table (assume kelly is
used).
c) Reciprocate the string between weights going up and going down, say 20-25 times e.g. between
120T and 75T.
d) Lower the string to the neutral weight (do not pick it up to the neutral weight), and apply
another turn of torque. Reciprocate the pipe again as outlined above.
e) Continue in the same manner until 50% of the required number of turns has been worked
down (e.g. 1 turn per 1000 ft for 5" drill pipe).
f) When applying the next turn of torque, check the ampere meter. If after the initial reading
the ampere meter remains around 200 Amps or higher do not apply the additional turns but
continue to work down the previous turn again until the Ampere meter only indicates a slight
increase over the previous reading, because only then the torque has been worked properly
down the hole.
3. When 50% of the total required reverse torque has been applied, work the string only down to
the free weight (80T) and not lower, to prevent backing off at a random depth.
4. Once all the required turns are worked down, pick up the string to the free weight PLUS the %
buoyancy, then lower down to the free weight. This is most important because coming to the
free weight on the upward stroke means that the pipe is most likely still in compression at the
back off point and will not back off. A tension of 5T – 10T at the back point is desirable for a
successful back off.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
9. In crooked hole for maximum effective jarring, use jar accelerator along with the jar.
10. Jar accelerator should be placed above the drill collar which is put above the jar for better
impact.
11. Drill collar size above jar must not be more than O.D of jar.
12. Before lowering jar make sure that I.D. of jar is sufficient to pass string shot or free point
indicator tool. Record all the dimensions of all fishing tools lowered in the well.
13. Try to avoid using Rotary male tap as string shot tool cannot be lowered through it.
14. Prior to starting fishing operation or engaging the fish always circulate thoroughly.
15. In case of suspected mud cut or string failure, pull out the string using pipe spinner or manila
rope, never rotate the rotary to avoid dropping of string.
16. In case of mechanical back off or string failure always count the number of stands and singles
pulled out.
17. While backing off keep the neutral point at the back off point. In directional wells or when in
doubt it is better to have the shot in tension.
8. After string shot, before picking up the string ensure that all the torque is consumed or
neutralized.
19. After backing off, tag the fish top prior to pulling out so as to have an idea of the hole size at the
fish top.
20. Dress the over shot with the same size of grapple as the O.D. of the fish. When reduction of
tool joint is around 1/8”, use grapple size 1/8" less than anticipated O.D. of fish.
21. If key seat is suspected in the hole, dress the over shot with over size guide or wall hook
guide.
22. After engaging fish with catching tool, reciprocate with gradually increasing tension before
trying to lift.
23. Before lowering junk basket, ensure that the catcher rotates freely.
24. In RCJB operation, before dropping the ball ensure that the hole bottom is flushed.
25. Select the proper shoe for RCJB prior to assemble the tool. If the junk is large & lying loose
at the bottom, use finger shoe. If the formation is relatively soft and the junk is lying loose, use
type “A” mill shoe. For hard formation and if fish is lying embedded, use type “B” or type “C”,
ITCOLOY faced mill shoe.
26. A casing Spear may be equipped with a mill type nut in place of the standard bull nose, if
the top of the fish is distorted.
27. A sub type nut may be installed in place of the bull nose nut should it be necessary to run a
packer below casing spear for establishing circulation through fish.
28. Cutting casing against joint must be avoided.
29. For smooth cutting by internal mechanical cutter use bumper sub above predetermined weight
of drill collar.
30. In case of bit cone loss in medium hard / hard formation, use junk mill and junk sub to clear
junk. Use of RCJB may lead to breaking of junk retaining fingers of the catcher.
31. Make a bit and junk sub trip prior to run in diamond bit.
32. While fishing wire line inside casing, stop plate should be used above wire line spear to avoid
wire line coming above the spear and getting stuck inside casing. The clearance between the
stop plate and I.D of casing should be half the diameter of wire line.
33. Be aware of the limitations of the fishing tools.
34. Use positive catching tools as far as possible. Non positive are to be used only when positive
catching tools cannot be used.
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Casing Operations
CHAPTER - 14
CASING OPERATIONS
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
xv. Casing pipe should be handled with utmost care during transportation, stacking and running
in so as to avoid shock loading that might arise due to Rolling casings from trailers over a
sharp wedge; Bumping casing against stacked pipes; Improper handling tools; Setting slips
against moving pipes; etc.
Note : The foregoing mud fill up practice is not required if automatic fill up float shoes andcollars
are used. However, air blow technique should be employed to ensure actual mud fill up
indication.
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Casing Operations
vii. In case of XL threads, polished metal to metal sealing area of both the pin and box ends
should be checked properly. If found defective, the pipe should be rejected.
14.1.4 Drifting
Each casing pipe should be drifted for its entire length before lowering in the well, with cylindrical
mandrels conforming to specification given in Annexure 3. Casing that does not pass the drift test
should be rejected with proper marking.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
iii. In order to avoid shock loads during lowering of casing string, it should be picked up and
lowered carefully with proper care while setting slips.
iv. For premium casing pipes, recommended guidelines of the manufactures should be followed.
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Casing Operations
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
c) When H2S or CO2 is present in the well fluids, casing of suitable grade should be selected
keeping in view the effect of corrosion cracking.
B) DAMAGED COUPLING
• Connector joints of 18 ½ “& larger size O.D. Pipes shall be replaced and casing shall be
subjected to hydraulic tests. Welding procedures shall be followed as per API standards.
• New coupling shall be replaced and pipes shall be subjected to hydraulic test as per API
5CT.
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Casing Operations
2 Yellow 0-15 85
3 Blue 16-30 70
4 Green 31-50 50
5 Red Over 50 Less than 50
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Conditions Colour
Damaged field or pin end One red paint band approximately 2 inches wide around the
affected coupling or box end
Damaged coupling or box One red paint band approximately 2 inches wide around the
pipe adjacent to affected threads.
Pipe body will not pass One green paint band approx. 2 inches wide at the point of
drift restriction and adjacent to the colour band denoting body
wall classification
V. Tubing failure
a. Improper selection of type / grade of tubing, especially of non-upset where upset tubing
should be used.
b. Excessive sucker rod breakage
c. Use of worn-out and wrong types of handling equipment, spiders, tong’s die and pipe
wrenches.
d. Replacement of worn couplings with Non API couplings
e. In case of fatigue failure at the last engaged thread, use of upset tubing over non - upset
tubing reduces chances of failure.
f. Tubing that has made multiple round trips in the hole, may have pins reduced in diameter
due to successive yielding by repeated makeup. This condition may reduce joint strength,
leak resistance, and in severe cases lead to abutment of pin ends near center of couplings.
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Casing Operations
2. Check accessories like shoe / collar for proper functioning before make up.
3. Pick up first single fitted with guide shoe from catwalk using rope.
4. Latch it in the elevator.
5. Lower it in the hole through rotary table.
6. Pick up the second single from cat walk with the help of crane / air winch.
7. Latch it in the elevator.
8. Open the protector and apply the dope on threads.
9. Stab it in the box of first single carefully to avoid the damaging of threads.
10. Use rope for the initial tightening of 4-5 no. of threads.
11. Then use manual or power tongs for tightening of joints to recommended torque. Check it
with the help of gauge.
12. Lift the string. Remove the slips and gradually lower the casing pipe. In case spider slips
are used, then Safety clamps may be used to avoid casing drop out from slips as it could
be inadvertently opened by Derrick man. Safety clamps are no longer required when adequate
casing load prevents the slips from opening manually.
13. Ensure the flow of return mud.
14. Continue the lowering of casing pipes keeping an eye on return mud.
15. One man should be assigned to cross check the lowering schedule as per the plan.
16. Fill the hole regularly as per the plan. also break the gelation of mud before entering the
open hole.
17. Attach centralizers / scratchers as per the cementation programme.
18. Continue this procedure till the casing is lowered to the desired depth.
19. Make up the circulating head for mud conditioning prior to cementation while circulating
reciprocate the string till cementing arrangements are being made.
B. On Floaters
1. Pick up the shoe joint and set in the slips.
2. Fill the shoe joint with mud. Raise and lower the joint to check the operation of the shoe.
3. Use thread locking compound on all threads between the shoe and float collar.
4. Install casing centralizers as per casing program.
5. Fill the casing with mud and reciprocate the casing when the float collar joint is made up
to ensure the correct function of the float.
6. Apply thread lubricant with the joint of casing in the “v” door. Never while the casing
is set in the slips in the rotary table.
7. Fill with mud each joint of casing run and top up every fifth joint of casing run.
8. When picking up casing from the casing deck is completed check that the correct number
of joints remains on deck.
9. Make up the casing hanger joint. Ensure that the running tool does not back out.
10. Remove the rotary insert bowls to allow the casing hanger to pass through the rotary table.
11. Lower the casing hanger below the rotary table and install rotary insert bowls #3.
12. Run the drill pipe landing string drift all drill pipe run.
13. Pick up the single with the bottom part of the cement head and make up to the landing
string.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
14. Install the top part of the cement head and attach two lengths of the Chikson line to the
cement head.
15. Stroke open the motion compensator.
16. Open the choke and kill lines on the BOP stack and line up so they are vented to the
atmosphere.
17. Pick up the slips, lower the casing string and land the casing hanger in the well head.
18. Line up the Chickson line to the rig pump.
19. Remove the elbow Chickson lines between the cement manifold and the choke and standpipe
manifolds.
20. Close the choke and kill lines on the BOP stack.
21. Circulate the contents of the casing string.
22. Re-route the Chickson line to the cementing unit.
23. Pressure tests the surface lines.
24. Cement the casing.
25. Bleed down the air pressure on the motion compensator until only the weight of the landing
string is held.
26. Break the Chickson line just above the rotary table.
27. Release the running tool- four turns to the right.
28. Energize the pack-off assembly to 18,000 ft/lbs.- approx. five turns to the right.
29. Pressures test the pack-off assembly.
30. Pressure test the BOP stack.
31. Pull out of the hole with the running tool and the landing string.
32. Service the universal direct drive casing hanger tool and install thread protectors.
33. Install 13.375” wear bushing.
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Casing Operations
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
9. Wash the last 20 m to bottom, maximum circulating pressure should not exceed 600 psi
(40 ksc) or recommended value. Locate bottom and watch out for a sudden pressure increase.
10. Install DPWP in cementing head and check.
11. Pull back to the setting depth and note the free hanging weight of string with pump on and
off.
12. Circulate one cycle, until well is free from cuttings and mud is free from gas.
13. Circulate with cementing head installed on the string and string should be reciprocated
during circulation.
14. Set Liner Hanger as per procedure.
15. If hanger is not set, pull back to 1 ½ feet above the liner setting depth and increase the
setting pressure in stages of 100 psi, for hydraulic liner hangers. Lower string again and
set liner. In some cases, slight jerking down has to be done to get the initial grip.
16. Pick up free drill pipe weight leaving 1 to 5 tons on hanger.
17. Turn string slowly right hand. Check for any increase in rotary torque. Continue turning of
string until maximum of 16-20 turns.
18. Pick up drill string weight and raise 1-2 feet. Ensure that slick joint does not come out of
DPOB / RPOB / Hanger seat. After ensuring that drill pipe is free from liner, lower the string
and 5000-10000 lbs (2 to 5 tons) weight on the hanger.
19. Circulate for 5 minutes to ensure that all conditions are normal.
20. Pump in required quantity of cement
21. Drop the Drill pipe wiper plug
22. Displace with mud till DPWP sits on Liner wiper plug
23. Increase pressure to recommended value so that Liner wiper plug shears off
24. Displace further with mud till DPWP and Liner wiper plug sits on the Landing Collar completing
Liner Cementation.
14.7.3 Precautions
1. Lower liner at moderate speed to avoid pressure surges.
2. Try to back out the running tool and retighten same with chain tong at rotary table.
3. Keep an accurate record of the various string weight
4. Calculate cement and displacement volumes as accurately as possible.
5. Excess cement slurry should be circulated out.
6. Back pressure may be applied during the initial setting of cement to avoid gas migration
through cement.
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Drill Stem Testing
CHAPTER- 15
DRILL STEM TESTING
Drill stem testing (DST) is a method that is used to evaluate the sub-surface formation or
reservoir, in either Cased hole or Open hole, wherein Drill stem or Production Tubing that acts as a
conduit for fluid flow is also used as a manipulating tool for down hole valves. This method provides
an accurate method of formation evaluation. DST requires opening of a well bore section to
atmosphere or to reduced pressure. Various DST tools such as Reciprocating type, Rotating type,
Annular responsive type, Dual shut-in / flow, Multiple shut-in / flow, Surface pressure read out system
etc are used. The assemblies / sub-assemblies of a DST string performs the basic task of isolating
the annulus and reducing hydrostatic head and allowing formation fluid to flow on its own thereby
recording the flow rate and measure Shut-in pressure and temperature accurately and at the least
time. This is possible because Recorders form a part of the Reservoir. DST sampler also traps
Formation sample under in-situ condition. Any amount of drawdown limited to Packer rating could
be given as the tool is run in closed condition.
The DST assembly primarily consists of :
1. Packer – for isolating annular hydrostatic head
2. By-Pass Valve – to equalize pressure across packer and to avoid surge / swab during
tripping.
3. Pressure and Temperature recorders – to record down hole pressure and temperature against
time scale
4. Tester Valve – to enable the string to be run in closed condition during tripping and keep
the string in open condition during testing. Opening / Closing of the valve is done through
pipe movement.
5. Flow / Shut-in Valve – to enable flowing or shut-in condition during testing
6. Jar – to facilitate release of DST string in case it gets stuck
7. Safety Joint – to disengage stuck string in case jarring fails to release the string thereby
retrieving the main DST tools
8. Reverse Circulating Valve – to allow communication in between string and annulus
9. Perforated Pipes – to arrest sand intrusion inside string
10. Sampler – to trap formation fluid under in-situ condition
11. Control Head – connected to the topmost pipe at surface having series of valves for
controlling and diverting flow
12. Choke Manifold and Chickson Lines
The schematic of a typical DST assembly is shown in Fig. 2.
15.1 PROCEDURE
1. Pick up DST assembly one by one and hand tight on rotary table
2. Tighten all the joints, both working and service, with power tongs to their recommended
torques.
3. Lower the testing string (fig.3) into the hole with “Tester Valve” in closed position, to prevent
entry of well fluid into drill pipe.
4. Make up adequate number of Drill collar stands
5. Connect Reverse circulating sub on top of Drill collar stand or any other position deemed
fit.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
190
Drill Stem Testing
191
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
DRILL PIPE
DRILL PIPE
LIFT NIPPLE
HOLLOW PIN IMPACT
REVERSE SUB
HT 500 TEMPERATURE
RECORDER
Radius of : The radius of the Reservoir which has been investigated during the test
Investigation period.
Reservoir : Radius of reservoir that has been investigated during test period.
Analysis Useful for determining well spacing requirements and other volumetric
calculations.
Barrier : Barrier or any other anomaly can be detected such as existence of
Indication different fluid contacts, faults etc.
192
Drill Stem Testing
Fising Neck
Choke
Circulating Valve
Cup
Locking Mechanism
Testing Valve
BT Pressure
Recorders
Bypass Valve
RTTS Packer
193
Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Diagrams
537
291
Fig. 4
194
Drill Stem Testing
B - Adapter
C - Bar Drop Sub
G - LT - 20 Swivel
H - Master Valve
H - Master Valve
I - Quick Disconnect
Fig. 5 components of the unitest tree
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
CHAPTER - 16
CORING
The 60 feet core barrel consists of two sections- (a) Upper sections & (b) lower sections (fig-2).
The upper section contains safety joint with an API box connection, swivel assembly and top stabilizer,
the bottom section of barrel have two stabilizers and an elevator sub at top, core head pin connection
and core catcher at lower end.
196
Coring
• Tighten inner tube shoe lower and upper halves using chain tongs and cheater bars.
• Run inner barrel back into outer tightening middle connection, top connection (at swivel
assembly) and all connections on swivel assembly.
• Make up safety joint fairly tight.
• Pull assembled barrel out of the rotary table.
• Break off bottom protector and check lead.(fig. 5,6,7)
• For adding or removing shims, run barrel back into rotary table .Set slips below top stabilizer,
make up collar clamp and back out safety joint, pick up until 8 inches of inner tube is
exposed. Put inner tube clamp on inner barrel. Back out cartridge cap and add or remove
shims as necessary.(fig. 8)
• Once spacing is corrected, pick up, remove inner tube clamp and make up safety joint with
chain tongs.
• Torque safety joint to recommended torque with rig tongs.
• Pull barrel out of rotary table, take off protector and check lead using CB gauge.
• Make up core head.
• Check rotation of the inner tube.
• Run core barrel back into rotary table.
• Set slips below blades of top stabilizers.
• Ensure steel ball is not in ball seat.
• Pick up required cross over or drill collar and make up to API torque rating.
Barrel is now ready to be lowered.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
• Check pump liners and stroke for desired flow rate. Figure 8
• On reaching bottom make up Kelly and start circulation
with recommended flow rate (note down pressure) at least one single before drilled depth.
• Abnormally high pump pressure indicates that there may be debris in the barrel or core
catcher and it should be cleared before starting coring.
• Wash down to bottom and watch for tight spots.
• Tag bottom and mark Kelly.
• Lift 2-3 feet off bottom, circulate for 5-10 minutes.
• Run back to bottom and check Kelly measurement.
• Wash down slowly picking up periodically and checking Kelly measurements with pipe tally.
• When true bottom is reached a WOB gain accompanied by a pressure increase will be
noticed.
198
Coring
• Once bottom is reached circulate for another 10-15 minutes to clean out inner core barrel.
• Pick up, break off Kelly and drop steel ball, add spacer sub, if necessary.
• Make up Kelly. Start circulation, again note circulating pressure.
• Pump ball to bottom, when ball seats on pressure relief plug a slight pressure increase will
be indicated.
• Record final off bottom pressure with ball seated.
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Coring
can be cut into sections at the rig and then sealed with plastic caps at end and sent to lab for
testing.
• In fiberglass inner tube pin threads are molded on both the upper and lower ends which will
accommodate internal flush connections.
• Available sizes for fiber glass inner tube are- 6-3 / 4" x 3", 6 – 3 / 4 “ x 4“, and 8” x 5 1 / 4“
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A. Swivel Assembly-
1. Replacement Of Thrust Bearings-
• After every core check for bearing wear.
• Rotate inner barrel at inner tube plug, if rotation is difficult or rough it indicates that balls
have broken.
• Secondly check for vertical movement .If excessive this also indicates worn bearing and
should be changed.
• Even after changing bearing if vertical movement exists then check wear on bearing
retainer, cartridge plug and cartridge cap.
• To save rig time and loss of core it is suggested to change bearings after 3-4 cores.
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C. Safety Joint
i) “ O” RINGS
• Check condition of “O” rings regularly and change them when they are damaged.
• “O” rings can be changed while changing bearing or after core recovery by sliding them
up while inner barrel is being lowered back into outer barrel.
ii) FRICTION RINGS
• Ensure that friction ring is free moving, clean it with diesel if it becomes clogged up.
D. Inner Tube Shoes (Upper & Lower) and Core Catchers (fig-18)
• Check threads on inner tube shoes and general condition at every core- change if required.
• Ensure that core spring is in good condition.
• Make sure that tungsten grit has not been worn flat.
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Directional Drilling
CHAPTER - 17
DIRECTIONAL DRILLING
Directional Drilling is usually accomplished (at shower depth) by jetting using a jet bit with one
large size nozzle and two blinds or by a mud motor with a bent sub or an adjustable bent housing,
depending on the type of formation to be drilled.
Prior to the start of any directional well a pre spud meeting should be conducted. The directional
drilling plan for the well should be discussed and following topics should be included:
• Wells that may be approached during the course of drilling a directional well to avoid collision.
• Directional drilling procedures and surveying requirement that will be used to maintain
adequate well to well separation.
• HSE issues regarding the survey winch etc.
It must be verified that all personnel directly involved with carrying out the directional drilling
operation are aware of all important aspects of the operation. This is especially critical following a
crew or tour change. In this regard a brief report regarding the well being drilled and behavior of the
well may be handed over to directional driller to help the reliever to take quick and correct decision
immediately after reaching the site.
17.1 RESPONSIBILITIES
17.1.1 Directional Driller
The Directional Driller is responsible for drilling the well and performing directional survey
calculations, proximity checks and ensuring that correct survey correction factors are applied to
each survey in accordance with well programme requirements. He is to liaise with all responsible
personnel during drilling operation.
The Directional Driller is also responsible for The BHA to be run into the hole is given by directional
driller. The Driller and Directional Driller are responsible for the dimensional inspection of the BHA.
Directional driller may be called on the rig floor whenever a BHA is made to be run in the well. It
must be ensured that BHA has the correct length of non-magnetic components to prevent magnetic
interference while using magnetic survey instruments.
The gauge of bit to be run into the hole and integrity of nozzles should also be checked.
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17.2.2 Precautions
• At least two sets of survey instruments should be available on rig.
• Ensure both the sets are functional by using them regularly.
• Reaming is acceptable to reduce angle but to avoid unscrewing the drill pipe due to doglegs
higher in the hole., the following should be taken care of :
Use minimum BHA required.
Do not stop rotary abruptly, slow down gradually before stopping.
Use rotary brake to stop backlash.
Dogleg should be worked out as per well plan.
Don’t use dull bits as these contribute to an increase in hole angle in crooked hole
formations.
On floaters, deviation in 36” hole should not exceed 1-1/2 degrees.
Use of “average angle” directional survey calculation method in the field is acceptable.
However, the “radius of curvature” or “minimum curvature” method should be used to
prepare the final directional report.
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Precautions
1. Stabilizers are often the source of high torque. Generally torque developed by stabilizers
will fluctuate widely.
The common practices of controlling torque are:
a. Use more number of heavy weight drill pipes and accordingly reduce No. of drill collars.
b. Use non-rotating blade (rubber) stabilizers. These stabilizers are generally acceptable
for straight holes, but have a short life span in some formations.
c. Reduction in rotary speed &WOB to control torque is not recommended.
d. Condition the drilling fluid to have high lubricity & low solids.
2. Restrict the drilling torque to less than the make-up torque applied to the weakest connection
in the drill string.
3. Torque developed by extremely large hang-down weight below a dogleg or kick-off point
can be reduced by:
a. Using a full string of smaller drill pipe (e.g. using a 4-1/2:” O.D. drill pipe to replace 5”
O.D. Drill pipe.)
b. Using a smaller string on bottom (tapered string).
c. Using an oil base mud when conditions are severe.
The torque meter on any rig should be calibrated at least once per well.
