New Learning Env

European Commission
DG Education and Culture
Study on Innovative
Learning Environments in
School Education
Final Report
September 2004
European Commission
DG Education and Culture
Study on Innovative
Learning Environments in
School Education
Final Report
September 2004
Content
Summary in English
Résume en Français
1. Introduction 1
1.1 Background of the study 1
1.2 The assignment of RAMBOLL Management 2
1.3 Report content 4
2. Methodology 5
2.1 Data-generating activities 5
2.2 Analytical framework for analysing the use of ICT in innovative learning
environments : What constitutes an innovative learning environment? 5
2.3 The overall external structural framework 7
2.4 The organizational/institutional setting 10
2.5 The learning environment 12
2.6 Actors/Individuals 14
3. External structures influencing the activities of schools 17

3.1 Special factors to be considered 17
3.2 Political and societal tendencies 21
3.3 National and regional ICT strategies and action plans 22
3.4 Support and funding 24
3.5 Infrastructure 25
3.6 The curriculum 28
3.7 Teacher education 31
3.8 External supply of educational material 32
3.9 Pedagogical styles & trends 32
3.10 Internationalisation 33
4. The organizational/institutional settings influencing teachers‘ and

pupils’ work 35
4.1 Organizational framework for innovation in learning 35
4.2 Organization of teachers’ activities – co-operation 36
4.3 School strategies and action plans 37
4.4 Staff competence development strategies 39
4.5 School culture 42
4.6 Management style 43
4.7 Learning material 44
4.8 Technology 45
4.9 Finance 46
4.10 Architecture 47
4.11 Parents’ involvement 48