17.3.2 Preplan
Slot selection for a particular well should be done according to the target direction of the well.
• Wells which require more drift or inclination should be allotted outer slots and those with
lesser drift the inner slots.
• It is also important to see the direction of the well. Slot should be selected so that the
distance between the well increases as they are drilled.
• Central slot may be selected for vertical well.
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Orientation Procedure
1. When the kick off point (KOP) has been reached, conducting a multishot survey is preferred
to determine the condition of the well bore from surface to kick off point.
2. Once the bit reaches bottom directional survey should be conducted to ascertain the
tool face.
3. Based on directional survey orient the tool face in the desired direction.
4. Take a check shot survey to confirm tool face setting.
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Alignment of the scribe line on the compass face with the keyway of the Mule Shoe Stinger
After determining the appropriate length of extension bar, connect the mule shoe stinger to
the lower end of it and connect the orienting snubber to the upper end. Align the scribe line as
follows:
1. Project a vertical line from the top of the keyway, up the lower extension bar, to the T-head
of the orienting snubber.
2. Loosen the set screws of T-head of the orienting snubber.
3. Align the T-head and the compass face with the projected line from the top of the keyway
so that the scribe line 180o away from the keyway.
4. Tighten the set screws
Insertion of Tattle tale (Lead Pin) into the Mule Shoe Stinger
Before survey barrel is lowered into the drill string a tattle tale (Lead Pin) is inserted into the
hole at the top of Keyway of Mule shoe stinger to make sure that blade /key of the mule sub has
reached the key way. After survey barrel is retrieved the tattle tale should be bent or crushed.
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2. When held correctly, the word “left” should appear on your right-hand side, and the word
“right” should appear on your left-hand side. It is because when a picture is taken of the
face of the compass during survey, it results in a reverse image. In order to correct for this
reverse image, left and right are reversed on the reader.
b) Placing the single shot record on the reader
1. The hole direction line on the reader passes through the center of the concentric circle and
through the center of the crosshairs on the survey record.
2. The number and letters on the survey record are oriented in the proper fashion. The numbers
1 through 8 between the N and W are in forward order and while moving towards right on
the picture i.e. towards right or East of N North) the numbers are in reversed order as shown
in fig. below.
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17.5.2 Drilling
Generally a string with a PDM can be run into the hole like a standard bottom hole assembly.
When a deflection device (Bent sub) assembly is used, special care must be taken when passing
the well head, casing shoe, liner hanger etc.
Note : If reaming becomes necessary when tripping into the hole, extreme care should be taken,
especially if diamond bits are used.
When the bottom is reached, the PDM is started as follows:-
• Pick up the bit to a distance of 1 to 2 feet (0.3-0.6 m) off the bottom.
• Start the mud pumps and increase the number of strokes to the desired flow rate.
• Record the total pump pressure and flow rate.(Off bottom pressure)
• After thorough circulation, lower the bit and tag the bottom and increase weight on bit
slowly. After one meter is drilled, increase weight on bit. Pump pressure will rise with
increasing weight on bit. The differential pressure created simultaneously must not
exceed values on manufacturer’s recommendations.
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In case of Drilling with PDM stand pipe pressure gauge acts as WOB indicator. Bit weight
variations, formation changes and bit wear will change the torque at the bit. This is indicated by an
increase or decrease in stand pipe pressure. A sudden rise in stand pipe pressure occurs if the
PDM stalls. If this happens, pull the bit off bottom. After the pressure decreases, the PDM and bit
should be lowered carefully to the bottom again and drilling is commenced. In order to drill with
constant speed and torque, keep the flow rate and pump pressure at a steady level. Since the
speed of the motor directly depends on the flow rate, the bit RPM will remain constant, as long as
the flow rate is kept constant.
Precaution
• As PDMs will permit circulation only when rotor is rotating, idle circulation for mud
conditioning should be kept to a bare minimum period.
• Excessive WOB will stall the motor. Stalling will be indicated by sudden increase in stand
pipe pressure. Lift the motor immediately when pressure shooting is observed.
Repeatedstalling damages the elastomers.
• While drilling with PDM a screen should be used below the kelly in the drill pipe. When
adding next drill pipe this screen should be removed and kept in the new drill pipe which is
added.
• While drilling with mud motor a left hand torque is created on the stator and thereby on the
drill string. This torque must be compensated for orienting the tool face, by an amount
equal to reactive torque, more towards right which is actually required to achieve desired
direction.
• Remaining procedure for orientation will be the same as described in orientation procedure
with a jetting bit.
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Tool stalls / NO ROP Pick up and start again after pressure check, with
less WOB.
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Second stabilizer
A second stabilizer is added either 30, 60, or 90 feet above the near bit stabilizer. This stabilizer
influences the amount of bend in the drill collars between it and the near bit stabilizer and the
bend in the drill collar causes the fulcrum effect. The shorter the distance between these stabilizers,
the lesser the bend created between them. The less bend between the stabilizers produces the
less fulcrum effect and thereby the less angle will be built.
1. If the distance is 30 feet approximately 0o-0.75o build per 100 feet. It can be used as holding
assembly.
2. If the distance is 60 feet, you can expect approximately .25 o-1.25 o build per 100 feet.
3. If the distance is 90 feet, you can expect approximately 1.25o to 2o build per 100 feet.
This assembly is also used as angle build assembly.
Weight on bit
Another way to affect the rate of angle build is by changing weight on bit. An increase in weight
on bit when using a build up assembly will, generally, cause an increase in the angle build rate. A
decrease in weight on bit will generally, cause decrease in the angle build rate. This occurs because
the amount of bend in the drill collar between the near bit and second stabilizer will increase or
decrease with an increase or decrease in weight on bit.
There are four variables which control the rate of angle builds up of build up assembly.
1. By increasing or decreasing the distance between the near bit stabilizer and the second
stabilizer, you can increase or decrease the amount of bend and the amount of angle build.
2. By increasing or decreasing the O.D. of the drill collars, you can decrease or increase the
amount of bend and the amount of angle build will change w.r.t. to amount of bend.
3. By increasing or decreasing the amount of weight on bit, you can increase or decrease the
amount of bend and the amount of angle build.
4. By increasing the rotary speed the amount of angle build decreases. By decreasing the
rotary speed the amount of angle build increases.
There are four variables which control the rate of angle build up as given below.
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Packed hole assemblies are used when it is necessary to keep angle and direction change to
a minimum. On most directional wells, packed hole assemblies are used after achieving maximum
drift angle to hold inclination.
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3. Re-drill a hole if the geophysical data indicate missed geological target during the course
of drilling a well
4. Drain hole drilling or multiple hole is also a kind of side tracking operation.
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Cementing Operations
CHAPTER - 18
CEMENTING OPERATIONS
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8. Weighted buffers i.e. spacers are to be used in high pressure wells and preferably to be
designed for turbulent flow. The best results are obtained if not only the density but also the
rheological properties of the spacer fall between those of mud and cement slury. Design the
spacer such that it is compatible with both the cement slurry and the drilling mud.
9. If turbulent flow is not possible, then design the job for mud displacement in effective laminar
flow using rig pump rate as fast as possible within the limitation of fracture gradient.
10. Use 35% Silica flour (BWOC) at BHST above 230° F (110°C) to prevent strength retrogression
of set cement.
11. For normal slurries, control free water separation to 1.4% or less. To prevent gas channeling
and in cementing highly inclined wells, zero free water control should be a primary objective.
12. Determine cement slurry thickening time at BHCT and bottom hole pressure. Minimum
thickening time should be job time plus one hour thickening time to a consistency of 50 Bc.
Excessive slurry thickening time should be avoided.
13. When field slurries are to be batch mixed, while running the thickening time test in lab,
before following API test schedules for increasing temperature and pressures, the slurry
should be stirred in the consistometer at the surface temperature and atmospheric pressure
for the estimated batch mixing and holding time on drill site prior to pumping slurry into the
well.
14. Slurry consistency for all normal turbulent flow slurries should be 10 to 20 BC. Since
sometimes slurries are mixed heavier in the field, so check consistency in the lab for 1 ppg
heavier slurry also.
15. Use the same mixing water, cement and additives in Lab testing that will be used on the
wells for the job. If additives are dry blended, a blended cement sample must be collected
and tested in the cement test lab before the execution of the job.
16. In the case of certain types of cement jobs, such as long cement column rise or long liners
where the static temperature at the top of cement is lower than the BHCT, compressive
strength test should be performed at the TOC temperature also to confirm the setting of
cement at the cement top.
18. Compressive strength of set cement stone should be:
• 500psi for drill out
• 2000psi for perforations
19. In case of primary cementing of gas wells with expected high pressure, special chemicals
need to be added to cement slurry for effective blockage of gas leakage possibility and the
slurry should be tested for its gas tight property in the lab prior to its use in the field.
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Cementing Operations
4. Visually inspect empty tanks prior to transferring blended materials to ensure that they are
empty.
5. To ensure proper blending, transfer the blended material at least twice between silos before
loading on mobile silos or bulk supply boats for drill site delivery.
6. Conduct fluid loss and thickening time test on samples taken from each container to verify
blending.
7. Transfer dry blend to empty tank and back to original tank just prior to slurry mixing. If extra
empty tank is not available on site, then fluff or percolate air through each tank from the
bottom for 15-20 minutes to redistribute additives.
8. When different blends are used, each blend and tank should be clearly identified.
9. Collect and save sample of each composition for post job analysis if failure occurs. Otherwise,
throw away the samples after the job.
10. Check to see that all materials required for job are loaded and identified on the transporting
vehicles. Verify that correct chemicals are loaded with correct weight and volume.
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5. In case the displacement is to be performed by the rig pump, the volumetric efficiency of
mud pump, functioning of stroke counter and mud line flow meter should be checked.
6. Conduct a pre hook up meeting to review equipment placement, lay out of high pressure
lines, material mixing and pumping sequence, pump rates, slurry densities, safety hazards
during pumping operation and maximum allowable pressure.
7. Check the air compressor operation, fluff the cement of silos, prime the pumps and mixers
prior to the starting of operation.
8. In case of offshore, one has to ensure the proper working of air dryer. If not the entire
pneumatic system comprising of compressor, silos, surge tank and lines may get clogged
and free flow of cement will not be there.
9. In case of floater rigs, a mandrel is used for carrying top and bottom plugs. Ensure that this
has been serviced immediately after the last use.
10. Check the cementing head, plug release mechanism, plug dropping indicator and review the
number and placement of rubber plugs in proper sequence.
11. A detail cementation plan indicating the step by step job sequence duly approved by the
concerned well-site incharges should be made and circulated prior to the operation.
C. Cementing equipment
1. Check the cementing units and bunkers to avoid any breakdown during the operations.
2. Check the discharge of each cementing unit physically for their capacity in accordance with
the liner size.
3. Check the tanks of cementing unit thoroughly, clean if needed.
4. Pressure test the cementing head and all connecting lines at 1.5 times the maximum
pressure expected during the job.
5. Check and calibrate the pressure gauges.
D. Mud conditioning
1. Begin pipe movement and mud conditioning immediately after the casing is lowered. The
casing movement should continue throughout the circulation period. When reciprocating,
the pipe is usually moved through a 20ft stroke, using a 2 min. interval for the cycle. For
rotation, the pipe is rotated as slowly as possible, usually between 10 and 15 rpm.
2. Adjust Plastic Viscosity (Pv) and Yield Point (Yp) of the mud to the lowest possible values
without dropping solids during mud conditioning.
3. Condition hole with good surface conditioned mud at a rate anticipated for cement pumping
rate for 1.5 to 2 cycles (minimum). For critical jobs such as production casing cementation
fresh mud having low rheology may be pumped ahead of cement slurry.
4. Large percentage of annular open hole (at least 90 to 95%) should be “circulatable”, before
the cement job to achieve the best results.
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job. Before premixing additives in water, better to wait until the final circulation is started
after casing lowering to the target depth. Verify metering device if liquid additives are pre
mixed in water, continue to agitate chemical water thoroughly until the job is complete.
4. The mix water for cement should be measured through displacement tank because it helps
to calculate easily how much quantity of cement has been pumped in the event of unplanned
shutdown. When liquid cement additives are mixed in displacement tanks, measurement of
mixed water is absolutely necessary as tanks are alternately filled and emptied.
5. Control slurry density with pressurized mud cup balance. Check calibration of densometer
as well as mud cup balance with fresh water to ensure the reliability of density readings.
6. Use top and bottom cement rubber plugs. Inspect plugs before loading. Turn bottom plug
upside down and inspect hollow core and rubber diaphragm. Do not puncture diaphragm of
bottom plug prior to loading. Bottom hollow plug is loaded first and then Top solid plug is
loaded. Check order of plug loading.
7. A bottom plug is not recommended with large amounts of lost circulation material in the
slurry or with badly rusted or scaled casing, as such material may collect on the ruptured
diaphragm and bridge the casing.
8. Displace top plug out of cementing head without shutting down operations. Do not open
cementing head to drop top plug and better to use a two plug container, as it will allow the
well to suck in air and cause honey combing of cement around the shoe joints.
9. Use pre-flush or spacer volume equal to 150-200 m annular height, Pump pre-flush or spacer
ahead of bottom plug. Better use two bottom plugs, one ahead of pre-flush and one ahead of
cement slurry. Be sure to conduct compatibility test with pre-flush, mud and cement slurry.
10. To ensure good control of slurry density and other properties, batch mix all cement slurries,
if possible. Alternatively use continuous mixing devices like Precision Slurry Mixer (PSM) or
Recirculating Cement Mixer (RCM).
11. Do not try to get the last few quantity of cement out of the cement bunker or surge tank. This
will cause reduction in slurry density and will result in poor slurry at shoe joint and outside
bottom joints. Maintain constant density of the last 10-12bbls. (2cu.m) slurry pumped which
is very critical.
B. Displacement
1. Determine displacement rate on the basis of the type of casing string to be cemented.
Turbulent flow displacement is usually accepted as being the most efficient techniques for
achieving good mud removal. However when turbulence all around the casing cannot achieve
mainly due to stand off, pump or fracture gradient limitations, then the maximum permissible/
attainable discharge for high laminar flow is recommended for displacement.
2. Cement displacement rate should be as high as possible but at least 1.3 m/sec and preferably
1.8 m/sec to achieve sufficient zonal isolation with reasonable degree of certainty.
3. Field validated computer programs should be used to calculate the highest possible
displacement rate within the constraints imposed by formation strength and surface/down
hole equipments limitation.
4. Keep casing pipe in motion to improve mud displacement. Reciprocation should be on a 2
minute cycle over 15-20 ft. intervals. Rotation at 3-10 rpm is satisfactory.
5. Displace top plug out of cementing head with minimum down time.
6. Continue pipe movement until the top cementing plug is bumped or casing tends to become
stuck.
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C. Waiting-On-Cement
1. Sufficient WOC time must be observed for the cement to develop adequate strength before
operations are resumed. For a period of hours after the plug is bumped, the cement is rigid
but has very little strength, and any damage sustained by the cement sheath during this
period does not “reheal”.
2. The required period of WOC time varies depending on the cement and down hole condition
of temperature and pressure.
3. Cement used to cement an intermediate casing string should have compressive strength of
at least 500 psi before drilling is resumed.
4. Completion interval cement should have compressive strength of at least 2000 psi before
the well is perforated.
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5. Run in the casing with the stage collar at the desired depth. Stage collar should be tightened
by putting the tong at the designated place on the outer sleeve of the stage collar only.
6. The stage collar should preferably be placed against the shale section.
7. Besides slurry pumping displacement and safety factor, the first stage slurry thickening
time should include the traveling time of bomb, opening of ports and one cycle circulation
through stage collar ports.
8. One centraliser may be placed just above the stage collar and one below the stage collar.
9. After completion of first stage cementation job, drop the opening plug or bomb and allow it
to reach the stage collar. Opening plug velocity is approx 1m/sec in normal mud. Ensure the
seating of freefall plug for opening of stage collar port. To open the ports slowly build-up
pressure usually approx. 1,200 to 1500 psi. A drop in pressure will indicate that fluid has
escaped into the annulus after opening of ports.
10. Circulate the well through the stage collar ports for 2 cycles to flush out any extra /
contaminated cement from the first stage and the well must be circulated untill the mud is
conditioned for the second stage.
11. Release closing / shut off plug in such a manner so as to have some cement slurry over it.
This will ensure cement outside the stage collar and minimize the hazards of displacement
fluid outside the stage collar. Further cement above shut off plug will help in drilling it out.
12. For closing the cementing ports approximately 1500psi pressure in excess of second stage
final / cementing pressure is to be built up over the shut off plug in one continuous operation
without slowing down or stopping the pumps. Confirm the closure by bleeding back.
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Cementing Operations
fractured zone. Care must be taken to avoid collapsing the casing because of excessive
differential pressure between the outer annulus and the drill pipe/casing annular space.
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• The plug arrangement for liner cementing eliminates the opportunities to run a bottom plug a
head of the cement. Normally a spacer fluid which is compatible with mud and cement is pump
between mud and cement to provide a buffer to avoid serious contamination.
• The amount of cement excess for liner cementing must be carefully calculated by taking into
accounts the well conditions and displacement efficiency. Displacement efficiency is a key
variable in determining cement slurry volumes as it is not uncommon to have 60% to 80%
displacement efficiency in liner cementing. Excess volume increase the likelihood for good
cement placement but it is also increases the possibility of operating problems.
• The volume of cement used on most deep liners is usually rather small. Since slurry design
parameters are critical for liner cementation batch mixing should be done to promote uniformity.
• Slow down displacement when the pump down plug (dart) approaches the liner wiper plug in
order to observe the first pressure surge (about 300psi) corresponding to the shearing of the
pins.
• Release the liner setting tool after completion of displacement and if packer type liner hanger is
used then set the packer.
• Pull the setting tool free from the liner and reverse out any excess cement above the liner top. If
no packer is incorporated into the liner hanger then reverse out keeping excess cement over the
top of the liner so that 8 to 10 joints of the intermediate casing will contain cement to be drilled
out after setting.
• Reverse circulation places an extra pressure on the annulus and this additional pressure should
be pre-calculated and controlled where necessary to avoid formation break down. A liner packer
keeps reverse circulation pressure off the formation.
• In long liners, there may be a considerable temperature differential between the bottom and top
of the liner. The cement may take very long time to set at the top and as such drilling of cement
must be done after the cement develop the minimum compressive strength at the top of liner
also.
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Differential testing of a liner top requires the use of a packer normally set at 100 to 300 ft above the top
of the liner. This testing is accomplished by lowering the pressure above the liner to a point lower than
the highest pore pressure behind the liner. This may even require partial evacuation of the fluid from
the drill pipe by adding nitrogen or some combination of nitrogen and fluid to lighten the column.
Differential pressure testing requires close scrutiny of the collapse rating of the liner itself.
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• Try to rotate or reciprocate drill pipe slowly till the completion of displacement.
• Under displace the plug by 200-300 liters to avoid any back flow.
• Pull out the drill pipe/tubing slowly (30-50 ft/min) out of the cement to minimize contamination.
• Reverse wash twice the drill string volume to wash excess slurry out of the hole.
• Ample WOC time to be allocated (12 to 24 hours) for a plug job. A common practice is to
allow for longer WOC time since well temperature for a cement plug job is difficult to know
accurately.
• Always test the cement plug by tagging top of cement with Bit and apply required weight for
“Hardness” test.
• While placing a cement plug for kick-off special measures as depicted below are required to
be followed for success at first attempt
Use either a mechanical or chemical method to provide some static barrier below the
intended bottom of the plug
When a high viscous pill is used for achieving a static barrier below the cement column,
then the length of the pill should be equal to the cement plug length and funnel viscosity
of the pill should exceeds 150 sec. Also the pill density should be greater than the mud
weight and 10 sec gel strength of the pill should be above 50 lbs/100 sq.ft.
Use a “Divertor tool” for placement of cement to achieve uniform placement of cement
slurry all around the wellbore and to prevent contamination due to downward movement.
Typically 2 7/8 tubing should be used as tail pipe to minimize contamination during
pulling out as it will create less disturbances of the cement plug when the pipe is being
pulled. The length of tail pipe should be 1.5 - 2 times the plug length.
At least provide 48 hrs. W.O.C for attaining sufficient hardness/ strength for side- track
plug.
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mixing the cement. When the fracture gradient must be exceeded to obtain sufficient rate for
cement placement, it should be done without excess.
A minimum of ten barrels volumes should be used when obtaining an injection rate. Deep
perforations require more volume than shallow ones because of the additional hole volumes.
Consider spotting a clear fluid such as water across the perforations when obtaining an injection
rate.
The injection test is performed for several reasons:
• To ensure that the perforations are open and ready to accept fluids.
• To obtain an estimate of the proper cement slurry injection rate.
• To estimate the pressure at which the squeeze job will be performed, and
• To estimate the amount of slurry to be used.
If suitable injection rate could not be established at the desired injection pressure, it may be
necessary to use acid to clean up the perforations, channel etc. Hydrochloric and hydrofluoric
acids are commonly used. While taking injectivity test, raise the pressure very slowly up to the
point of injection without fracturing the exposed formation.
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Whereas for a hesitation squeeze method, higher pumping time must be designed so that
cement slurry remains in fluid stage till squeeze pressure is achieved.
C. Slurry Volume
The optimum amount of cement is the volume required to seal the void. The volume of slurry
needed is generally inversely proportional to the injection pressure and directly proportional to
the injection rate. The appropriate volume of cement slurry depends upon the length of the
interval to be cemented, and the placement technique to be used. A low-pressure squeeze
requires only enough slurry to build a certain filter cake in each perforation tunnel. In many
cases less than a barrel is sufficient. However, for job convenience and because of problems in
placing the cement into the correct place to provide a seal, a 5-15bbl batch is normally prepared.
A high-pressure squeeze, in which the formation is fractured, requires a higher volume of slurry.
The following may be considered when determining the volume of cement to use.
• The volume should not exceed the capacity of the running string.
• Two sacks of cement should be used per foot of perforated intervals restricted to a minimum
of 50-sacks.
• The minimum volume should be 100 sacks if an injection rate of 2bbl/min can be achieved
after breakdown: otherwise it should be 50 sacks.
• The volume should not be so great as to form a column that cannot be reversed out.
• The volume of the void to be filled behind the cement or in the zone plus the volume to be left
in casing but not less than 50 sacks.
D. Squeeze Pressure
Squeeze pressure is the pressure at the injection point. In most cases, if the cement can be
placed at the proper point, a successful squeeze can be obtained with 500 to 1000 psi standing
pressure above the injection pressure. The pressure should be hold for 10 to 15 minutes with no
flow back. Low-pressure squeeze is recommended where possible. A safety factor of about 300
psi below formation fracturing pressure is reasonable for low pressure squeezing.
After a squeeze is obtained, the pressure should be bled off and the volume of fluid measured.
The squeeze should then be repressured and the volume measured again. If the volumes are
equal, this indicates that the squeeze has held and the volume of fluid pumped compensated for
tubular expansion.
E. Lurry Preparation
When preparing the slurry, the use of a recirculating mixer or batch mixer is strongly recommended,
because it ensures that the properties of the slurry pumped in the well are as close as possible
to those of the slurry designed in the laboratory. On most squeeze jobs, the amount of slurry
involved is quite small, but the requirements of its quality are quite high, therefore special care
must be taken in preparing it.
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• Plugged perforation
It is rare to find all perforations open and producing. Perforations will usually have some
degree of mud fill up, depending on the completion, fluid. Mud filter cake is capable of
withstanding high pressure differentials especially in the direction from the well bore to the
formation and the high pressures may create a fracture before accepting cement filtrate.
Many squeeze failure may be attributed to subsequent clean up of a previously plugged
perforation which did not accept the cement slurry during the squeeze job.
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Cementing Operations
18.4.1 Handling
a) Care must be taken during handling and transportation of cement/ additive bags so as not to
allow introduction of moisture.
b) Use of iron hooks be avoided as it will puncture the bags and expose the material to moisture.
c) Possible contamination of bulk cement by other cement brands or bulk materials should be
avoided in offshore operations.
d) Suitable moisture scrubbing equipment should be added in the cooler air lines between
compressor and tanks. Particular care should be taken in offshore bulk cement handling
operations to avoid transfer lines becoming wet.
e) One type of cement additive should be kept together.
f) For offshore use, cement additive should be sent to installation in sealed containers and if
sent on pallets, then it should be properly covered with water-proof tarpaulin.
18.4.2 Storage
a) Cement chemicals should be kept separately from other chemicals to avoid any intermixing
of bags.
b) Storage of cement / chemicals should be such that oldest stock will be issued first.
c) It is advisable to store cement chemical bags on a platform with approximately 6 inches air
space and tarpaulin should be spread on the base of stacking in order to form a moisture
proof seal.
d) When stored on pallets, cement and additives should be stored from initial stage of receipt
of material and on a pallet not more than 20 bags of additives and 30 bags of cement should
be placed.
e) While storing cement for a long time in silo, either on site or in bulk handling plants, cement
should be transferred from one silo to another, at least once in a month.
f) Air dryer must be used for moisture free air in handling cement when storing in silos.
g) Staggered delivery schedule should be maintained.
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5. To see that float shoe is checked and placed on first joint of casing to guide casing into well
and minimising derrick strain.
6. To check float collar and should be placed on one/two/three joints above casing shoe
depending upon well depth.
7. To ensure float shoe and float collars used are of same type.
8. Type of floating equipment, conventional or differential. If differential type is used, the tripping
ball is checked.
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3. Batch mixer/ recirculating mixer/ precision slurry mixer is used for preparing homogenous
slurry.
4. Mud balance or other density measuring device is calibrated with fresh water before actual
cement job.
5. The sp.gravity of cement slurry is continuously monitored during cementation job.
6. The sp.gravity of cement slurry is maintained as close as the lab design with variation of ±
0.2 ppg.
7. Quantity of cement used and slurry volume pumped is as per plan.
8. Continuous monitoring of mud returns during cement slurry pumping.
18.5.13 Monitoring
1. Data comparisons with calculated predictions and post analysis of the job.
2. Calculate material balance for mix water, cement and cement additives and compare with
volume of each slurry pumped.
3. Prepare a summary of the completed job.
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Cementing Operations
18.5.14 Evaluation
1. Quality of CBL/VDL: Excellent / Satisfactory / Poor.
2. CBL/VDL was taken after 48 hrs. / 60 hrs.
3. Whether CBL/VDL is recorded under pressurized conditions.
4. CBL/VDL taken before or after hermatical test.
5. Interpretation of CBL/VDL in terms of Bond Index.
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Cementing Operations
The following guidelines are suggested as good operating practices. It is the responsibility of
supervisor to ensure that all cementing service personnel and rig crew adhere to the procedures
outlined below:
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12. Use only high pressure fittings and approved steel pipes which are in good condition and
thoroughly inspected.
13. Cementing heads, manifolds, valves and plugs should be inspected, cleaned and lubricated
prior to hooking up. Always clean an oil line connection before making up cementing lines.
14. The cementing operational in-charge must supervise line hook up work and thoroughly inspect
prior to testing lines
15. Care should be taken to avoid damage to the threaded pin end and stopper of cementing
head during handling and tightening to the casing. Cementing head must be secured to the
links by safety chains.
16. Thread protectors must be used on all exposed male threads of circulating subs or cementing
heads to avoid thread damage.
17. Only steel lines should be used for releasing pressure and checking back flow from the
wells.
18. In electrical rigs, all cementing equipment should be earthed to the derrick structure to avoid
any electrical shock accident. Electrical powered cementing skid unit should also be earthed
properly.
19. Cementing head, safety valves and high pressure lines of cementing units should be checked
for operation at stipulated pressure to ensure operational safety and NDT should be carried
out at an interval of 3 years.
A. High pressure lines should be tested with water at 1.5 times the maximum pressure
expected in pumping operations. The pressure test will not exceed the safe working
pressure of the equipment.
B. Before, testing all persons should be vacated from the vicinity of high pressure line. No
one will be permitted to step across, stand on or straddle or hammer on any pressurised
line.
C. Do not allow any one to take up line leakage repair operation until –
i) Particular well site personnel are notified by the cementing supervisor with the repair
plan
ii) Pressure has been released from the line.
iii) The release valve is left open during repairs.
iv) The flow has stopped from the bleed-off line.
v) The cementing supervisor has personally observed and determined that the system
is free of any pressure.
20. The maximum permissible pressure and pumping rates through cementing lines are as
follows:
2" (1.75" ID) -15000 psi W/Pr. - 7 BPM
2" (1.8" ID)-10000 psi W/Pr. - 7.5 BPM
21. During a pre-job safety meeting, cementing in-charge must outline the job procedure, define
pressure limits, discuss safety measures and additional briefing on emergency procedure
or any unsafe conditions to all personnel designated to participate in the job.
He should designate the sequence and volume in which fluid will be pumped and at what
pumping rate. Also duties of each person during cementing job including equipment operation,
mixing of chemical, operation of valves, bulk delivery, cementing head and maintenance
management.
He will also review communication system which plays an important role in monitoring
cementing job execution.
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22. Entire sequence of operation should be controlled by cementing operational in-charge (one
single supervisor) to avoid any confusion in following instructions during cementation.
23. In many offshore rigs, the cementing unit is placed in relatively congested closed space.
The cementing supervisor should ensure that all exhaust fans are working and that all the
personnel present in the cementing room should wear air filters (masks).
24. In floaters, the cementing supervisor should ensure that the ventine system which facilitates
in cleaning is in proper working condition. If not, the entire cementing room might be filled
with unwanted fluids.
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Drilling Fluid
CHAPTER - 19
DRILLING FLUID
Drilling fluid is an integral part of all drilling operations and hence plays a vital role in designing a
cost effective drilling operation. The direct cost of drilling fluid in ONGC is 3% - 5% (approx) of drilling
cost as compared to world average of 8% to 10%. However, its impact on total cost of drilling operations
is more important. A good drilling fluid therefore not only saves the number of days required to drill a
well but also provides a stable and gauged borehole to aid in completion and production operations.
Proper preparation and maintenance of a drilling fluid on site is, therefore, a prerequisite for its
optimal performance. Though volumes have been written about the composition and field performance
of a variety of drilling fluids that have been used over the years, a requirement for a simple stepwise
description of activities for preparation and maintenance of conventional and popular water based
drilling fluid systems is being felt for many years. This chapter is a humble attempt to bridge this gap
of knowledge and experience. The description that follows has been given keeping the man on drill
site in view so that it can be utilized as useful ready reference manual of drilling preparation and
maintenance on the drill site.
DEFINITION
Drilling fluid is defined as any fluid, which is circulated in the well bore to help in carrying out a
cost effective and efficient drilling operation resulting in stable and gauged borehole to target depth
with minimum possible damage to prospective reservoir formations.
19.1 FUNCTIONS
The principal functions of the drilling fluid are:
• Deliver hydraulic energy upon the formation beneath the bit.
• Clean the drilling face.
• Transport drilled cuttings and cavings to the surface.
• To minimize settling of cuttings and weight material in suspension when circulation is
temporarily stopped.
• To exert sufficient hydrostatic pressure to avoid formation fluid influx.
• To create an impermeable barrier on the wall.
• To cool, clean and lubricate the drill string and bit.
• Stabilize the borehole.
• To ensure maximum information about the formations penetrated.
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string through bit nozzles. On its return journey it travels up the annulus and comes out through the
bell nipple to the flow line, flow line delivers it to the possum belly of the shale shakers, which are the
first in the battery of solids control equipment. The fluid then flows through settling tanks, Desander
and Desilter tanks back to active pits through mud flow channels.
It is, therefore, necessary to check and prepare the tanks and the circulatory system of the rig
before spudding a well. The following steps are required.
• Check that active pits and all other tanks are properly placed in order and inter connected
properly.
• Check all valves for proper functioning and leakage.
• Check proper functioning of agitators in the tank.
• Check that active pit is properly connected to incoming water line.
• Check that active pit is properly connected to mud pumps.
• Check that bell nipple is properly lined up and aligned with the return flow line and there is no
leakage through welded joints and where it is aligned with return flow line.
• Check that there is proper gradient in the return flow line from bell nipple to possum belly to
ensure that the flow of mud is smooth and free.
• Check that flow line is of sufficient diameter so that it can handle drilling fluid flowing under
maximum discharge without getting wasted by spillage. Further it shall also be able to
provide allowance for volume enhancement due to gas in flux.
• Check the return flow line lands properly in the possum belly causing no mud wastage or spill
over.
• Check that settling pits, and other tanks of the circulatory systems are properly lined up,
have proper valves with no leakage.
• Check that solids control equipment like shale shaker, desander and desilter / mud cleaner
are properly installed and are ready for operation during drilling.
• Check that degasser has been placed properly and has been installed, tested for operation
and has been found to be working all right.
• Check that motors of hoppers, (superchargers) Desander and Desilter have been properly
placed and connected for their smooth operation. Also ensure that these motors have been
properly protected / insulated from drilling fluid waste & other water flows etc to avoid their
short circuiting and break down.
• Check that the sensors of measurement of pit volume, Flow rate, Gas show, Fluid density
etc. have been properly installed and secured for their rugged field application. These sensors
are installed on mud tanks, flow line, possum belly etc and they provide very useful data to
drilling console and mud logging
• Ensure that all tanks and the entire circulatory system is clean, by washing it with drill water
and removing all unwanted / undesirable matter.
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• Clean the mud tanks thoroughly by flushing them with drill water.
• Take sufficient quantity of water in the mud tank.
• Add caustic soda through a small stream of water flowing through a caustic soda bag kept on
the tank. This shall ensure sufficient alkalinity of drill water when bentonite powder is mixed
with it.
• Mix bentonite powder through hopper using the water of active pit. The rate of addition of dry
bentonite powder is controlled to avoid choking of hopper nozzle.
• Continue bentonite powder addition till the desired viscosity is achieved. Normally 7.5%
bentonite powder weight/volume is sufficient for the purpose. However, thick gels of 10% or
more bentonite may also be prepared for keeping as reserve mud in other tanks.
• Check the pH of the gel under preparation. If it is between 9.0 and 10.5 (depending upon the
actual requirement) stop the addition of caustic soda.
• Run agitators continuously and mud guns intermittently.
• Keep the gel undisturbed for hydration for 6-8 hours the agitators must be kept off during
period of hydration.
• Close / plug all water lines to avoid inadvertent entry of water in the gel.
• Avoid contamination of drill water with salt or lime or cement etc. otherwise it shall not
hydrate to give desirable viscosity.
• Avoid contamination of bentonite powder and caustic soda with salt, lime, cement etc.
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• Simultaneously add caustic soda in active mud tank through thin stream of water by putting
bags on the active mud tank, to ensure that pH of the drilling fluid in the tank always remains
above 9.5.
• Add Carboxyl Methyl Cellulose (Low Viscosity Grade) through hopper slowly to ensure that
the chemical gets mixed uniformly and properly in the drilling fluid. The additive shall help in
control of filtration loss.
• In case the salinity of the drilling fluid is high add Poly Anionic Cellulose (PAC) or Pre
Gelatinized Starch (PGS) for fluid loss control.
• Add Sulphonated Asphalt before encountering troublesome shales, initial dose being 1% to
2% of the mud volume.
• Add Resinated lignite to this treated inhibitive system at deeper depths to provide better
filtration control and formation stability. The initial dose being 1% of the mud volume in
circulation.
• Ensure that all the above listed additions are made slowly over one or two cycles of drilling
fluid circulations to ensure that there is no formation of patches and drilling fluid remains
homogenous.
• Add drilling detergent if soft clays are being drilled to avoid bit & stabilizer balling. The dose
of Drilling Detergent additions is unto 0.5% w / v of the circulating mud volume.
• Add EP lubricant specially while drilling directional wells of ‘S’ or ‘L’ profile to minimize torque
and drag. The dose of EP lubricant addition is 0.5% w / v of the circulating mud volume.
• The above two additives are added slowly and directly to the drilling fluid system because
these additives are liquids and easily miscible with drilling fluids.
• Measure the properties of this treated dispersed, inhibitive drilling fluid to ensure that they fall
within the limits detailed in Geo – Technical Order (GTO).
• Add maintenance dosages of these mud additives at regular intervals to ensure that properties
of drilling fluid remain within the limits set in GTO.
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Drilling Fluid
Level Graduated
Lid bubble arm Rider Counterweight
Cup
Base
Fig. 1
Mud balance
(Source : Manuel du technicien fluides de forage, Milkpark CKS).
stepwise monitoring and control or specific gravity is done as Density may be expressed as pounds
per gallon, pounds per cubic foot, grams per cubic centimeter, specific gravity. The mud balance is
generally used for mud weight measurement. The weight of a mud cup attached to one end of the
beam is balanced on the other end of the beam by a fixed counterweight and a rider free to move
along a graduated scale. A level bubble is mounted on the beam. Attachments for extending the range
of the balance may be used.
Procedure
• The instrument base should be set up approximately level.
• Fill the clean, dry cup with mud to be tested, put on and rotate the cap until firmly seated.
Make sure some of the mud is expelled through the hole in the cap to free trapped air or gas.
• Wash or wipe off the mud from the outside of the cup.
• Place the beam on the support and balance it by moving the rider along the graduated scale.
The beam is horizontal when bubble is on centerline.
• Read the density at the side of the rider towards the knife-edge.
• Report the density to the nearest 0.1 lb/gal or 0.5 lb/cub.ft. (0.01 gm/cub.cm.)
• To convert other units:
• Specific gravity = 62.3 lbs per cub.ft. = 8.33 lbs. per gallon
Calibration
The instrument should be calibrated frequently with fresh water. Fresh water should give a reading
of 8.33 lb/gal or 62.3 lb/cub.ft. Or 1,00 gm/cub.cm. at 70 °F.
If it shows wrong reading then the balancing screw should be adjusted.
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A. Marsh Funnel
B. Direct Indicating Viscometer
A. Marsh Funnel
The marsh funnel is dimensioned so that, by following standard procedures, the out flow time of
one quart (946 cub.cm) of fresh water at a temperature of 70 + 5 °F is 26 + 0.5 seconds. A
graduated cup is used as a receiver.
Procedure
1. Cover the orifice with a finger and pour a freshly taken mud sampling through the screen into
the clean, dry, upright funnel until the liquid level reaches the bottom of the screen.
2. Quickly remove the finger and measure the time required for the mud to fill the receiving
vessel to the one (quart/946 cub. cm.) mark.
3. Report the result to the nearest second as Marsh Funnel viscosity.
∅ 152mm
20 mesh sieve
1500 cm2
946 cm2
Fig. 2
Marsh viscosity meter
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Drilling Fluid
SPRING
DIAL
DIAL
ROTOR
BOB
ROTOR
Fig. 4
Diagram of a direct - indicat-
ing viscometer. Read the de-
flection of the bob in degrees
from a scale on the dial.
Fig. 3
Direct - indicating viscometer
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
possible) and at a temperature as near as practical to that of the mud at the place of sampling
(not to differ more than 10 0F or 6 0C). The place of sampling should be stated if required when
reporting the values, observed for making a zero error.
ii. With the sleeve rotating at 600 rpm, wait for the dial reading to reach a steady value (the time
required is dependent on the mud characteristics). Record the dial for 600 rpm.
iii. Shift to 300 rpm and wait for the dial reading to come to a steady value. Record the dial
reading for 300 rpm.
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Drilling Fluid
Equipment
The filtration or wall building property, of a mud is determined by means of a filter press. The tests
consists of determining the rate at which the fluid is forced from a filter press containing the mud
sample, under specified conditions of time, temperature and pressure, and measuring the thickness
of the residual solids film deposited on the filter paper by the loss of fluid. The API filter loss is
recorded as the number of cc’s lost in 30 minutes. API high temperature high pressure tests are
conducted at 300 deg. F and at 500 psi and recorded as the number of cc lost in 30 minutes.
Wheel
Air
Gasket inlet
Filter Paper
Sieve
Gasket
Lid
Base
Cell
Measuring cylinder
Fig. 5
Filter Press for measuring filtrate
(Source : Milpark CKS).
Description
Essentially, the filter press consists of a cylindrical mud cell having an inside diameter of 3 inch
(76.2mm) and a height of at least 2 1/2 inch (64 mm). This chamber is made of materials resistant to
strongly alkaline solutions, and is so fitted that a pressure medium can be conveniently admitted
into, and bled from the top. Arrangement is also such that a sheet of 9 cm, filter paper can be placed
in the bottom of the chamber just above a suitable support. The filtration area is 7.1 + 0.1 sq. inch
(45.8 + 0.6 esq.). Below the support is drain tube for discharging the filtrate into a graduated cylinder.
Sealing is accomplished with gaskets. The entire assembly is supported by a stand. Pressure can
be applied with any non hazardous fluids medium, either gas or liquid. Presses are equipped with
pressure regulators and can be obtained with portable pressure cylinders.
Procedure
i. Be sure each part of the cell, particularly the screen is clean and dry, and that the gaskets
are not distorted or worn. Pour the sample of mud into the cell and complete the assembly.
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ii. Place a dry graduated cylinder under the drain tube to receive the filtrate, close the relief
value and adjust the regulators so that a pressure of 100 psi (7.03 + 0.356 Kg/sq cm.) is
applied in 30 seconds or less. The test period (or duration of time) begins at, the time of
pressure application. At the end of 30 minutes, measure the volume of filtrate. Shut off the
flow through the pressure regulators and open the relief valve carefully. It may be desirable to
use a one-hour filtration tests for oil muds: the time interval shall be reported.
iii. Report the volume of filtrate in cubic centimeters (to 0.1 cub.cm.) as the API filtrate. Report
at the start of the test mud temperature.
iv. Remove the cell from the frame, first making certain that all pressure has been relieved.
Disassemble the cell, discard the mud, and use extreme care to save the filter paper with a
minimum of disturbance to the cake. Wash the filter cake on the paper with gentle stream of
water and measure the thickness of the cake. In case of oil muds diesel may be used in
place of water for washing the cake.
Report the thickness of the filter cake to the nearest value.
• Check and ensure that its value falls within the desirable value of API fluid loss in G.T.O.
• Also record and report whether the filtrate is clear liquid or muddy fluid.
• If it is muddy fluid report that whether there was a sudden fluid loss as soon as the pressure
was applied (Which is called spurt loss).
• Measure & report the API fluid loss every six hours during normal drilling operations.
• In case the value of API fluid loss increases beyond the acceptable limits as per G.T.O. add
fluid loss control additive like CMC, or PAC or PGS depending upon the type of water base
mud employed.
• Measure the reduction in fluid loss of drilling fluids at least one cycle after addition of Fluid
loss control additive to get the true state of the API fluid loss value.
• Ensure maintenance doses of fluid loss additive in the drilling fluid system commensurate
with amount of fluid dilution with water or bentonite gel and thermal degradation etc of the
additive at higher temperature. This shall ensure a more or less stable API fluid loss value
within the G.T.O. range.
• Keep the API filter press clean, dry, well serviced and maintained for its repeated use.
• During API fluid loss measurement keep a watch on the pressure value in the gauge, it
should remain at 100 psi throughout.
Equipment
Sand content of mud is estimated by the use of a sand screen set. The set consists of a 200
mesh sieve 2 1/2 inch (63.5 mm) in diameter, a funnel to fit to screen and glass measuring tube. The
measuring tube is marked for the volume of mud to be added in order to read directly the percentage
of sand in the bottom of the tube, which is graduated from 0 to 20 percent.
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Drilling Fluid
Procedure
i. Fill the glass measuring tube to the indicated mark with mud. Add water to next mark, close
the mouth of the tube and shake vigorously.
ii. Pour the mixture, into the clean, wet screen, Discard the liquid passing through the screen.
And more water to the tube, shake and again pour onto the screen. Repeat until the wash
water passes through clear. Wash the sand retained on the screen to free it of any remaining
mud.
iii. Fit the funnel upside down over the top of the screen. Slowly invert the assembly and insert
the tip of the funnel into the mouth of the glass tube. Wash the sand into the tube by playing
of fine spray of water through the screen. Allow the sand to settle. From the graduations on
the tube read the volume percent of the sands.
iv. Report the sand content of the mud in volume percent. Report the source of the mud sample,
i.e. above shaker suction pit etc. Coarse solids other than sand will be retained on the screen.
Procedure
i. Procedure will vary slightly, depending upon the apparatus used. Keep the interior of the mud
chamber smooth by cleaning after every use.
ii. Place a measured volume of deaerated mud in the chamber. Insert fine steel wool above the
sample and add a drop of defoaming agent. Close the retort. The hole in the lid of the
containing vessel must not be blocked. Put a clean graduated cylinder under the condenser
discharge.
iii. Heat the retort, continuing 10 minutes after no more condensate is being collected in the
graduated cylinder. The addition of a drop of wetting agent promotes separation of oil and
water droplets. Read to volume of oil and water collected.
iv. From the volumes of oil and water collected and the volume of the original mud samples, the
percentage by volume of oil, water and solids in the mud can be calculated.
• Calculate the solids content % by volume as under
i. % Water by volume = ml of water x 10
ii. % Oil by volume (if any) = ml. of oil x 10
iii. % Solids by volume = 100 – (ml. of water + ml. of oil) x 10
iv. Gms of oil = ml. of oil x 0.8
v. Gm of water = ml. of water x 1
vi. Gms mud = 10 x sp.gr. of mud
vii. Gms of solids = (vi) – (v + iv)
viii. MT solid = 10 – (ml. oil + ml. water)
ix. Average sp.gr. of solids = (vii) / (viii)
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19.4.8 pH Measurement
The conventional water based drilling fluids are dependent on specialized additives for their
performance. The performance of these additives is in turn largely dependent on the pH value of the
mud. If has been observed by laboratory experimentation as well as field experience that the CL /
CLS based inhibitive dispersed system perform most efficiently when pH of the drilling fluid lies
between 9.5 and 10.5 and hence it is necessary to maintain pH of the drilling fluid always within this
range.
• The stepwise monitoring and control of pH value of mud is done as under.
• Keep a regular check on the pH of the drilling fluid used.
The pH of a drilling fluid indicates its relative acidity or alkalinity. Double-distilled water is neutral,
that is, it is neither acid nor alkaline. On the pH scale, this point is indicated by the number 7. Acids
range from just below 7 for slight acidity less than 1 for the strongest acidity. Alkaline solution range
from just above 7 for slight alkalinity to 14 for highest alkalinity.
Two methods for measuring the pH of drilling mud are used. These are: -
i. A modified colorimetric method, using paper test strips.
ii The electronic method, using the glass electrode.
The paper strip method may not be reliable if the salt concentration of the sample is high. The
electrometric method is subjected to error in solutions containing high concentration of sodium ions,
unless a special glass electrode is used, or unless suitable correction factors are applied in using the
ordinary electrodes. In addition, temperature correction should be made in the electrometric method
of measuring pH.
Procedure
Place 1 inch strip of indicator paper on the surface of the mud. Allow it to remain until the liquid
has wetted the surface of the paper and the colour is stabilized. Compare the colour of the upper side
of the paper (which has not been in contact with the mud solids) with the colour standard, provided
with the test strip and estimate the mud pH.
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Drilling Fluid
i. The glass electrodes, which consists of a thin walled bulb made of special glass within which
is sealed a suitable electrolyte and electrode.
ii. The reference electrode, which is, saturated calomel cell. Electrical connection with the mud
is established through a saturated solution of potassium chloride contained in a tube
surrounding the calomel cell. The electrical potential generated in the glass electrode system
by the hydrogen ions in the drilling mud is amplified and operates the calibrated meter, which
indicates pH.
Procedure
i. Make the necessary adjustment to put the amplifier into operation and standardize the matter
with suitable buffer solution, according to directions supplied with the instrument.
ii. Wash the tips of the electrodes, gently wipe dry and insert them the mud contained in a
small glass vessel. Stir the mud about the electrodes by rotating the containers.
iii. Measure the mud pH according to the directions supplied with the instrument. After the
meter reading becomes constant, which may require from 30 seconds to several minutes,
record the pH.
Procedure
i. Add 1 cc of mud to 10 cc of water in a 250 cc flask. Add 15 cc of 3% hydrogen peroxide and
0.5 cc of dilute sulfuric acid (about 5N) and boil gently for 10 minutes. Dilute to about 50 cc
with water.
ii. Add Methylene blue solution to the flask from a pipette or burette, after each 0.5 cc of
methylene blue is titrated into the flask, shake the contents of the flask for about 30 seconds.
While the solids are still suspended, remove one-drop liquid with a stirring rod and place it on
filter paper.
When dye appears as a greenish-blue ring surrounding the dyed solids detected.
iii. Shake the flask an additional two minutes and place another drop on the filter paper. If the
blue ring is again evident, the end point has been reached. If the ring does not appear,
continue as before until a drop taken after shaking 2 minutes shows a blue tint.
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• Ensure that cones are in good condition and they are not mud cut.
• Ensure that the nozzle size of desander is proper. This can be checked by inserting finger
through the nozzle while desander is running. If a distinct force is experienced by the finger
tending to suck it in, the nozzle size of the desander is correct. This force is developed due
to central portion created in an efficient vortex of a hydro cyclone.
• Watch the discharge of cones, it must be a spray discharge. If any time rope discharge is
observed get the cone checked and corrected immediately. Rope discharge means inefficient
operation of hydro cyclone (desander & desilter).
• During round trip, clean and service the cones of desander & desilters for their efficient
operation in next cycle.
• Measure the specific gravity of under flow (i.e. discharge of cones. This shall give an idea of
efficient running of desander.
• Follow all above guidelines for proper operation. Maintenance, and servicing of the desilter also.
• Run both desander and desilter simultaneously to remove the undesirable low gravity solids
upto silt range. This shall certainly reduce the specific gravity of drilling fluid and it may come
within the desirable range.
• Once the specific gravity has come within desirable range maintain it at that level by prudent
alternate operation of desander or desilter and efficient use of shale shaker.
• Use Linear Motion shale shaker and Linear Motion Mud cleaner if available, for most efficient
solids control results.
• In case the formation being drilled is soft clay, the rise in specific gravity is due to particles
finer than silt range and a good number of them may fall in colloidal size range. The only
option for their control and weight reduction is by dilution with base liquid i.e. water or brine
as the case may be hence dilute with water at an optimal rate commensurate with rate of
drilling (ROP) to nullify the effect of clay solids getting mixed in the system.
• For every cubic meter of water being added. Add desired quantities of caustic soda for
maintaining pH, fluid loss control additive, and other speciality additives composed in the
prevalent mud so that their percentage dosages are maintained.
• Once the specific gravity reaches desirable value minimize water or base fluid addition along
with other chemicals and additives, to a level to maintain specific gravity at that desired level.
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highly viscous bentonite suspension till it is able to suspend barites again for desired specific
gravity.
• Add more barites to compensate for the added low specific gravity, high viscosity gel.
• Maintain the desired specific gravity of mud by ensuring the minimum required viscosity to
suspend the weight material.
Depending upon the cause of rise in viscosity following steps is recommended to trouble
shoot this problem.
• Analyse the drilling fluid in well site laboratory using a multi speed viscometer.
• Calculate plastic viscosity, yield point and 10 second and 10 minute gel strength of the fluid.
• Compare these results with the results of the fluid just before the rise in viscosity occurred.
• In case there is a substantial increase in yield point and gel values and that too more in 10
minute gel values of drilling fluid and the formation being drilled are Montmorillonite rich mud
making shales, dilute the drilling fluid sufficiently to keep the colloidal clay content within limits.
• Add deflocculant along with caustic soda in sufficient quantities to get the drilled clays all in
deflocculated condition.
• Add other ingredients of drilling fluid like Chrome Lignite, drilling detergent, caustic soda,
fluid loss control additive etc. to make up for the dilution rate so that their optimum percentage
doses are always maintained in the drilling fluid.
• Continue the above treatment till the viscosity comes back to desired level or range.
• Maintain the viscosity of this level by frequent and regular treatments of above chemicals so
long as the problematic shale section is under drilling fluids is cased.
• In case there is rise in viscosity associated with rise in yield point and gels but the formation
being drilled are relatively inert to the drilling fluid partial thermal degradation of deflocculant
along with reaction of clay with caustic soda at this temperature (> 1200C / 1500C or more)
may be the cause of this unacceptable rise in viscosity.
• Add replenishment dosages of deflocculant after every 2-3 cycles so that they never fall
below minimum required levels.
• Add sufficient quantity of fresh gels (of lower viscosity) and caustic soda to replenish the
reacted components.
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becomes even more important when permeable sand stone sections are drilled. If fluid loss values of
the drilling fluid goes above the desired limits and permeable formations are exposed, the risk of a
differential stuck up gets greatly enhanced due to formation of a thick fluffy bentonite cake against the
formation face of the well bore. It is therefore, essential to keep the fluid loss value within desirable
limits and for that following steps are recommended.
• If the fluid loss values has gone above desirable limit check the type of cake deposited on the
filter paper. Also check if there was a spurt loss when the fluid loss was measured using API
filter press. Normally both spurt loss and a fluffy cake shall be observed.
• Check the mud rheological parameter, if the viscosity yield point and gels are within the
desired limit, add fluid loss control additive over a cycle so as gets its homogenized mixing
with the fluid.
• Let the mud be conditioned for one more cycle after addition of fluid loss additive.
• After that measure API fluid loss again and observe and record the drop in fluid loss value,
spurt loss if any and quality of mud cake.
• If the new fluid loss value falls within desirable range and there is no spurt loss and cake has
become thin & tough in appearance, the desired percentage of Fluid loss additive is achieved
in the system.
• Maintain this desired dosage by regular intermittent treatment of the fluid loss additive depending
upon the rate of drilling and rate of dilution of drilling fluid with water and / or bentonitic gel.
• If the new fluid loss value does not fall within desirable range continue addition of fluid loss
additive as per above procedure till the desired value of API fluid loss is achieved.
• If the rise in fluid loss value of the drilling fluid is associated with concurrent rise in viscosity,
yield point and gels, the drilling fluid is flocculated. Add sufficient quantity of deflocculant eg;
CLS and caustic soda till viscosity / Rheology parameter fall within desirable limits
• Measure API fluid loss again of the deflocculated drilling fluid system. It is likely to have
desired values of fluid loss, otherwise small quantities of fluid loss agents may be required to
bring the fluid loss to desirable levels.
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they become total or near total to widening of already existing fractures. Total losses are also common
in lime stone formations (eg. Mumbai High L-III Reservoir) due to presence of vugs and cavern. The
first and foremost step recommended for loss of circulation is its early detection. The following is
recommended.
• Always monitor volumes of active pit closely and regularly any volume additions and transfers
must be in variably recorded.
• Always monitor return from the well at the shale shaker.
• Ensure there are no leakage or surfaces losses of the drilling fluid.
• Any significant reduction in active pit volume along with reduction in return flow is an indicative
of loss of circulation.
• Severe partial loss or total loss is easily detected as there is a fast reduction in active pit
volume and almost no return on the shale shaker.
• The moment loss of circulation is observed, stop drilling ahead and circulate drilling fluid at
lower pump rates. Monitor active pit volumes for calculating the rate of loss.
• Analyze & identify the probable zone of loss, in competent formations it is usually just below
the casing seat of the previous casing.
• Mix a pill of bridging materials like Mica flakes, Walnut shells, Rice husk, Sawdust, Baggage,
etc in the separate tank.
• Always try to mix pill with a blend of bridging materials like, flaky Mica flakes and granular
walnut shell be use do to mix an effective LCM pill.
• Mix sufficient quantity of bridging material to make the pill. An effective pill should have 30 lbs
/ bbl of the material mixed in drilling fluid being used.
• Use equal portions of different components for blending the bridging material mixture.
• Pump and place the pill slowly against the zone of loss.
• Meanwhile, if the loss is below the casing shoe, pull out the string upto the casing shoe and
stop circulation of drilling fluid while LCM pill is being prepared in the pits.
• Circulate drilling fluid to cut down specific gravity of the fluid by dilution with bentonite gel.
• Ensure that hole is always kept full of drilling fluid to avoid well bore instability and influx of
fluids from the pressurized formations.
• Once the pill is placed against the zone of loss allow time for healing of the fracture by
bridging materials of the pill.
• If the loss is contained under static condition after application of LCM pill, restart circulation
of the fluid at reduced pump strokes and observe for any loss of circulation under these
conditions.
• If there is no loss now, stop circulation and run in the string slowly to the bottom.
• Restart circulation at reduced pump rates and circulate for one or two cycles to ensure that
problem of loss circulation has bee tackled successfully.
• If the well bore and formation pressures permit further reduce specific gravity by bentonitic
gel dilution to the lowest permissible safe limits.
• Resume drilling to next casing depth and case the section to avoid any recurrence of losses.
• After a loss ensure that all tripping operations, and running in of casing pipe etc must be
handled very slowly and smoothly. No pressures surges are allowed, as that shall aggravate
the problem.
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• In case bridging materials fail to seal the zone of lost circulation try other materials like
Diesel M plugs. Diesel oil bentonite plugs (DOB plugs) or diesel oil bentonite cement plugs
(DOBC plugs)
• If the above also fail pump appropriate quantity of cement slurry to seal the zone of loss.
• Losses to buggy or cavernous lime stone formations are not controlled by any of the above
formulations. For such losses try thermosetting cross linked Gauss Gum based formulations
(Thermo gel). Their gels are acid soluble and hence may also be applied for controlling
losses in pay zones or reservoirs.
• In case losses are severe and total in huge caverns in lime stone formations down hole, drill
blind with water and set casing as soon as the loss zone is drilled through.
• Use drillable plugs for controlling such losses, if available. These plugs are set inside the
borehole including the loss zone. The plugs then can be drilled through and they provide
protection against losses to such severe loss zones.
• Never use bridging materials, cement etc for controlling losses in reservoir or pay zones as
they shall permanently damage the reservoir formation.
• Always ensure that bridging material particle size is smaller than bit nozzle otherwise it shall
choke them. In case larger particle size bridging materials is to be used, pull out of hole and
run-in with open end drill pile to pump such material.
• Follow good drilling practices to avoid pressure surges in the well bore.
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Trouble Shooting
• Identify and record the moment stuck up occurs on the well site. It is very easily to identify a
stuck pipe, which can neither be rotated nor be moved up and down.
• Find out the type of stuck up for this correlate well parameters, with immediate well history,
BHA configuration, type of formation, presence of open hole dog legs, drilling fluid rheology
and hole cleaning pattern vis-à-vis rate of drilling etc.
• In case, the BHA is against a highly permeable formation being drilled, and the pipe has
remained motion less against this formation for a considerable period of time there are no
severe dog legs and mud viscosity is sufficient for effective hole cleaning then most probably
it is a differential stuck up.
• Once differential stuck up is established calculate the annular volume required to cover the
entire BHA length.
• Mix a spotting fluid pill in HSD twice the above calculated annular volume to cover the BHA.
• Pimp this pill of spotting fluid slowly through a cementing unit and place it in the annulus
against the BHA, so that it completely soaks the BHA of the string.
• Displace only small quantities of the pill at a time.
• After every displacement wait for 30-45 minutes for the pill to react with the cake etc. in which
drill string is stuck.
• Intermittently work on the pipe to see if it is free.
• A differentially stuck pipe shall come out free even in one proper application of spotting fluid.
• If the string does not get released even after 6 hours or so of the above spotting exercise then
repeat the whole process of spotting against the stuck zone and follow the steps just as
described.
• The differentially stuck string shall come out free if spotting fluid quality is good and proper
procedure as outlined above is followed.
• If the stuck up is due to a key seat in which case the string can be moved downwards only
but it can neither be rotated nor it can be moved upwards, the spotting fluid shall not help in
freeing the pipe, follow fishing techniques to liquidate the problem.
• If the stuck up is due to annular pack off associated with poor returns of fluid on the shaker
screen, low viscosity or very high drilling rate or excessive caving which prevents proper
cleaning of the annulus stop drilling ahead immediately.
• Stop circulation or circulate at such a low rate that shall not cause pressure build up and
induced fracture below the pack off zone. Otherwise loss of circulation shall also start.
• Prepare a high viscosity pill in a separate tank by using thick bentonite gel, CMC, lime and
high viscosity grade polymers if any available on the site.
• Pump this viscous pill to sweep off the cuttings etc from the annulus.
• Continue circulation at rates low enough to keep the annular pressure losses low but sufficient
to raise the mass of cuttings etc. packing off annulus to the well mouth.
• Once the hole annulus is unloaded, condition the drilling fluid to have sufficient viscosity to
clean the hole efficiently.
• If hole is prone to caving due to dipping formations or pressured shales, raise specific gravity
to minimize this caving so that combination of drilling fluid viscosity and flow rate can effectively
clean the annulus.
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• Once the kill mud is ready coordinate with the Drilling Engineer of the rig for its proper
pumping and placement in the well to kill the well.
• Once the high pressure gas influx is controlled by killing operation, resume mud circulation
with a higher specific gravity which must be more than formation pressure (i.e. Pm new > Pf)
• Continue circulation with new higher specific gravity drilling fluid for one or two cycles stop
circulation intermittently and check for self flow. There should be no self flow or gas influx.
• Resume normal drilling operation with new higher specific gravity mud.
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following is also recommended from drilling fluid’s angle while preparing a well for cementation job:
• Circulate and condition the drilling fluid after the casing pipe has been lowered to the desired
depth for 2 or 3 cycles.
• In the first cycle ensure that the casing open hole annulus gets cleared off all debris /
cavings, or left over cuttings from the annulus by suitable mud Rheology / hydraulic combination
in new annular geometry.
• In the next one or two cycles treat the drilling fluid with suitable quantities of deflocculant (i.e.
CL/CLS combination) and fluid loss control additive (i.e. CMC, PAC, PGS or Resinex as the
case may be) to ensure that drilling fluid has low plastic viscosity and yield point values and
it deposited a thin cake on the wall.
• Ensure that at this Rheology it shall be possible to effectively remove all drilling fluid from the
well bore and casing.
• Once the desired drilling fluid parameters are achieved, start cementation operation without
intervening avoidable delays or wait otherwise the well bore condition may deteriorate.
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• To maintain the mud system, mix whole new mud in a separate pit and add this premix to the
system. Product concentrations in the premix can be adjusted if necessary to increase
product concentration in the active system. The premix should be sheared at high shear
rates prior to adding to the active system. The premix technique will minimize temporary
viscosity fluctuations caused by the addition of new product and will also facilitate the materials
balance calculation.
• When mixing the mud, use a shearing device to eliminate viscosity hump problems.
Alternatively, if the initial viscosity is too high when mixing new mud, mix only one-half of the
required PHPA. The remainder of the polymer can be added to the system as soon as
circulation commences.
• PHPA muds are sensitive to high pH, especially in the presence of high calcium levels. For
this reason, it is not recommended to drill cement with them unless the system is to be
replaced after drilling out. If it is unavoidable to drill cement with a PHPA system, the system
should be pretreated preferably with citric acid or sodium bicarbonate to knock out calcium
ion and to control pH. If cement contamination occurs, dump excessively contaminated mud
and renew the PHPA concentration throughout the whole system.
• Maintain adequate yield point in the mud. Yield points in the range of 10 to 20 lbs/100 ft2 are
considered optimum, with an initial gel of 2 lbs/100 ft2 required to prevent settling of the
weight material.
• The calcium ion concentration in PHPA muds should be run at 400 mg/L maximum. Higher
calcium ion levels will interfere with the PHPA polymer. Trying to treat out the calcium completely
could lead to self induced carbonate contamination.
• Maintain the pH in the 8.5 to 9.5 range. The PHPA polymer is sensitive to higher pH and the
hydroxide ion acts as a dispersant to clays.
• PHPA muds can be run at any salinity from fresh water to salt saturation. They are particularly
effective in seawater. For greater inhibition sodium chloride at a chloride ion concentration at
125,000 mg/L has been quite effective in many areas. In salt systems, PHPA should be pre-
hydrated in fresh water for maximum yield prior to adding to the active system.
• Pre-hydrated Bentonite provides base viscosity and is the foundation for fluid loss control,
particularly HTHP fluid loss. It is recommended to use 8 to 12 lbm/bbl [23 to 35 Kg/m3]
Bentonite depending on salinity, mud weight and the required HTHP fluid loss control.
• If insufficient yield value or initial gel strength is obtained from the initial mud formulation,
Xanthan gum can be used at 0.25 lbm/bbl [0.7 Kg/m3] for temporary viscosity until the final
mix is attained.
• When pre-hydrating Bentonite or when adding barite, it is recommended to add about 0.25 to
0.5 lbm/bbl [0.7 to 1.4 Kg/m3] of poly-acrylate deflocculant (in the premix) to minimize viscosity
fluctuations in the active system.
• Another effective technique to enhance the inhibitive quality of PHPA muds is to use
Sulphonated asphalt in concentrations of 6 to 8 lbm/bbl [17 to 23 Kg/m3] to seal shale micro-
fractures. If viscosity increases are noted with increasing drill solids, take steps to reduce
drill solids through increased use of solids control equipment or dilution and increase the
PHPA concentration in the active system.
• To control the HTHP at 2500F [1200C], utilize PAC polymer at 1 to 2 lbm/bbl [2.9 to 5.7 Kg/
m3]. To control HTHP at 3000F [1500C], use high temperature fluid loss control polymers
(such as vinyl sulfonate / vinyl amide copolymer and modified lignin) to supplement the Bentonite.
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• Observe the drill cuttings across the shale shaker. If the cuttings stick together when squeezed,
additional PHPA polymer may be required. Ideally, the cuttings should have a glossy
appearance and have a slippery feel. Furthermore, as a supplement to materials balance
calculations, Bentonite pellets immersed in a mud sample or one of the analytical titration
techniques may be used.
• Observe the cuttings size distribution at the shale shaker/ flow line. They should be coarse
with a minimum amount of fine particles. If shaker blinding occurs with the PHPA mud in
such circumstances, use a shearing device while pre-hydrating the PHPA or switch to the
next coarser screen size.
• When drilling with PHPA muds, tight hole as a result of gauge hole or drill cuttings adhering
to the well bore can be encountered. This phenomenon often occurs only in the new hole
section drilled and clears up after the first trip through the section. When this situation is
encountered, either pull through very slowly or break circulation to ream. When pulling through,
watch the weight indictor in order not to pull into a key seat. We should see a bleed down of
over pull. With a top drive equipped rig, trip out in the circulate / rotate mode through the new
hole section. If tight hole across the same section persists on consecutive trips, investigate
other causes.
• Although PHPA muds stabilize well bores, unconsolidated sands and mechanically weak,
shales will still be susceptible to hydraulic and mechanical erosion. In such areas, maintain
the proper yield value, use the lowest practical bit and annular hydraulics, and monitor bottom
hole assembly and tripping practices.
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CHAPTER - 20
EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES
20.1. CASING DRILLING
The conventional drilling process for oil and gas utilizes a drill-string made up of drill collars
and drill pipe to apply mechanical energy (rotary power and axial load) to the bit, as well as to
provide a hydraulic conduit for the drilling fluid. The drill-string is pulled out of the hole each time
the bit or bottom hole assembly needs to be changed or the final casing depth is reached. Casing
is then run into the hole to furnish permanent access to the well bore.
The Casing Drilling System (CDS) provides an alternative to the conventional drilling system by
using ordinary casing as the drill-string which remains in the hole at all time. In this casing itself
serves as the hydraulic conduit and means of transmitting mechanical energy to the bit Thus the
well is cased as it is drilled which may reduce well costs or enable problematic hole sections to be
drilled. A short wire line retrievable bottom hole assembly (BHA) consisting of at least a bit and
expandable under reamer are used for casing drilling apart from casing pipes. Casing drilling allows
operators to simultaneously, drill, case, and evaluate oil and gas wells. With casing drilling, the
well is drilled with standard oilfield drill bits and other down hole tools are lowered via wire line
through the casing and latched to the last joint (bottom most) of casing.
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The Casing Drilling system simultaneously drills and cases a well with normal oilfield casing
as the drill string. The casing transfers hydraulic and mechanical energy to a wire line-retrievable
drilling assembly suspended in a profile nipple located near the bottom of the casing. A drill lock
(DLA) in the top of the drilling assembly provides mechanical (axial and torsional) coupling and
hydraulic seals to the casing. It also provides a mechanism to facilitate insertion and retrieval from
the casing string. The drilling assembly below the DLA terminates in a pilot bit and under reamer
but may include other conventional drill string components, such as a mud motor, coring assembly
and a directional assembly.
In most casing drilling applications, an under reamer is used above a pilot bit to open the hole
from the pilot-bit diameter to the final well bore diameter. The pilot bit is sized to pass through the
casing, and the under reamer opens the hole to the size that is normally drilled to run casing. The
casing drilling system uses a top drive to rotate the casing. Single joints of casing are picked up
off the pipe rack and set in the mouse hole. The top drive, with an extend feature, is connected to
the top of the joint, which is then stabbed into the top of the casing string in the rotary table. The
casing joint is drilled down by using the top drive in a conventional manner. The casing string is
rotated for all operations except slide drilling with a motor and bent housing assembly for oriented
directional work.
One of the most meaningful benefits of casing drilling is the reduction of down hole trouble
time. By concurrently casing while drilling, lost circulation and well control incidents have been
nearly eliminated thereby enhancing safety. This is particularly key for wells that encounter a weak
zone prior to drilling into a higher-pressure zone. Balancing the required procedures for these differing
zones has historically been a challenge that can be overcome through casing drilling.
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magnets, etc). The only difference was that these tools were run in and out of the hole with the
wire line, thus making the process faster than having to trip the drill string each time a fishing run
was made. The casing may actually be used similar to wash over pipe to assist in the fishing
operation.
z Smaller Rigs Can Be Used To Drill Wells
Wells can be drilled with the Casing Drilling system with smaller rigs than are required for
conventional drilling. This has a direct advantage in situations where the rig and a conventional drill
string must be transported by helicopter. It also may allow smaller rigs that have been left on
platforms for repairs and re completions to be used for sidetracks and infield drilling without needing
to bring in a larger rig.
Reduced Cost Due To Faster Well Completion
Improved Operational Efficiency Due To Elimination Of The Pipe Tripping
Better Deviation Control
For soft formations no particular measure is needed for deviation control. However for harder
formations drilling assembly can be changed as often as required to match the cutting structure as
per the rock strength. Well deviation is controlled by using a stabilized drilling assembly protruding
below the casing.
1. Casing drilling system developed by Tesco Drilling Technology - Casing drilling with
retrievable assemblies
The technology uses unique rig and down hole equipment that functions as an integrated drilling
system. Standard oil field casing is used to transmit mechanical and hydraulic energy to the drill
bit. A wire line retrievable drilling assembly that is latched into the casing eliminates the need for
tripping with a conventional drill-string.
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This positions the assembly so that positive-locking axial keys extend into a profile to transmit
compressive (bit weight) and tensional drilling loads from the drilling assembly to the casing. A
torque anchor mates with recesses in the casing shoe to provide rotation and torque transfer from
the casing to the BHA.
Seals located on the landing assembly incorporate upward and downward-facing pressure cups
that prevent flow around the BHA landing assembly while drilling. A bypass system allows drilling
fluid to be circulated, preventing well swabbing and casing sticking when running or retrieving the
BHA.
A drilling shoe positioned on the bottom of the casing is dressed with either (polycrystalline
diamond compact) PDC cutters or tungsten carbide chips, ensuring a full gauge hole is obtained
ahead of the casing. The drilling shoe is also designed to facilitate retrieval of the BHA back into
the casing as it is pulled.
Setting-And-Retrieving Tools
A custom-designed, wire line setting-and-retrieving tool is used to install and remove the BHA.
A swivel prevents the rotational twist of the braided wire line so that the casing can be rotated
during wire line operations.
An emergency shear sub, activated when line tension reaches 20,000 lb, provides for a straight-
pull emergency release of the latch in case tight-hole conditions warrant a disconnect. The design
and testing of a pump-down pressure set tool is in progress and an electric retrieving concept is
being considered for future application.
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v. Fluid Requirement
Compared to conventional drilling operations, experience has shown that flow rates can be
reduced substantially in “casing drilling system”. As annular volume is reduced dramatically, hole
cleaning is improved due to higher annular velocities achieved, even with reduced flow rates. Cleaning
the hole more efficiently and removing cuttings faster aids in ECD reduction. However, higher annular
velocities and the resultant friction losses in the annulus increase the ECD. Each application must
be evaluated to determine the balance that must be struck between flow rates to clean the bit face
and clear the annulus of cuttings, and ECD management. Once all factors have been considered,
the proper flow rate and nozzle configuration can be selected.
An inherent benefit of drilling with casing is the “mono bore” annulus. Conventional drilling
assemblies result in different annular velocities around each drill string component. This can lead
to well bore erosion around drill collars and inefficient cutting transport around the smaller diameter
drill pipe. With casing as the drill string, the annular space along the entire well bore is virtually
equal allowing the optimum hydraulics to be “dialed in” based on the fluid properties, cuttings
concentration and flow rate. Hole cleaning ECD management and hole cleaning are much easier.
Hole cleaning has not been an issue on previous wells. While no caliper log data is available, lag
time and cement returns do not indicate borehole enlargement to be an issue.
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vi. Fishing
It is possible to conduct conventional fishing operations to recover junk from the hole while Casing
Drilling. A fishing operation was conducted using conventional tools (mills, junk baskets, magnets,
etc). The only difference was that these tools were run in and out of the hole with the wire line, thus
making the process faster than having to trip the drill string each time a fishing run was made. The
casing may actually be used similar to wash over pipe to assist in the fishing operation.
x. Well Control
Many well control incidents occur while tripping pipe. These well control incidents are avoided
with the Casing Drilling process because pipe tripping is eliminated. But some kicks are taken
while drilling ahead, and Casing Drilling will not prevent these.
xi. Coring
Coring operations with casing can be conducted in two different ways:
a) The first method involves running conventional core barrel (both inner and outer barrel)
and core bit below the DLA and using an under reamer above the core barrel to open the
hole to the full dia. Core sample can be taken at any time and drilling can resume with
little delay after coring.
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b) The second method involves using the bottom joint of casing as the outer barrel and only
tripping the inner barrel attached to DLA. This method allows larger core to be taken and
also drilling ahead by replacing inner barrel with a drill plug.
DwC Tools
Casing Drive Systems
The requirements for turning the casing are identical to those
for conventional drilling. The hoisting equipment must hold the
weight, apply rotational torque and containpressure. Rotary
drilling with casing required a method of connecting the top drive
to the casing, to drive the casing string. Extending the depth
range required the development of both a fit-for-purpose internal
and external grip casing drive system. To maintain acceptable
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load forces for extended lengths of casing, the slip area of the internal grapples was significantly
increased to spread the forces over a larger area. The tool is designed for quickly connecting in the
casing to minimize connection time. A stop ring is positioned near the top of the spear to ensure
the grapples are engaged in the proper location inside the casing. A simple quarter turn to the right
engages the spear to hold the casing string and apply rotational torque. A quarter turn to the left,
without axial load, releases the tool. Pumping energizes the packer element. A mud saver valve
can be incorporated to minimize spillage on connections.
Shown in both closed (left) and expanded (right) positions, this expandable bit is one of the newest
advances in drilling with casing technology. It incorporates many of the features of a standard PDC bit while
drilling a 40 percent largaer hole, and is designed to replace a conventional hole opener.
These casing bits have been designed to emulate the standard features of conventional drill
bits in a drillable package. DrillShoe I and DrillShoe II have now led to the innovation of a third
generation, DrillShoe III. DrillShoe I is designed for drilling very soft to soft unconsolidated rock,
typically surface hole, in sizes ranging from 95/8 to 20 inches. Benefits include rapid and damage-
free drill out, and suitability for applications with standard buttress or premium casing connections.
DrillShoe II is for consolidated formations. Features include PDC cutters along with a proprietary
diamond cutting structure, the ability to run on most standard casing and liner drilling systems,
and interchangeable drillable nozzles that optimize performance. Sizes range from 5 to 20 inches.
The cutting structure’s design in the first two generations is a balance between the need to drill
ahead and the requirement for the cutting structure to be subsequently drilled out.
DrillShoe III, meanwhile, features a PDC cutting structure mounted on displaceable blades. Once
the casing string has been drilled to TD, a ball is dropped that seals off the flow path, resulting in a
pressure increase that forces the inner piston downward, displacing the PDC cutting blades into
the annulus. Cementing ports on the inner piston are exposed once the blades are completely
displaced. It is designed for more competent formations and longer drilling intervals. The third-
generation DrillShoe combines the benefits of a PDC cutting structure with the ability to displace
its nondrillable cutting structure into the annulus, leaving only drillable materials in the path of the
following drill string.
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Weatherford customers have set more than 400 casing strings with the DwC system in sizes
from 51/2 to 20 inches.
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Deep Water wells are inherently expensive. However, when problems occur, they can be
extensive, and cost overruns commonly approach 50% and more.
With the introduction of Casing Drilling lost circulation, stuck pipe and well control issues have
all but disappeared on wells. This was an unexpected benefit, but clearly one that has tremendous
potential in the deepwater environment.
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Result
1. Improved production
2. Reduced time on location
3. Saves money.
Result
1. Ability to drill deeper on air
2. Use less horse power to drill.
Conclusions
The conclusion drawn from initial CWD test wells suggest cost savings of 10-15% for trouble
free wells. Elimination of unscheduled events encountered in trouble some wells may increase savings
up to 30% or higher.
Casing Drilling eliminates all the costs associated with these down hole problems:
z Swelling Formations
z Sloughing Formations
z Washouts
z Swabbing
z Hole in Casing or Key Seats
z Running Logs and Casing
Casing drilling, an innovative process for simultaneously drilling and casing a well, is emerging
as viable technology for the 21st century. Field studies have demonstrated a 20 - 30% reduction in
the time required to drill wells from spud to rig release when utilizing casing drilling.
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System Detail
The differential pressure required for tubular expansion is created by pumping through an inner-
string that is connected to the cone. The hydraulic force acts across the bottom side of the cone
area forcing it upward. Mechanical force is applied by either raising or lowering the inner-string
(fig. 2). The progress of the cone through the expandable tubular string deforms the steel beyond
its elastic limit into the plastic region, while keeping stresses below ultimate yield (fig. 3). Expansions
greater than 20%, based on the ID of the pipe, have been accomplished in lab. Most applications
using 4-1/4 in. to 13-3/8 in. tubulars have required expansions less than 20%.
Expandable technology is seen as a means of reducing the overall cost of a well and its support
infrastructure. The application of the technology within the first ten years has been aimed mainly at
those well bore construction techniques that have remained unchanged for decades. Telescoping
casing designs have existed since the very first wells and reservoir completion practices have
remained stagnant, dominated by gravel packing. The basic design of liner hangers, packers and
through tubing straddles has not changed either; expandable technology will, and already has
revolutionized techniques in these areas.
Expandable Casing Technology will enable oil and gas operators to access reservoirs that cannot
be easily reached with current methods. By expanding casing in situ, the hole size can be
maintained and the target reached with minimal well tapering. This results in improved reservoir
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economics by reducing well capital expenditures and improving the success rate of reaching sub
salt targets. In addition to rig-time savings and lower well costs, expandable casing technology can
result in overall smaller hole size from spud to total depth. Expandable casing offers the potential
for a step change in well construction technology.
Enventure’s expandable-tubular systems address numerous drilling and completion challenges
and can especially enhance deepwater operations, one of the industry’s highest priorities. The choice
of comparatively larger final hole sizes that expandable-tubular technology allows can provide access
to previously unreachable reservoirs; it can also reduce drilling time and the size of drilling equipment,
including lay-down areas and auxiliary equipment required on offshore platforms. In operators’ bottom-
line terms, expandable-tubular systems should lower overall project costs.
SET Systems
Solid expandable tubular technology has evolved over the past few years from a radical solution
for drilling challenges to a logical well construction process. By incorporating expandable systems
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in the initial well design stage, the downhole tapering effect is reduced or eliminated. Enventure’s
SET product line consists of three basic systems:
1) The Expandable Openhole Liner (OHLTM),
2) The Expandable Cased-Hole Liner (CHLTM) and the
3) Expandable Liner Hanger (ELHTM).
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Drill Hole Run Condition Mud, Latch Plug Expand Liner Expand Mill Out
Expandable Cememt Liner Hanger Shoe
Liner Joint
Installation sequence for Expandable Openhole Liner System
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The cased-hole liner system is mechanically similar to the expandable openhole liner system
except that an additional anchor-hanger joint (elastomer section) is located immediately above the
launcher assembly. Expanding this system inside existing casing repairs and reinforces the larger
casing for completion.
The system can be used to shut off perforations in production casing for re-completion or for
deepening the well. This expandable system allows for enhanced control of existing injectors and
producers by shutting off unwanted gas or water production. The system has also been used to re-
connect a severed wellbore due to subsidence from formation movement.
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In addition to the above the following products have also been developed by Enventure
1. FlexClad™ System
Enventure’s FlexClad System repairs existing casing, isolates perforated sections and provides
a gas-tight liner. This system consists of expandable sealing sections called Flex Hangers,
conventional API tubulars that act as spacer joints and flush joint connec-tions. The Flex Hangers
are separated along the length of the liner using spacer pipe, enabling this system to be used in
smaller casing sizes. The FlexClad System differs from Enven-ture’s standard expansion systems
in that the liner and connections are not expanded.
2. Openhole Cladding System
The openhole cladding system is an expandable string that is run and installed in the open
hole to address the following:
z isolate an unstable formation
z isolate a water flow
z shut off water influx in a openhole completion
The openhole cladding system installation process is similar to that of the openhole liner with
the exception that it is not tied back into the base casing. Elastomers are configured to seal against
the formation. The seal efficiency will be a function of the rock properties where it is set. Porosity,
permeability, and rock hardness all affect the seal capabilities.
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3. Monodiameter System
Monodiameter technology is currently in the final field-testing stage and already generating results
that are impressive and revolutionary. This technology consecutively runs the same size expandable
casing strings and expands them into each other to achieve the same ID from top to bottom. The
monodiameter removes the telescoping effect of pre-expandable well design
System Specifications -
a. Material: Today, standard oilfield tubular steel is used for Solid Expandable Tubulars after it is
subjected to a special heat-treating process to increase ductility, which allows the steel to be pushed
temporarily into the plastic region during expansion, reduce defect sensitivity and increase fracture
toughness. The Solid Expandable Tubulars currently in use are ERW (electric resistance weld)
seamed pipe, custom-made by Lone Star Steel to high specifications developed by Enventure. The
specifications, particularly for wall thickness variation of the pipe, are much stricter than for typical
oilfield tubulars. For example, the American Petroleum Institute allows a 12.5% variation in the wall
thickness of standard oilfield tubulars. Depending upon pipe size, Enventure’s requirements allow
only a 5% to 7% variation in wall thickness.
b. Sizes Available As on date the SET systems are available in following sizes-
z 13 3/8" X 16"
z 11 ¾” X 14 ½”
z 9 5/8" X 117/8"OR 11 ¾”
z 8 5/8" X 10 ¾”
z 7 5/8" X 9 7/8"
z 5 ½” X 7 5/8"
z 6" X 7 5/8"
z 5 ½” X 7"
z 4 ¼” X 5 ½”
Note: 7 5/8" X 9 5/8" - Means
z 7 5/8" is the size ( OD) of SET casing pre expansion and
z 9 5/8" is the size (O.D.) of base casing against which SET will be expanded
Further 7 5/8" becomes the ID for the next well section after expansion.
c. Expansion Ratios: Normal expansion ratios of SET expandable tubulars are in the range of
10-15% but it can be expanded even upto 20-25 % for mono-diameter casings. On expansion the
O.D of SET casing increases thereby decreasing (shortening) its length by approx. 4%.
This technology has proved its worth in maximizing production through bigger production casings/
strings, well deepenings, reaching deeper depths with higher casing sizes and as a contingency
casing for deep water wells where lot of casing strings are required due to narrow margin between
pore pressure and fracture pressure.
By reducing telescopic nature of wells, many additional benefits are expected in near future
z By reducing casing size, BOP and Riser size can be reduced in Deep water wells. This
will reduce the rig cost dramatically and so also well cost.
z Land rig size will also be reduced thus reducing foot print and emission.
z Producing less waste (cuttings) because smaller wells produces up to 50% less cuttings
and hence less environment damage.
z Less mud chemical cost
z Less steel consumption per well
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Once mono diameter well completion becomes feasible it will further reduce time and cost for
well completion by-
1) Standardization of tools
2) Fewer BHA make up / break out
3) Higher operating efficiency
4) Higher safety since bigger sizes of casing will be avoided and fewer BHA’s to be handled .
This technology was successfully used in ONGC, in 2 wells in Mumbai offshore recently(Oct-
Dec 2003). In one well it was used to tap deeper oil layer from an existing well and in other as a
contingency casing to attain desired production casing size. Based on its performance 30 more
wells are being completed using this technology in the year 2006-07.
Presently its cost is on the higher side, hence it is more suited in offshore where production
rates are higher and well costs are more but it can be hoped that with the passage of time it will
become highly cost effective for less producing fields as well.
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Next-generation SET systems may allow the equivalent of a “monobore” well to be drilled,
whereby the same hole size is drilled from surface to TD. A monobore well opens up further cost-
saving opportunities for an operator by allowing a slim wellbore to be drilled with a small vessel.
Figure shows the progression from conventional well construction to slender wells with SET
technology and on to monobore well technology.
Limitation
1. Changes in Mechanical Properties
Post expansion strength, ductility, impact toughness, collapse, and burst have been studied
for selected sizes of pipe and compared to the same values for the pipe as received. It has been
found that;
z Ultimate tensile strength tends to increase,
z Elongation tends to decrease, with expansion— natural results of cold-working the metal.
z Hardness and tensile properties of the tested L-80 casing changed after expansion; however,
the casing still met API Spec 5CT requirements after 20% expansion. Similar results were
obtained with grade K-55.
z Expansion changes the Charpy impact toughness of the expandable-tubular material.
However, impact toughness at 32°F and higher is still acceptable, with 100% shear fracture
in all cases studied, except for that of the K-55 casing.
z Expansion decreases the collapse rating of tubular goods, probably a result of the
Bauschinger effect. The Bauschinger phenomenon occurs when plastic flow in one direction
(expansion) lowers the applied stress at which plastic flow begins in the reverse direction
(collapse).
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2. Cost
The cost of using SET technology is at present towards higher side but with increase in number
of applications and entry of more companies in production the cost is bound to come down as it
has been recognized as a safe, efficient and reliable technology for
z Deep waters
z Sub salt environments
z Depleted reservoirs
3. API casing with very strict controls specification only to be used
z At present restricted to two grades of casing only i.e. L-80 and K-55,
z Presently Lone Star Steels is the only manufacturer of casing pipes.
4. In case of stuck up
Expanding a liner through a differentially stuck section dramatically changes the stress conditions
created by the expansion cone in the pipe, it can cause pipe damage and even rupture the expansion
face. To reliably expand steel pipe beyond its elastic limit, it is necessary to maintain a displacement-
controlled expansion process, and thus uniform hoop stress distributions on the expansion cone
face. If pipe is differentially stuck, this places geometrical constraints on the liner, drill string and
bottom hole assembly (BHA). If the magnitude of the differential pressure is small, the drill pipe
and expansion cone will free up the stuck pipe and expansion can be continued safely. However, if
the pressure differential is large enough, the liner cannot be freed. Geometrical constraints cause
severe bending in the BHA and a large additional rotational moment is applied to the expansion
cone. This moment causes concentration of hoop stress on the expansion face, loss of displacement
control and potential rupture of the liner.
Modifications have been done to the standard BHA, which reduce the risk of becoming stuck,
free up constrained pipe and/or enable expansion through the stuck interval without causing hoop
stress concentration. Operational procedures have been revised to minimize this potential risk.
ONGC Experience
SDST horizontal well IA#4ZH (Rig Sagar Shakti)
On December 8, 2003 ONGC completed the first successful field application of 5 ½” X 7" size
solid expandable open hole liner in LIII B layer side tracked horizontal well 1A-4ZH. It was used as
an extension of 7" liner base casing from the top of LIII reservoir to the top of B layer (landing
point). Directional 6 1/8" pilot hole was drilled with motor& MWD from 1864m (angle 71.5°) to 2105m
(angle 88°) up to top of B layer using gel polymer mud system. Enlarged 6 1/8" hole to 7" using 6"
x 7" Near Bit Under Reamer (NBR) and watermelon mill (6.2" size) prior to lowering expandable
casing. In this phase 8.6 ppg gel polymer mud was used.
51/2 “ X 7” expandable open hole liner (OHL) of 290m length was run down hole through the
existing 7" base liner to a depth of 2101 m keeping Elastomer hanger top at 1811m. After cementing,
the plug was bumped at a pressure of 2650 psi. The expansion process occurred at propagation
pressure of 3700-4000 psi, and maximum 4500 psi when the hanger joint was expanded against 7"
base casing. Expansion was performed in about 8 1/2 hrs. 500 m of 6" drain hole with 5"X 6" Bi-
centric bit, MWD and Motor assembly was drilled from 2101m to 2600m within B layer using non
damaging clay free mud.
The well flowed @ 686 bopd.
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equipment, and the frequency of changing out drilling equipment and bottomhole assemblies will
be minimized. Smaller, less expensive rigs can be used, especially in deep-water in conjunction
with smaller riser, helping to dramatically reduce daily rig costs.
A well drilled using this system will have no diameter loss with each new liner. This means that
regardless of unexpected reservoir challenges, each well drilled can potentially reach its reservoir
with a casing size that will enable reservoirs to produce at full potential.
Nesting an expandable system inside an already expanded system preserves crucial hole size,
which ultimately results in savings on bits, steel, mud and cement, as well as the storage space
required for these materials. Offshore, additional savings materialize in onboard drilling vessel storage
requirements because a smaller riser can be used. Reducing the amount of drill cuttings decreases
the cost of cuttings disposal, a significant cost in offshore operations, especially when drilling with
a zero-discharge requirement. Applying SlimWell Technology over a multi-well program can
substantially impact the bottom line.
While SlimWell reduces the telescoping effect in traditional well design, the MonoDiameter
System eliminates telescoping, allowing operators to slim down the top of the well while increasing
the well diameter at TD. A hybrid well is one that features conventional casing for the first three or
four strings and then moves to a series of MonoDiameter liners.
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This will be the first step in deepwater, where the customer might run, for example, 36-in., 20-
in., 13 3/8-in., 11 3/4-in., 9 5/8-in. MonoDiameter, 9 5/8-in. MonoDia-meter, 9 5/8-in. MonoDiameter,
and so on, until the objective is reached. This well design could become standard for deepwater,
where, say, only two 9 5/8-in. MonoDia-meter liners could be run on a 16,000-ft well, or eight could
be run for a 35,000-ft well.
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The solid expandable tubular system – including casing, anchor hanger joint, and launcher
assembly – is run as a single assembly. Once on depth, a dart is dropped while seal and pressure
is applied down the drillstring. This creates a pressure chamber in the launcher assembly. In one
trip, the casing is expanded from the bottom to the top and the liner is sealed back and hung off in
the base casing.
The lateral hole section is then drilled as per the well program using conventional bits
and mud motors.
The system is pressure tested and the shoe is drilled out. In the case of multilateral wells, the
solid expandable tubulars can be run into the lateral hole sections using a whipstock deflection
device.
III. Installation of SET Systems Through Milled Casing Windows
Currently, the performance of solid expandable tubular systems is proven for use in high-angle
and horizontal wells, deepwater wells, multiple installations in the same well, situations that require
a relatively long expandable casing string, various cementing scenarios, among others. One
application of solid expandable tubular systems that was not qualified in the past was a sidetrack
through a milled window. However, recent testing and successful field applications proves the viability
of using solid expandable tubular systems in these circumstances. This involves the recompletion
of wells in which the original wellbore is no longer meeting productivity expectations, or it is identified
that optimal drainage could be achieved by having the wellbore in another location of the reservoir.
Using solid expandable tubulars in conjunction with side-tracking technology a well can be
recompleted as a larger completion through a casing sidetrack.
The combination of solid expandable tubular technology and multi-lateral window milling systems
was expected allow operators to slim their wells resulting in a reduced capital outlay, minimized
environmental impact, maximized reservoir potential, and create a superior rate of return over
conventional development scenarios. Now that it has been proven that these two technologies can
be successfully deployed, the value-proposition of making use of existing capitalized assets and a
reduced AFE combined with better reservoir dynamics can create a enhanced economic model
over conventional applications
Solid expandable tubulars are quickly becoming a viable means to overcome certain challenges
existing operations face and to offset some of the higher expense by employing its unique technology
in existing wells. For the early part of its development, solid expandable tubular technology could
not feasibly enter side-tracked wells because of the potential damage sustained during run-in,
reducing the reliability of the expansion process.
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With over 209 successful installations in the past four years, solid expandable tubular technology
has established itself as a viable drilling solution and process. This technology continues to provide
solutions to drilling and recompletion challenges in both conventional and deepwater wells. It is
also quickly gaining a reputation as a proven drilling design technology. Drilling in formations and
at depths once thought too expensive is becoming technically and operationally feasible. Each solid
expandable tubular installation leads to technological advancements and enhancements that
maximize hole conservation while minimizing well costs.
Recent technological breakthroughs—developing and deploying a modification on the expandable
tubulars and making use of the latest advances in multi-lateral window milling systems—have now
enabled solid expandable tubulars to become a reliable and repeatable method to overcome the
unique challenges faced by older operations. A lab test, two surface simulations, a field trial, and
five commercial installations have all demonstrated that solid expandable tubulars can be deployed
successfully in casing sidetracked wells.
The combination of solid expandable tubular technology and multi-lateral window milling systems
is expected to allow operators to slim their wells resulting in a reduced capital outlay, minimized
environmental impact, maximized reservoir potential, and create a superior rate of return over
conventional development scenarios. Now that it has been proved that these two technologies can
be successfully deployed, the value-proposition of making use of existing capitalized assets and a
reduced AFE combined with better reservoir dynamics can create a enhanced economic model
over conventional applications.
The most obvious advantage is larger ID in the target zone, thereby increasing production. But
more importantly, these two complimentary applications have the potential to reduce significantly
an operator’s capital expenditures for the life of a field. These savings are realized in the dramatic
productivity enhancements made possible by solid expandable tubular technology in fields where
the operator has already capitalized the exploration and development outlay.
Slowly but surely the scope of expandable tubular technology is expanding to applications like
mono-diameter wells, extended reach wells, horizontal and multi-lateral wells etc.
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1. Surface Equipments
Coiled tubing drilling surface equipments are as follows:
i. Coiled tubing drilling unit and associated coiled tubing handling equipments
ii. Well control system
iii. Circulating fluid and system.
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i. Coiled tubing drilling unit and associated coiled tubing handling equipments
The coiled tubing unit is a portable, hydraulically powered service system designed to run and
retrieve a continuous coiled tubing string.
The predominant design of coiled tubing unit uses the vertical, contra-rotating chain-drive injector
head. The basic coiled tubing drilling unit components are as follows:
a. Tubing injector head
b. Coiled tubing reel
c. Hydraulic power unit
d. Control console
The CT injector head provides the power and traction necessary to run and retrieve the CT string
into and out of the wellbore. Several hydraulic systems are used to enable the CT unit (CTU) operator
to exercise a high degree of control over any CT string movement – an important feature in delicate
CTD operations where WOB must be carefully controlled.
Tubing injector heads are designed to perform three basic functions: -
• Provide the thrust to snub tubing into the well against pressure as to overcome well bore
friction.
• Control the rate of tubing entry into the well under various well conditions.
• Support the full suspended tubing weight and accelerate it to operating sped when extracting
it from the well.
The tubing can be snubbed or run open ended, or can be used to convey downhole tools and
devices attached to end of tubing. The tubing injector head manipulates the continuous tubing string
utilizing two opposed sprocket-drive traction chains, which are powered by contra-rotating hydraulic
motors. These chains are fabricated with inter-locking saddle blocks mounted between the chain
links and machined to fit the Coiled Tubing string circumference. The saddle blocks within the chain
are forced onto the pipe by a series of hydraulically attached compression rollers that impact the
force required to establish the friction drive system.
The injector head is also equipped with an arch roller system, called a tubing guide, which is
mounted directly above the drive sprockets and used to receive Coiled Tubing from the reel and
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guide it into the chain blocks. At the injector head base, a hydraulically- operated stuffing box is
positioned along the coiled tubing centerline and is secured in the chain drive assembly. The stuffing
box or “stripper rubber” contains a split elastomer element that is compressed against the tubing.
This isolates annular well bore pressure from the atmosphere. The minimum stuffing box working
pressure rating is 5000 psig, but it is generally designed for working success upto 10,000 psig.
The injector head is supported above the well head in one of the two ways. Either telescopic legs
or a hydraulically elevated steel frame commonly called a “jack stand” are used.
d. Control Console
Normally all controls are positioned on one remote console. It may be skid-mounted for offshore
use or permanently mounted on land units. The console includes all of the controls and gauges
required to operate and monitor the coiled tubing drilling unit components. Reel and injector head
motors are activated from the control panel through valves that determine the tubing motion direction
and operating speed. Control systems to regulate the drive chain, stripper rubber and blow out
preventor stacks are also located on the control console.
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• Blind Rams
Blind rams are used to seal the well at the surface when well control is lost. Blind rams seal
when elastomer elements are compressed against each other.
• Slip Rams
Slip Rams are equipped with uni-directional teeth that move against the tubing when activated
to support the pipe weight. In addition, slip rams can be used to secure the pipe by closing on the
tube to prevent the movement in the case of high pressure that may blow the tubing out of the well.
Slip Rams are fitted with guide sleeves that properly center the tubing in the ram body‘s grooved
recess as slips are closed.
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a. Drill Bits
Bits used for coiled tubing drilling should be able to attain adequate penetration rates with
relatively less weight on bit and high rotational speeds. For directional applications, bits with low
torque requirements should be selected to minimize the complications of reactive torque while
maintaining the desired well trajectory.
c. Drill Collars
Drill collars provide sufficient weight to the bit to achieve acceptable rates of penetration and
also provide adequate strength to enable the BHA to be run in compression. When MWD or steering
tools are used, non-magnetic drill collars are used to prevent magnetic interference with these
devices. Drill collars should have large enough ID to allow the insertion of the steering tools or MWD
system and minimize the pressure drop through the drill collar string adjacent to the survey tool.
Non-standard size drill collars may be used.
e. Disconnect Tool
Disconnect Tool provides a means of disconnecting the coiled tubing from the bottom hole
assembly in case the bit or drill collars become stuck. Disconnect mechanisms are of two types-
pressure release or shear release. Disconnect tools have to resist the torque developed by the mud
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motors. Pressure release disconnects are actuated by pumping a soft ball through the coiled tubing.
Shear release tools are actuated by pulling on the coiled tubing until sufficient tension is applied to
shear out pins holding the tool together and disconnect the BHA from the coiled tubing.
After the coiled tubing is released, fishing tools can be run to recover the BHA. If the electric
line is used, the disconnect mechanism must be designed to accommodate the wire line without
interfering with the releasing operation of the tool.
f. Orienting Tools
A downhole rotator or orienting tool is required to alter the tool face orientation to control the
direction of the hole in directional and horizontal drilling. Orientation tools are actuated by mechanical
reciprocation, pressure cycling, torque from the drilling motor, downhole electric motors or a
combination of these actions. The tool is run above the mule shoe sub in the BHA. Orientation
tools either allow for continuous adjustment or tool face orientation over a fixed range of rotation or
for indexed tool face rotation with no limit on the total range of adjustment available.
CTD Applications
New Wells
CTD units can handle small and shallow new wells, typically 1500-1800 metres deep, with hole
diameters up to 8 ½”. In some softer operations the hole size may reach 12-1/4" however, the casing
size will be limited to a final production casing of 3-1/2". Recent technical advances continue to
push these limits. CTD is effective for new shallow gas relief wells being drilled in Indonesia and
Venezuela. The small amount of equipment placed to risk, as well as the advantages of personal
safety, supports the use of CTD.
Many of today’s new well projects, however, are not especially suited to CTD, mainly because
of current market economics. In many regions of the world, the relatively new CTD unit and its bulk
of required ancillary equipment must compete against a depreciated drilling rig. In these areas,
the CTD unit is not an economic alternative to the conventional rig. CTD however provides
environmental advantages like small footprint, reduced environmental impact, location remoteness
and limited space on offshore platforms.
Conventional Re-entry
Deepening and sidetracking wells cover the bulk of the conventional re-entry market, and CTD
is suited to a portion of these operations. For sidetracks, a whipstock is set at the kick-off depth,
and a window is milled in the casing. In such types of wells CTD has limitations of maximum hole
size (6") and build up rates (>30 degree/100 ft). For horizontal sidetracks the drain hole length is
limited by the required WOB. Here too CTD units have to compete with depreciated drilling rigs
with low day rate. Here too CTD has the same environmental advantages as for new wells. CTD is
also useful for offshore where UBD is required due to depleted reservoir pressures.
Through-tubing Re-entry
Other than UBD applications of CTD, the most technically and economically successful
applications of CT are in through-tubing reentries. Through-tubing reentries are typically drilled to
deepen or sidetrack a well and are performed without removing the well’s production tubing. These
projects are suited to CT because no additional equipment is needed to pull the tubing. CTU can
move in, rig up, and begin drilling within hours. This quick rig up is especially attractive in offshore
and artic locations, where drilling and workover rigs have higher day rates. Here too there are limitations
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in production tubing and hole sizes. For directional drilling, the bottom hole tools limit the applications.
Combined with UBD, through-tubing reentry drilling projects provide for the highest potential cost
savings for the operator.
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• Tools
Coiled Tubing Under balanced Drilling tools have always offered a challenge to provide reliable,
trouble free operation but this can usually be attributed to their small size and extreme conditions
that they are exposed to while drilling under balanced. Major improvement to bottom hole assembly
(BHA) and motor design has generated tools that rarely malfunction in their basic componentry.
Additional instrumentation such as internal /external pressure and temperature, weight on bit (WOB)
Measurement, gama ray and resistivity readouts have been introduced to the BHA through real time
signals that only CTUD can supply. Motor life is a key issue with Coiled Tubing Under balanced
Drilling. Due to the inability to rotate the tubing in the hole, drilling of the formation relies on bit
rotation alone. When high volumes of gas are pumped through these motors the gas impregnates
and swells the stator rubber, decreasing the torque out put to the bit and resulting in excessive
motor trips.
• Coil
Coil manufacturers have been able to meet the demands of the industry to develop tubing
specifically designed for drilling. The typical diameters are concentrated around 60.3 mm and 73.0
mm. Some contractors have opted to utilize pipe size like 66.7 mm, 82.6 mm and 88.9 mm in
order to gain minimum bulking/reduced annular space advantage. With larger Coiled Tubing Drilling
rigs for Under balanced drilling available in the market, coil wall thickness has increased dramatically
along with yield strengths to try and extract as much fatigue life as possible out of each string of
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tubing. Jointed drill pipe is available in various diameters and weights and has a distinct advantage
over coil by replacing any section of the string when required. Butt-welding of the coil through
experience, technique and material, has seen vast improvements but still creates a high fatigue
area in the drill string.
• Standby Time
One of the largest contributors to high Coiled Tubing Under balanced Drilling prices is “stand
by time”, especially when daily costs of a multitude of services are already quite high, Coiled Tubing
Under balanced Drilling can usually be split up into three main services: -
• Coiled Tubing and pumping
• Production testing equipment
• Directional services
This separation can prove to be costly. If one of the services has problems the rest continue to
keep charging.
• Engineering
One of the most critical aspects involved with Coiled Tubing Under balanced Drilling operations
is the preplanning of the job by all parties involved. Drag and buckling analysis, circulation analysis,
hole sizing depths fluids and BOP are typically referred to by Coil Company. Well bore trajectory
reservoir lithology, tool sizing, and boundary restrictions are planned by directional services. Reservoir
fluids/gasses, pressures and flow rates are analyzed by the production testing company.
Contingency plans are always necessary while drilling under balanced with Coiled Tubing.
• Rate of Penetration
Optimizing rate of penetration with Coiled Tubing must be achieved with limited weight on bit. It
is important to keep in mind that Coiled Tubing is plastically stressed and due to absence of
connection, it can safely be used in compression. By comparison, jointed pipe operations utilize
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drill collars further down in the string (usually near the bottom of the vertical section) to provide
weight and maintain the drill pipe in tension. The weight of the Coiled Tubing or combination of the
Coiled Tubing weight with injector force wills more than make up for the lack of drill collars. However,
due to the helical nature of Coiled Tubing and the inability to rotate friction is increased resulting in
the reduction of the effective transfer of weight to bit. The available weight on bit also does not
increase with increased depth. The additional weight of Coiled Tubing due to increasing depth is
taken up in friction due to helical buckling in the vertical well bore. Typically, rate of penetration
with Coiled Tubing is controlled by motor/bit selection and the reduction of hydrostatic pressure on
the formation (i.e. under balanced drilling)
• Hole Cleaning
Optimizing hole cleaning parameters with Coiled Tubing and multi-phase flow is not a well
understood science especially in highly deviated or horizontal wells. In general, it is felt that foam
is superior to nitrified fluid (more susceptible to slugging) for cuttings removal. As a general rule of
thumbs foam qualities around 80% are preferred to minimize cuttings beds in the horizontal well
bore and build section. By comparison experience with non-foamed multi-phase flow has experienced
success with qualities around 60% or less. Where effective hole cleaning can be achieved with
non-foamed or nitrified fluids, this system is usually simpler to manage. Foam, typically has higher
friction and this can limit the ability to reduce bottom hole pressure, however good, stable foam will
be more homogeneous and make cuttings transport more predictable.
• Cost
Cost, of course, is the driving parameter behind most oilfield operations. However, it is more
prudent to consider value than to focus strictly on costs of individual items in a reservoir management
scheme. For example while increasing nitrogen rates may result in higher nitrogen cost per unit
time, resultant increased penetration rates or improved hole cleaning leads to reduced risk of stuck
pipe and reduced wiper trips.
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Limitations Of CTD
a) Annular Velocity for cuttings removal
Sufficient annular velocity is required for removal of drilled cuttings. However, it is limited by
three factors:
• Coiled tubing pressure losses.
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d) Tension
The maximum allowable tension depends on the pipe OD, ID and the fluid strength of the pipe.
e) Torque
The maximum stall torque of the drilling motor will impact the selection of coiled tubing pipe.
The stall torque depends on the flow rate th rough the motor. If the pump rate is reduced, the stall
torque is also reduced.
h) Limited Reach
The amount of the reservoir drained is generally a function of the length of the horizontal section.
The reach of the coiled tubing is limited by the limitations in the amount of weight transmitted to
the bit.
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Techno-Economic Feasibility
There are many factors that go into determining both the technical and economical feasibility
of CTD candidates. Of these factors which influence the economic feasibility, some tend to increase
the competitiveness of CTD while some tend to reduce it relative to other possible solutions. These
economic parameters include; the number of wells to be taken up, production benefits from drilling
underbalance and possible reduced cost of through-tubing operations.
Technical feasibility
While advances in CT services have tremendously increased its usage, limitations still exist.
This is especially true for drilling projects, where the CT equipment is very small when compared
with a conventional drilling rig. A thorough review is required to ensure that the CT is capable of
performing the tasks that are required of it to drill. To optimize drilling, the operator must optimize
the rate of penetration, trip time and hole cleaning. However, the size of the pipe introduces a number
of constraints on the operator when drilling with CT.
To achieve the best rate of penetration, the operator must optimize the hydraulic and mechanical
power at the bit. Yet, the small CT limits the flow rate that can be achieved through the pipe. The
depth of the hole is also limited by the tension that can be put on the CT while the diameter is
limited by the annular velocities that can be achieved outside the CT.
Therefore, to determine the technical feasibility of any CT drilling project, each of these items
must be evaluated.
The following table elaborates the above;
Coil Tubing drilling has limitations, depending on the desired application in drilling. Considering
the limitations, coil tubing drilling is specially suited for certain applications.
Economical Feasibility
Generally, the economic feasibility of a coiled tubing drilling job depends on the location and
scope of the project. Evaluating Coil Tubing differs a bit from evaluating a conventional drilling job.
With a conventional rotary rig; the required equipment typically arrives on location with the drilling
rig. These rigs are built to be mobilized and demobilized many times.
In contrast, with a Coil Tubing drilling unit, ancillary equipment is not typically part of the basic
rig package and must be rented separately. The pipe, injector head, power pack (for CTU only),
Coil Tubing blow out prevents (BOPs) and control cabin can be expected with the Coil Tubing unit.
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The mud equipment, fuel tanks and pump, generator, electrical equipment, and accommodations
are some of the additional surface equipment that may be required.
If a job requires pulling or running a jointed completion, a jack-up frame and power tongs will be
needed, in addition to the normal completion hardware. Conventional drilling equipment will be required
for the bottom hole assembly. For vertical holes, this equipment should minimally include bits, drill
collars, mud motor and drilling jars. For deviated /sidetrack holes, other equipment, such as steering
and orientation tools, monel drill collars, whipstock, casing collar locator, cement bond tools and
mills for window milling, may be required. Acquiring all this additional equipment can be costly and
time consuming. For this reason alone, some Coil Tubing drilling jobs may not be feasible and
multiwell projects may be required to justify the cost associated with the mobilizing this equipment.
The future of Coil Tubing drilling as a commercially viable alternative in the coming days will
depend on developments such as the price of oil and the rig day rate charges and other developments
such as Coil Tubing drilling specific technology. Some areas for improvement, which will directly
impact the economic viability of Coil Tubing drilling, are:
z Shorter more flexible BHA, which will allow higher build rates.
z More reliable and sensitive orienting tool which will allow wells to be steered with more
precision and faster.
z More sensors including for WOB, resistivity etc.
z Better understanding of Under Balanced drilling (UBD) which will allow us to better optimize
potential benefits of UBD for different reservoirs.
z Improved casing exiting techniques will allow wells to be drilled more economically and in
a more wide variety of conditions (casing size, inclination).
z Hybrid Coil Tubing drilling equipment will bring more versatility and efficiency by allowing
operations such as running jointed tubulars in addition to drilling in a single unit.
Conclusions
Unless there are specific advantages to be gained from using coiled tubing it is difficult to be
commercially competitive. The are however, specific types of drilling operations in which Coil Tubing
has a technical advantage and in these situations the economic case is much more easy to justify.
The areas in which there are distinct advantages to using coil tubing are:
z Through-tubing drilling where the cost of pulling the completion string can be avoided and
re-entry is done through the existing completion tubing.
z Coil Tubing is a safer and more reliable way of drilling wells in an underbalance state with
numerous production benefits.
z For pilot or relief wells; Coil Tubing with its pressure seal at surface is ideally suited to
these types of wells which are difficult to control by the drilling fluid alone and thus tend to
be quite dangerous.
z Offshore platforms or remote locations where the cost of rig is often prohibitive.
z Location of candidate wells – whether the well is drilled in a remote location or an urban
area, offshore or on land, the amount of site preparation needed etc, will have an impact on
the commercial viability of Coil Tubing drilling. In areas with environmental requirements,
Coil Tubing drilling is often advantageous because fewer rig loads are required and resulting
location is smaller than that of a conventional drilling rig. In jungles, mountainous regions,
national parks, and urban areas, a small wellsite footprint is desirable to reduce environment
impact. In offshore the smaller location need of Coil Tubing drilling unit becomes especially
attractive because many platforms have limited deck space.
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z One of the major factors in the analysis of the economic viability of Coil Tubing drilling is
the number of wells to be done in a campaign. There are significant start up costs associated
with this service. Increasing the number of wells to be drilled or going to continuous operations
would reduce these costs. Continuity of personnel and hence improved efficiency through
experience, reduced mobilization costs etc. can be realized in continuous operations.
Slant Drilling is the technique of drilling from a slant angle at the surface (45° max. in 1.5°
increments), and zeroing in on shallow-depth targets. Slant drilling is an ideal option for reaching
target zones that are relatively shallow and may sometimes be necessary to negotiate difficult terrain
conditions, such as drilling under bodies of water, population centers or environmentally protected
areas.
A conventionally drilled directional well is typically started with a vertical section from surface.
Specially designed bottom hole assemblies or mud motors are then used to deviate the well at an
appropriate angle to reach the target. In contrast, slant hole drilling attains the shortest drilling
distance by allowing the well to be spudded at an angle aimed directly at the target. With the proper
drilling rig, the well can be drilled straight to the target. The slant hole path can be deviated additionally
with the use of conventions directional tools, including into a horizontal direction.
The major applications for this technology have occurred in the shallow depth, heavy oil areas.
The multi-well pad approach of slant technology is conducive to the drilling of the numerous wells
required in these areas. Other applications include wells that require considerable horizontal
displacement, especially at shallow depths.
Since the 1960fs, the drilling industry has experimented with the concept of automated drilling
rigs. In Canada during the 1970’s, small hydraulic rigs were developed for shallow drilling. These
rigs featured hydraulic power swivels and partially automated pipe-handling systems that improved
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both drilling performance and rig move times. An offshoot of this technology was the development
of the first slant-drilling rigs which could spud from vertical to 45°.
The 1990s saw the revival of slant technology, which was used most successfully in heavy-oil
drilling at shallow depths. This differed from directional drilling in several ways:
• It followed a shorter, more direct route. Wells could be spudded at an angle—usually
30[degrees] to 45[degrees]—and then aimed straight at the target.
• It was less expensive, faster and more productive than directional horizontal drilling.
• Slant drilling allowed shallow heavy-oil deposits to be developed from one or several pad
locations, which vary in number of wells. Pad drilling also emerged as a way to minimize
environmental impact because it allows multiple-well access to larger areas and targets
beneath sensitive areas, such as lakes and towns.
Precision Drilling
Precision Drilling, Canada is the worldwide leader in slant rig technology. Precision Drilling, a
division of Precision Drilling Ltd., is Canada’s leading drilling contractor with a well maintained fleet
of more than 229 rigs including singles, doubles, light triples, heavy triples, coiled tubing rigs, a
surface hole rig along with the skilled personnel to drill at any depth. Their fleet consists of 15
singles, 95 doubles, 45 light triples, 41 heavy triples, 11 coiled tubing rigs, 16 singles and 21 Super
Singles.
The Super Single rig is ideal for drilling multiple wells from a single location (pad drilling) including
drilling in environmentally sensitive areas. For well drilling up to 3000 metres in depth, Precision
Drilling manufactures and operates Super Single rigs which feature top drive units, longer range III
drill pipe, and automated pipe handling capabilities.
These rigs are capable of slant drilling, which is done by tilting the rig mast from vertical. Slant
drilling is used to drill several wells from one location, saving the time and avoiding the environmental
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impact associated with setting up a rig in a number of different locations. Slant drilling is also being
used by Precision Drilling with increasing frequency in support of the steam-assisted gravity drainage
method of recovering bitumen from oil sands.
Precision’s Super Single rig, developed in the early 1990s, has evolved over several generations
to offer such benefits as fast and simple movement between sites, remote control features that
minimize manual labour, control processes that alleviate safety concerns, and the ability to drill a
number of different kinds of wells.
Once merely identified as a slant drilling rig, the Super Single rig has evolved to become a
known versatile drilling rig that is competitive in many drilling operations within a 3000m depth range
and is unmatched by any land rig today. This versatility makes the Super Single rig ideally suited
to shallow land operations throughout the world.
Weatherford International has in September 2005 completed its acquisition of Precision Drilling
Corporation’s Energy Services Division and International Contract Drilling Division. Hence now
Precision Drilling International is a division of Weatherford and is totally independent from Precision
Drilling Corporation.
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Rig-Design
The initial concept for slant drilling was to develop shallow reserves that could not be reached
economically with conventional direc-tional drilling. Advances in slant-drilling technology and
experi-ence have expanded the slant-drilling role. It now can be considered an economic alternative
to vertical development in many cases. Ex-perience with the latest generation slant rig has shown
sufficient improvements in performance to reduce drilling costs below those experienced on equivalent
vertical wells. The main factors that have contributed to improved rig performance during the past
decade include the following.
Tubular Handling
On most slant rigs, all tubulars are laid down when tripped. This is accomplished with a hydraulic
pipe boom that raises pipe from horizontal to the well bore inclina-tion.
Pipe Handling
The latest generation of top drives used on slant rigs now have hydraulic elevators; thus, only
one makeup/breakout is required for each joint. In addition, these top drives have makeup/breakout
wrenches allowing connections to be made up/out in the mast as required. The entire pipe-handling
as-sembly on the top drive also can rotate 360°. When running casing, this feature acts as an
infinite-position stabbing board and provides accurate thread alignment. Drill pipe and casing are
made up by the top drive. When ac-curate casing torqueing is required, a power tong can be added
with minor rig modifications. Using con-cepts adapted from large power casing tongs, a wrench
was built to spin and torque drillpipe, collars, and casing in a single opera-tion. Torques up to 100
000 N-m can be generated with these wrenches.
Top Drive. The initial top drives used on slant rigs were modified power swivels, which were adequate
for the shallow gas wells drilled. The top drives used on the newer slant rigs are 450 kW units
capable of 20 000 N-m drilling torque and 320 rev/min.
Fluid Handling
On present pads, sumpless drilling is used. The mud is reused up to 16 times. The advantages
of sumpless drilling include the following.
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1. Rig placement on the pad is simplified because individual sumps do not have to be worked
around. Only a small remote sump is required.
2. By reusing the drill fluids, cleanups are simplified. This reduces the environmental effects
of the drilling operation significantly.
Fluid Transfer
In the latest generation of slant rigs, a small tank is situated at the rig flow line. The following
items are designed into the tank.
1. Linear motion shakers at the flow line virtually eliminate solids-generation problems during
fluid transfer.
2. All plumbing for the rig’s well control remains fixed. The choke manifold, degasser, and trip
tank are incorporated into this tank. This allows for the same well-control hookup regardless
of well bore inclination.
Transfer Umbilical
With the advent of electric slant rigs, the transfer of fluid and power between the main and
remote rig sys-tems for pad drilling became more complex. Initially, umbilicals on mechanical rigs
used cable stands and flexible hose. This sys-tem was adequate but caused freezeup problems
during winter op-erations. Today’s electric rig umbilicals typically consist of 10-m enclosed sections.
The drilling-fluid, water, steam, and BOP hy-draulic lines run in a heated enclosure with the electrical
lines strung above the transfer cases.
Rig Mobility
The first slant rigs were designed for single-well ap-plications. They were moved in a manner
similar to conventional trailer rigs. As pad drilling progressed, the ability to move the en-tire drilling
module in a single load was necessary. Pad rigs now are designed with heavy-duty 16-wheeI
suspensions beneath the substructure. Each eight-wheel bogie on the suspension is mounted on a
turntable allowing rig movement in any direction. The entire rig can be jacked up on hydraulic rams
allowing the suspension to be positioned as required. The catwalk end of the rig is mounted on a
small skid plate. Once the rig load has been placed on the sus-pension, these rigs are moved with
two bed trucks by use of winch lines on either end of the rig. Because they are light, the shaker
tank, water tank, and doghouse are skidded to the next well slot. These rigs are capable of rig
release to spud times of <5 hours.
Safety
The development of slant-drilling rigs has resulted in op-erations that are safer than those of
conventional vertical rigs. Sever-al safety benefits can be attributed to slant drilling.
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Pipe Handling
All pipe handling is performed from remote lo-cations. Rig crews are never in direct contact with
tubulars on the drill floor. Slant rigs are not equipped with catheads or spinning chains. In addition, a
derrickman is never required to be in the mast because all pipe is laid down on every trip.
Rig Moves
During pad drilling, the main power generation, mud system, and mud pumps are never moved
on inter-well moves; thus, rig move accidents that occur during this phase of the-rig move are
eliminated. In addition, the main rig module requires very lit-tle rig up or rig out on an inter-well
move because the entire unit is moved as one piece.
Running Casing
The entire opera-tion is hands off, including the power tong operation. As a result, accidents
while running casing are virtually eliminated.
Picker Crane
Slant rigs do not have V-door ramps. To allow equipment to be transported to the drill floor, a
hydraulic picker is used. Again, the rig crew is removed from directly handling heavy equipment.
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the pipe arm, which lifts the joints individually to the derrick. A top drive screws directly into each
joint, eliminating the need for an awkward and heavy kelly. The entire connection process takes
less than a minute, a fraction of the usual three to five minutes required by conventional single and
double rigs.
Personnel are required to operate the controls, run the equipment, perform basic maintenance,
disassemble the rig and rig up at the next drill site. The chief difference is that the equipment does
most of the work, eliminating the labor-intensive and dangerous component of tubular handling. This
not only makes the entire process more efficient, but also improves safety considerably.
Safety Benefits
Special consideration to areas of exposure of personnel to hazardous operations is given during
the application and control of the equipment throughout the drilling rig. Being a single style of rig
and using equipment to lay down and pickup pipe in all tripping operations, the Super Single rig
does not require personnel to be in the mast for anything besides servicing or visual inspections.
The mast is hydraulically pinned into position by a remotely operated pinning system. No pins other
than safety pins have to be installed or removed manually while the mast is at height. Mast-raising
rams are required to be laid down during drilling operations. The rams are fully retracted through all
stages and are pinned hydraulically in place. The slip table is designed to accommodate most
tubular slip sizes into the power link mechanism, reducing the employees’ exposure to lifting related
injuries. The application of a power wrench mounted in a hydraulically positioned cradle reduces
the need for manual tongs.
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Opportunities are constantly being evaluated to reduce further exposure. The simple design of
the top-drive and the inherent features of top-drive drilling also provide a safer work environment.
The tubular handling arm eliminates several tubular operations from the drill floor, v-door and catwalk
- a all high exposure operations on conventional drilling rigs. The tubular indexing system eliminates
the need for personnel to be working on the catwalk during drilling, tripping or while running casing.
The hydraulic pipe tables and casing racks greatly reduce personnel exposure to the hazards of
rolling tubulars. The application of true proportional control on hydraulic functions improves operational
control. Maximization of hydraulic and pneumatic control for as many functions as possible can
reduce manual- and fatigue-related labor issues. The two operator controls are located beside one
another in a way that maximizes operator view for all operations in the well line. Range III tubulars
reduce the number of times and operations required to run tubulars, which are the highest incident
percentage in drilling operations.
Above average usage rates and consistent operator use provide a stable working environment
for employees, reducing staff turnover, which can affect the safety of rig operations.
The IADC (International Association of Drilling Contractors), CAODC (Canadian Association of
Oilwell Drilling Contractors) and Precision Drilling note that the highest percentages of safety-related
incidents occur on the drill floor, catwalk and racking areas. The application of improved control of
equipment ensures that these percentages are on the decline. Precision Drilling has experienced a
58% reduction in drill floor recordable incidents on Super Single rigs relative to the remainder of the
fleet.
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Indian Scenario
Precision Drilling had been awarded a drilling contract by Niko Resources Ltd. to conduct work
on its onshore Surat Block in the Gujurat state of India. Niko utilized a semi-automated, super
single slant rig “PD 709SLE”. The approximate contracted operating cost per day in 2002 was US$
13,000 in vertical mode and US$ 18,000 in slant mode. The rig was to have drilled an estimated 15
wells on the Surat appraisal program in both vertical and slant modes. The rig was chosen as it
was particularly suited for drilling applications in environmentally sensitive and limited size locations,
attributes that are essential for the Surat Block. Drilling was to have been carried out for reservoirs
below the city. However after drilling the first appraisal well in slant mode, and after re-evaluating
the seismic data, it prospects in the inaccessible areas were down-graded. Hence the rest of the
locations were drilled in the vertical mode. Later, more wells were drilled by Cairn Energy in Rajasthan
using this rig in vertical mode. Multi well pad drilling was carried out for the development wells.
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Summary
Although slant drilling is a technology that has been in use for many years, the latest generation
of slant rig designs, known as “Super Single” enables newer rigs to do more than drill at an angle. The
phrase ‘super singles’ when the rigs were extended from Range II drillpipe that’s 9 m long to Range III
drill pipe that’s 13 m long. These designs incorporate the latest drilling technology to accomplish a
variety of drilling tasks. These rigs are designed for slant, vertical, directional, and horizontal drilling,
and incorporate safety and control features, along with swift rig up, rig down, and moving capabilities
as priorities. The rig handles casing and drillstring tubulars without exposing employees to the heavy
labor normally required on conventional drilling rigs. The new rig also could drill multiple shallow wells
from a single pad, generating minimum disturbance to the wellsite environment.
The rigs have remotely controlled tubular-handling systems, masts that can tilt from vertical to
45 degrees in 1.5 degrees increments, and reversible single or dual-speed top drives. One key
advantage to starting a well at a sharp incline is the reduction of wellbore build rate from vertical to
horizontal - a reduction in dogleg severity-during the drilling of very shallow horizontal wells and
reduced measured depth of a directional well.
On these rigs, two operators, the driller and the derrickman, use remote controls to accomplish
the handling of all tubulars. The system requires no roustabouts or roughnecks to physically move
tubulars from racks to the catwalk or to manipulate them on the rig floor. Removing personnel from
hazardous environments and heavy, repetitive work typically involved in tubular handling has resulted
in a significant improvement in rig floor and catwalk safety statistics associated with these rigs.
The derrickman operates a hydraulic power wrench for tubulars makeup and breakout, and the carrier
for positioning it. He also controls a tubular kicker and indexer system that can index tubulars from
the catwalk, individually, into the tubular-handling boom, or kick tubulars out of it onto the racks or
tables for storage. Using the automatic controls, he places all tubulars in the hydraulically activated
tables and racks. When he moves the desired tubular to the catwalk, the hydraulic tubular-handling
boom lifts it to the rig floor. Once the tubular is on the rig floor, the derrickman remotely operates
the power wrench for makeup. Similarly, when coming out of the hole, the tubulars are laid down
and returned to the racks or tables via remote control, without any manual intervention.
The driller remotely operates air-powered tubular slips for drill tubulars and hydraulic catheads
for use with manual tongs when a power wrench is not applicable. He also operates the hydraulically
powered, pull-down system for inducing artificial gravity on long-reach, horizontal well sections and
a single or dual-speed, reversible top drive with integral traveling block and orientation lock.
The rig has reduced connection times, to 30-45 sec for this slant rig compared with 3-5 min for
conventional, telescoping double, or other single slant rigs.
The drilling system is designed around the use of:
1. 45-ft lengths of drill pipe (API Range III) with diameters up to 51/2 in.
2. Heavy-weight drill pipe in conventional lengths (API Range II).
3. Drill collars in conventional lengths with diameters up to 8 in.
4. Casing in conventional lengths (API Range III) with diameters up to 133/8 in.
The driller uses a remotely controlled hydraulic system to set the blowout preventer (BOP) at
the correct angle for the wellhead, and the fluid containment system keeps to a minimum any fluid
loss due to the angle of the BOP while maximizing fluid head for fluid transfer to the shale shakers
Safety Benefits. Most injuries to drilling crews occur while they are handling tubulars, with most
of those injuries occurring on the rig floor and catwalk. The rig’s control processes help to alleviate
this problem. The remote-controlled hydraulic tubular handling boom enables the derrick-men to
safely remove and add tubulars and accessories to the drillstring mechanically rather than manually.
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The boom also provides for the handling of casing. Drilling crews no longer must move tubulars
from racks to the catwalk or position them on the rig floor. Beyond that, hydraulic safety lockouts
for mast position pinning and crown maintenance reduce the need for personnel to climb the mast.
Conclusions
The use of slant drilling is a proven economic method of drilling in many countries worldwide
especially in Canada, China, Venezuela etc. for shallow development wells mainly in the range of
400-800 M TVD. Recent advances in slant tech-nology have made it possible to exploit many fields
up to 3000 m deep at costs below those for conventional vertical development. The latest generation
of slant rigs have proved the following.
1. Pad drilling for conventional shallow depth reserves can be done economi-cally and with
minimal environmental effect.
2. Well cost for shallow directional wells reduces since only holding assembly is used and
well’s measured depth is reduced in slant drilling.
3. Slant drilling, as compared with conventional directional drill-ing, can lower production
operating costs for wells that will re-quire artificial lift. This is achieved through smoother
well bore profiles that minimize rod and tubing wear.
4. Advances in drilling-crew safety can be achieved through de-sign improvements to drilling
equipment and techniques.
5. PLC of medium-sized electric land rigs is very effective.
6. Sump less drilling can be achieved economically on medium-depth land rigs and will reduce
the environmental effect of drilling-fluid wastes significantly.
7. Top-drive technology can achieve both economic and perform-ance advantages over rotary-
table drives on medium-depth land rigs.
The main disadvantage of this technology apart from the high cost is that since the wellhead is
tilted work-over can be done only by Slant Rig and not by conventional rig.
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Besides the direct costs associated with reaming, frequent downhole tool failures, in particular
the loss of under reamer arms and pins, severely affected total well economics. Furthermore, the
historically low penetration rates (ROPs) prevented operators from optimizing drilling efficiency.
With the development of rotary drilling and increase of borehole depths, ideas were developed
by engineers for decreasing drill string tripping time to change the worn bit. The development of a
bit, which could be run down and pulled out of the bottom hole inside the casing or drill pipes by
the wire line was the principal answer. Hence the term Retractable Bit (RB).This kind of tool provides
the possibility to realize the method of drilling without pulling out the pipes (DWPP), which has
substantial cost benefits in the process of construction of a borehole or one of its intervals.
One embodiment of the technique of drilling with casing requires a bit that can be retrieved
through the existing casing string. To achieve this and to maximize drilling performance requires a
device with a formation cutting structure indistinguishable from a standard PDC drill bit but capable
of being withdrawn through a restriction significantly smaller than the borehole size just drilled. This
concept leads to the possibility that a viable solution to the task of drilling increased diameter holes
could be a bit that offers substantial expansion capabilities while still presenting full cutting structure
to the formation. Hence the concept of expandable bit was born.
Initial efforts to circumvent the economic and technical drawbacks of standard under reaming
techniques focused on bi-center PDC bits. Because of its unique geometry, a bi-center bit can freely
move to one side of the hole during the trip through the casing and effectively drill a hole size larger
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than the inner diameter of the casing through which it passes. Although a step-change improvement
over standard under reaming, bi-center bits are not without operational problems that can negatively
affect drilling costs. Warren, et al., perhaps best amplified the difficulties associated with the use of
bi-center bits for opening holes. Foremost among the problems are deviation tendencies that make
these bits extremely weight sensitive when run on rotary drilling assemblies. Because only stabilizers
matching the pass-through diameter can be used, deviation control is difficult.
The cocking (walking) tendencies of bi-center bits generate unusual wear patterns, making it
challenging to affect proper stabilization. This propensity places severe limitations on rotary speed,
thus lowering penetration rates. Aside from low penetration rates, bi-center bits have not eliminated
drill string failures, abnormal tool wear, and instances where the reamed interval was not as large
as that stipulated in the well plan.
In the majority of wells drilled onshore Venezuela, the shortcomings of bi-center bits in reaming
operations were even more pronounced, particularly in the upper sections, which are highly prone
to bit balling. As such, the shallower fluid courses of one-piece bi-center bits significantly restrict
hole cleaning in those intervals. Furthermore, the abnormal pressure characteristic of Venezuelan
wells requires the setting of maximum-diameter liners throughout the well bore to minimize hole
loss. This requirement and the wide variance of formation composition require flexibility in the size
and type of pilot bits and bottom hole assemblies. Standard bi-center bits do not afford this flexibility.
The ability to drill and ream in a single pass has become even more advantageous as the global
trend toward deeper, high pressure, high temperature wells increases. Because of the extra casing
strings and longer intervals often drilled through unstable or encroaching formations, operators have
recognized the enormous economic advantages of simultaneous drilling and reaming.
Contemporary exploration trends and the documented limitations of both bi-center and traditional
hole opening technology spurred the development of the ream-while-drilling tool.
The ream-while-drilling (RWD) tool is a two-piece system that, unlike traditional under reamers,
incorporates no moving parts. This design eliminates the risk of leaving metal parts, such as under
reamer arms and pins, in the hole. The first section of the tool consists of the pilot bit; the second
is essentially a tube incorporating either four or five fixed blades with PDC cutters. The position of
fluid jets on only one side of the tool enables eccentric rotary movement to widen the pilot hole. By
virtue of the two-piece configuration, the type and size of both the pilot assembly and bit depends
only on the design of the specific tool. Thus, either a PDC or roller cone bit can be used, depending
on the formation composition.
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Conversely, under reamers enlarge the hole below a restricted tubular bore. The cutters are
kept closed during the pass-through and are activated once the tool reaches the point that requires
under reaming. Turning the pumps off deactivates the cutters with this technology.
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1. Under reamers
Originally, under reamers were only used to under ream previously drilled holes, involving an
additional trip. Typical design features included flow or weight-activated arms that expanded on a
pivot-bearing mechanism.
For the purpose of drilling oversized hole sections, the Anderreamer uses a
unique combination of mechanical and hydraulic mechanisms to extend the cutter blocks.
An example of the limitations associated with this type of technology can be seen in runs where
traditional arm-type under reamers have led to failures, often resulting in a sidetrack.
Reportedly, under reamers have difficulty coping with deviated wells and hard chalk. This has
raised concerns regarding the effect of bending stresses on the body and connections.
Another problematic area includes mud packing. When this occurs below the arms, it can prevent
them from closing in, making it extremely difficult to pull out of hole.
Historically, these factors have swayed decision making in regards to its use. Even today, under
reamers still have a way to go in terms of improving mechanical integrity and shedding a poor image.
To improve the mechanical integrity of traditional arm type under reamers, several things happened.
First, the development of polycrystalline diamond compact cutters eliminated problems associate
with mud packing and arm breakage. Thus, typical tool life was extended to 10 runs or more.
A further procedural innovation involved the removal of all cutters from worn roller cones, replacing
these with new cutters. These cutters were stub-welded in place once fatigue became an issue.
Three-cone under reamers have been capable of enlarging holes by as much as 50%, typically
selected according to formation type so as to optimize performance. The tools also allowed full
volume circulation at all times.
It is convenient to classify the various reamers as either drilling or reaming types. The reaming
type serves only to enlargen an existing hole, involving complete section redrill.
Conversely, the drilling type allows for the simultaneous reaming of a pilot hole as it is drilled.
It can also be used to under ream existing holes. Its design allows mudflow to be diverted to the bit
or can even be used with guidance system such as a bullnose for pilot-hole reentry.
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The latter has been reported to give good hold or slight build tendencies, depending on formation
and other factors. Thus, its performance resembles a packed-hole assembly.
RB Technology Prospects
1) Drilling with casing – this is most promising trend in cost-effective technologies for 21st
century.
2) Super-long boreholes drilling – RB could provide drill string tripping timesaving, better well
control and borehole walls stability in 10-15 km long wells.
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Emerging Technologies
3) Scientific drilling – RB provides unique opportunities for continuous coring and logging
operations in all kind of geological conditions both onshore and offshore.
4) Geothermal drilling – drilling with retractable bits makes available cost effective deep
geothermal drilling in hard crystalline hot formations.
3. Expandable Bits
Two techniques directly applicable to, and positively impacted by utilization of an “Expandable
Drill Bit” are the use of expandable casing and drilling with casing. One method of drilling a mono-
bore well is to use a drilling device capable of passing through a restricted diameter, with the ability
to drill a larger diameter hole. Similarly, when drilling with casing, one method is to drill the borehole
and then recover the drilling device through the bore of the casing just installed. The present design
of the expandable bit was prepared after considering a number of options and alternatives and was
seen to embody the features associated with best drilling practice.
Design Basis
The original design premise was to build a drill bit with a variable diameter PDC cutting structure
using a simple, robust and reliable operating mechanism. Following assessment of a number of
alternatives, a concept design with four moveable blades was selected. This initially achieved an
expansion from 8 ½-in. to 9 5/8-in., although very early on this was increased to 10 3/4-in. This
resulted in an expansion ratio of 20%. It was realized that this would not only make selection of
the right drilling application much easier, but also achieve a significant performance improvement
over existing oversize hole drilling methods, such as under-reamers and bi-center bits. It also quickly
became apparent that the design allowed much larger expansion ratios to be achieved with minimal
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alterations in the blade design. The expansion mechanism is entirely hydraulically actuated by the
pressure differential from fluid flowing through the bit. An internal coil spring is incorporated to return
the blades to the closed position. This would occur every time flow through the bit stopped.
4. Bi-center bits
Fig. 4.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
In 1994, bi-center bits were introduced, which contained new technology. For the first time, a
single tool could reliably be used to simultaneously drill and under ream, even in highly directional
applications, all with no moving parts. The results were fewer trips, fewer rotating hours, and less
“problem” time. The only major draw back to using bi-center bits has been that they could not be
used to drill out cement, float equipment, and casing guide shoes. It was required that a conventional
drill bit be used first to drill out into new formation, then a trip was needed to pick up the bi-center
bit. In 1999, advancements in bi-center technology have resulted in a bi-center bit that can be used
to drill out and then continue to drill ahead.
Gradually, increased demand for these bits highlighted certain technological limitations, including
poor directional drilling performance. Essentially, this was linked to the lack of a full-gauge stabilizer
above the bi-center bit, resulting in bottomhole assembly (BHA) stabilization issues. Without
stabilization, there was a need to depend almost entirely on the bent motor housing to steer.
BHAs using bi-center bits tended to have a problem with inclination control. Consequently, to
make changes in inclination, drillers spent a lot of time slide drilling, which can be difficult at the
best of times, let alone with the added complication of running a bit that is geometrically unstable.
From this perspective, there was an understandable apprehension towards running bi-center bits. As
steerability issues continued to hinder directional performance, bi-center bit manufacturers have found
ways to improve BHA behavior. These companies realized that bi-center bits could to an extent be
steered by weight alone. They also found that longer bit profiles helped to stabilize BHA performance.
Today, bi-center bits are used in hard formations as they are perceived to be more robust than
traditional arm under reamers. On the other hand, under reamers tend to be preferred in softer
formations as their application can lead to impressive gains in penetration rates while providing an
increased time window to conduct operations in swelling formations.
The success of bi-center bits removed the need for hole openers in many applications, eliminating
the need to drill the interval twice. From the drilling engineers’ point of view, a single integral
component reduced risk and cost as compared to two or three. All these factors came together to
confirm the place of the bi-center bit in the industry.
Bi-center bits often produce excitation force required to induce vibrations that are then detrimental
to drillstring and BHA components, It is also felt that they do not drill out shoes as efficiently as
predicted. Finally recent calliper logs run in the GOM illustrated that large sections of the wellbore
had not been enlarge “opened up” at all.
Design
The ream-while-drilling (RWD) tool is a two-piece system that, unlike traditional under reamers,
incorporates no moving parts (fig. 1).
This design eliminates the risk of leaving metal parts, such as under reamer arms and pins, in
the hole. The first section of the tool consists of the pilot bit; the second is essentially a tube
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Emerging Technologies
incorporating either four or five fixed blades with PDC cutters. The position of fluid jets on only one
side of the tool enables eccentric rotary movement to widen the pilot hole.
The pass-through is the drift diameter of the casing or the liner through which the system must
pass. Drill size is the final drilled hole diameter. The drill size of the targeted section, in conjunction
with the pass-through diameter stipulated in the well objectives, determines the pilot bit diameter.
Fig. 1. By virtue of the two-piece configuration, Fig. 2. The geometry of the RWD tool revolves
the type and size of both the pilot assembly around three interrelated diameters: pass
and bit depends only on the design of the through, drill size, and pilot bit
specific tool. Thus, either a PDC or roller cone
bit can be used, depending on the formation
composition.
The geometry allows the tool to adapt easily to the maximum diameter of the liner or casing in
which it must pass. Upon rotation, the tool is then able to widen the hole to its programmed final
diameter.
The leading, or hole opening, blade creates a smooth transition from the pass-through size to
the drill size, providing faster stabilization of the system. The pilot bit stabilization pad offsets the
net imbalance force of the reamer blades, thus providing the additional stabilization not possible
with bi-center bits. Basically, the stabilization pads force rotation around the center of the pilot hole,
ensuring the drilling of a full-size well bore. Both the pilot hole size and the extent of the imbalance
force generated determine the size of the gauge pad.
The reamer wing has carbide-supported edge PDC cutters. The shape of these new-generation
cutters strengthens the diamond edge and delays the onset of fracture and cutter wear. By spreading
the cutter arrangement across the profile of the tool, the RWD tool designers successfully facilitated
even load distribution.
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The cutter surfaces are highly polished, which is especially advantageous when sections prone
to bit balling are drilled, such as those encountered in the upper hole of Venezuelan wells. Polished
PDC cutters have a friction coefficient of 0.1, or that of ice sliding on ice. Polished cutters reduce
the penetration rate limitations posed by the built-up edge that forms when an amount of drilled
formation is not removed and subsequently attaches itself to the leading edge of the cutter. Polished
cutters reduce the shear forces that restrict cuttings removal and limit penetration rates. The polishing
process also removes any microscopic imperfections in the cutter, further enhancing cutter durability.
Increased production
Increased production is important for two major reasons. First, depleted reservoirs result in lower
reservoir pressures and poorer rock mechanics, further heightening the likelihood of sand productivity.
In these instances, to preserve or improve production rates, provision must be made for sand
exclusion through pre-wrapped screens or gravel packs.
Consequently, the need for enlarging holes to place new sand screens and gravel packs also
arises. Eventually, the demand for remedial work such as drilling through failed screens will place
additional demand on under reaming technologies.
Depleted reservoirs are also likely to result in transition from oil to gas production. As such,
the use of under reaming technologies to configure larger bore casing strings can be viewed as a
preferred method of improving productivity by maximizing the size of the borehole in the reservoir
section of the well.
The bracket of increased production also covers older platforms. Decommissioning has proved
to be complicated, time consuming, and expensive. These costs tend to dissuade operators from
such activities, enhancing the appeal for extending platform life. This can also heighten demand,
as certain technical restrictions can be associated with older platforms.
These restrictions include the availability of conductor slots and the size of blowout preventers,
which restricts bit diameters and conductor placement. Both of these examples make under reaming
an attractive option, as it overcomes such limitations while maximizing the configuration of casing
strings.
Finally, under reaming technologies can be applied towards sidetracking and multilateral drilling
applications where hole enlargement through existing casing strings provide an attractive option.
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Emerging Technologies
Laser Construction
2 RETURN TO
3 4 GROUND STATE
Principal components
1. Active laser medium
2. External energy pump
3. Mirror
4. Partial mirror
5. Laser beam
Application of Lasers
• Medical: In surgery – as a scalpel, to reattach retinas and to stitch up incisions after
surgery by fusing together skin
• Entertainment & Advertising: These use lasers that are in the visible spectrum to paint images
in the air.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
Oil & Gas Industry: Projects are being carried out to drill & complete oil and gas wells with lasers.
Given below are a few of the expected applications in oil & gas industry
• vertical & directional (including extended reach) drilling,
• seismic shot holes,
• Cutting windows for side tracking and laterals
• cutting trenches for pipelines,
• small diameter exploratory wells,
• horizontal and slanted wells,
• removal of objects lost downhole that would normally require drill out or fishing operations.
• primary perforation to create the path between the wellbore and reservoir
• extend perforations to connect additional reservoir rock to the wellbore (fracturing)
• Laser technology can also be applied to other arrears that require rock removal, such as,
mining, excavation, tunneling, nuclear reactor decommissioning, archeological investigation,
drilling volcano artificial chimneys for pressure relief, geothermal wells, etc.
Types of lasers
The laser medium can be a solid, gas, liquid or semiconductor. Lasers are commonly designated
by the type of lasing material employed:
• Solid-state lasers
• Gas lasers
• Excimer lasers
• Dye lasers
• Semiconductor lasers or diode lasers
• Fiber lasers
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Emerging Technologies
• by direct rock destruction via ablation. Each of the three methods of ablating rock (spalling,
fusing or vaporizing) may have specific applications for natural gas drilling and completion.
There are three processes by which lasers might transfer energy into a rock target:
• Absorption
• Reflection
• Scattering
It is the absorbed energy that gives rise to rock heating and destruction. Reflection and scattering
represent energy losses in the process of rock destruction. The degree to which energy is lost
dictates the effectiveness of the laser’s ability to spall, fuse or vaporize rock.
Research Objectives
• To obtain much more precise measurements of the energy requirements needed to transmit
light from surface lasers down a borehole with enough power to bore through rocks as much
as 6000M or more below the surface.
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Drilling Operation Practices Manual
• To determine if sending the laser light in sharp pulses, rather than as a continuous stream,
could further increase the rate of rock penetration. Pulsed lasers have been used for better
performance in cutting rocks.
• To determine if lasers can be used in the presence of drilling fluids. The technical challenge
will be to determine whether too much laser energy is expended to vaporize and clear away
the fluid where the drilling is occurring.
• A variety of lasers have been used in the research. The following table shows the lasers,
location, and laser properties.
Figure above shows experimental set-up for Nd:YAG Laser interacting with rock
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Emerging Technologies
A comparison of laser parameters for industrial lasers at 4KW power output is given in table
below.
Spectroscopy is used in determining the amount of energy reflected, emitted, and scattered by
the rock. Low reflectance indicates that more energy is absorbed into the rock. Even though CO2,
CO and MIRACL lasers have the greatest absorption, they may not be the best candidates for
prototype/field applications. The Direct Diode, Nd:YAG and COIL have lower absorption but they
have better prototype/field qualities such as durability, portability, downhole energy delivery and lower
environmental impact. However, It has been determined that power not wavelength controls rock
removal rate.
The size of lasers varies from the US Army’s MIRACL which is the size of a small refinery to
the Direct Diode laser which is about of the size of a shoe box. The US Air Force COIL has been
miniaturized, as part of the airborne laser defense system, to operate inside a Boeing 747.
Sandstone, Limestone, Shale, Granite, Concrete and Salt were tested during the course of the
research. Rocks can be chipped, melted or vaporized by a laser beam. It is controlled by diverse
mechanisms that are function of both the rock properties and the laser parameters. In every rock
type tested, the porosity and permeability were increased and the elastic moduli were altered to
weaken the rock. This process in primarily due to the creation of microfractures and dehydration of
clays. Even though the melted material in the wall of the hole is impermeable, the rock properties
behind the melted sheath are improved.
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Energy Input P
SE = =
Volume Reoved dV / dt
⎡ kW ⎤
⎢ cm2 ⎥ second
=⎣ ⎦ kW kJ
= =
cm cm /sec cm3
3
Where
P = Power Input (Watts)
DV/dt = Volume Time Derivative (cm3/sec)
Hence Specific Energy varies inversely as the efficiency of the laser cutting process.
Also Specific power (Power Density) is the power per unit area, Pc, (kW/cm2). ROP is related
to specific power and specific energy by Pc / SE (cm/s). The most efficient rock removal mechanism
would be the one that requires the minimum energy to remove a unit volume of rock. To increase
ROP, techniques that have high specific power and low specific energy should be used.
Above graph shows a comparison of various techniques for rock drilling and boring in terms of
rate of penetration, specific power and specific energy. (1) Percussive drills (small holes); (2) Rotary
drills; (3) Drill-and-blast tunneling; (4) Raise-and-tunnel-boring machines; (5) Flame jets; (6) Laser
spallation; (7) Future laser spallation.
Figure above reveals that to increase ROP of rock breaking, one should use techniques that
have high specific power and low specific energy. With better laser head and assisting purging system
designs, laser drilling would be the next generation drilling system.
Secondary effects like melting, re-melting, absorption of the laser energy by the plasma and
the plume, etc., reduce the efficiency of laser cutting and are dependant on mineralogy, thermal
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Emerging Technologies
properties and rock properties. This underlines the need for an efficient debris and vapor removal
system.
Berea CO2 12.7 2210 1,745 0.5 6.5 (spalling + medium melting)
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• Layer-3 is wider than the other three layers. Layer-3 represents a mechanical support to
layer-2. Both layers may indeed provide adequate support for oil and gas boreholes.
• Layer-4 represents the external limit of the laser thermal effect. Crystals are not transformed
into other minerals but are instead mechanically deformed and slightly burnt.
Fresh rock
Layer-4
Layer-3
Layer-2
Layer-1
Lased-hole
3. Overlapping multiple small laser beams method to drill large diameter and deep holes.
• To cover large diameter area (8-1/2 or greater), either the small spot size beam has to be
scanned or multiple such beams are overlapped.
• Each laser beam can spall a shallow hole as big as the spot size usually 1.27 cm in
diameter.
• Since some relaxation time is needed for avoiding melting of rock, the overlapped beams
will fire on the rock sequentially or in groups to create a layer of nearly circular work face
of a desired diameter.
• The rock fragments from this layer will be instantaneously removed with the help of the
purging and flushing system.
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Emerging Technologies
• Then laser beams will fire again to spall the second layer of rock. Layer by layer, a deep
hole will be drilled out until the desired depth reaches
• Laser parameters can be controlled very precisely to achieve spallation, melting or
vaporization the rock, depending on the application required.
• The phase change in the rock depends mainly on;
• the rock type,
• thermal properties and
• measured average power
• Tests on Nd:YAG laser shows that;
• Nd:YAG laser can perforate the rock as efficiently as the other types of high power lasers
• the permeability of the rock lased by pulsed Nd:Yag laser beam increases up to 566%
compared to non-lased rocks due to clay dehydration and micro-fractures induced by the
high temperature gradient.
Linear Nd:YAG Laser Track Test Samples with Constant Focal Position
Change Rate for Sandstone, Limestone and Shale Identifying Laser-Rock
Reaction Zones and Calculated Power Densities.
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Conclusions
• Laser spallation shows 8 –100 times faster ROP than that of the conventional rock breaking
techniques because it has specific power as high as that of flame jets which is the highest
among the conventional methods and specific energy as low as that of most conventional
methods.
• As it drills, the laser exposure creates a glass or ceramic liner that, potentially, could replace
the steel casing now required in boreholes. Eliminating the need for casing & drill-pipe would
be a big saving.
• The most energy efficient drilling can be achieved by maintaining laser intensities below
the threshold for rock melting and vaporization.
• In narrow, deep holes, fragments of rock can block the beam, wasting energy. Multiple holes
drilled side by side with 1-inch-diameter collimated beams for a drill hole diameter of 8
inches overcomes this problem.
• Super-pulsed (SP) CO2 laser beams were shown to efficiently drill deep, large diameter
holes in petroleum rocks due to peak power 4 times higher than the average power, and
the beam’s pulse nature. The SP mode is more efficient than CW operation.
• Pulsed lasers cut faster & with less energy than continuous wave lasers. They have better
penetration and fracturing, while a CW laser, which dumps too much power into the rock,
causes it to melt and vaporize.
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Emerging Technologies
• Pulsed Nd:YAG laser with fiber optic cable delivery is a strong candidate for laser applications
for oil and natural gas wells.
• The specific energy improves (decreases) with increasing laser intensity to an optimum
just below the transition to a melting mechanism, when the specific energy increases
substantially.
• The objective of laser drilling is to get the laser beam energy to the rock face. Since traditional
drilling fluids (mud) used for pressure control and cutting removal are not transparent to
laser wavelength, drilling must be done with a transparent fluid. For the initial application, it
is anticipated that pressure control and cutting removal would be accomplish using a high-
pressure inert gas such as N2 or CO2. This is not new technology, since the petroleum
industry has used compress gas as drilling fluid for many years.
• Placing of laser energy downhole i.e. beam deliverability, is the current challenge of research
teams. They are currently looking at fiber optics, hollow fibers, fiber lasers, and one of the
most promising is the Direct Diode Laser which is compact enough to put the entire laser
mechanism downhole.
• In the lab researchers have successfully drilled more than 18 inches which was limited by
sample size available and laboratory capabilities. They have drilled 8 inches diameter hole
in the laboratory with a megawatt laser and 0.5 inch diameter hole with a few kilowatts.
There is no limit to the size and depth of the hole. It is just a function of the power available.
• Lasers can be used for perforating or extended reach drilling. The fundamental principles of
laser rock destruction are independent of the application. The configuration of the surface
and downhole equipment will have to be adapted to the application.
• Characteristics of the laser system make it friendlier to the environment than current state-
of-the-art drilling systems. Laser drilling is faster so the system is on location for a shorter
period of time, thus minimizing interruptions to the natural ecosystems and reducing drilling
objections for local residents. It is envisioned that the laser system would have a smaller
environmental footprint and the use of hazardous chemical would be greatly reduced.
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The laser drilling prototype may provide answers to many of these challenges.
354
References
REFERENCES
1. Drilling Operations Manual, IDT, ONGC, Dehradun, 1987
2. Operation and Maintenance Manual, BHEL Oil Well Drilling Rig, Vol. IV
3. Offshore Technology, Unit-V, Lesson-IV, The Hoist, PES The University of Texas, Texas.
4. Drilling Operations Manual, IDT, ONGC, Dehradun, 1994.
5. Rotary Drilling Series, Unit-II, Lesson –III, Drilling a Straight hole, PES, The University of Texas,
Texas.
6. Tool Pushers Course Materials, IDT, ONGC, Dehradun,
7. Rabia H., Oil well Drilling Engineering- Principle & Practices, Graham and Trot man London.
8. Rabia H, Fundamentals of Casing Design, Graham and Trotman London
9. Moore L Preston, Drilling Practices Manual, Pennwell books, Pennwell Publishing Company,
Tulsa Oklahoma
10. Rotary Drilling Series Unit - I, Lesson –II, The Bit, PES, The university of Texas Texas.
11. Rotary Drilling Series, Unit-I, Lesson –III, The Drill Stem PES, The University of Texas,Texas.
12. BHEL Manufacturing Catalogue Trichi
13. OISD Standard -187 “Care and Use of Wire rope”, MOPNG, Govt. of India, 7th Floor, New Delhi
House, 27, Barakhamba Road, New Delhi -110001.
14. Rotary Drilling Series, Unit-I, lesson –V, ‘The Block and Drilling Line’ PES, The University of
Texas, Texas.
15. IADC, Houston, Texas.
16. Well Control Manual, IDT, Dehradun, 2003
17. API-RP 7G (Sixteenth Edition August 1998)
18. Trouble free drilling Vol.-I Stuck pipe prevention by John Metchill Dulberg, Engineering Inc.
19. Stuck pipe prevention, Randy Smith, USA.
20. Stuck pipe prevention Prentice Training Company Inc,
21. Rotary Drilling Series, Unit –II, Lesson –IV, Casing & Cementing PES, The university of Texas,
Texas.
22. Operations Manual Halliburton Services, Duncon, Oklahama
23. Coring Manual Diamant Boart Petroleum Division Brussels ( Belgium)
24. Composition and Properties of Drilling Fluids” Darley HCH and Gray G.R.
25. Drilling Fluids Engineering Manual, Magcobar division Oilfield Products Group Dresser Industries
Inc. Houston, Texas.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. McCray A.W and Cole F.W., Oil Well Drilling Technology, The English Book Depot, Dehradun.
2. Do’s and Don’ts for Drilling Engineers, IDT, ONGC, Dehradun.
3. Gatlin Carl, Petroleum Engineering Drilling & Well Completion, Prentice hall, Inc. Englewood
Cliffs, New Jersey.
355
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
z V CHAKRAVARTY : He is B E (Mechanical Engineering) and has 25 years field & R&D experience in
ONGC. He has vide field experience in drilling operations in Bombay Offshore and on the Land Rigs.He
remained a regular faculty for Drilling Technology courses and specializes in the latest advancements.
He has many papers to his credit. He has also authored many OISD standards.
z R SHANKER : He is B E (Mechanical Engineering) and has wide experience in ONGC.He has field
experience in drilling operations in Eastern and Western Region. He remained a regular faculty for Drilling
Technology courses. He has presented many technical papers in various workshops/seminars and also
authored many OISD standards.
z A K JOSHI : He is M Sc (Chemistry) and joined ONGC in 1980. He has working experience as mud
engineer on drilling rigs in Assam and Ankleshwer Assets. He is working in R & D section in Drilling Fluid
Engineering (DFE). He has many papers to his credit. He is a regular faculty for the drilling fluid related
topics.
z P K DUBEY : He is B E (Mechanical Engineering) and joined ONGC in 1982. He has working experience
in drilling operations in Assam and directional drilling in Ankleshwar. He has worked in HRD and QHSE
audit in IDT and his present assignment is Drilling R & D in directional drilling. He specializes in QHSE.
He is a regular faculty for Drilling Technology courses.
z VINOD KUMAR : He is B E (Mechanical Engineering) and joined ONGC in 1988. He has working
experience in drilling and cementing operations in Bombay Offshore and Assam assets. He has also
worked as Safety Auditor, accredited to DNV, Singapore. He is presently posted in Drilling Technology
School and is a regular faculty for Drilling Technology courses.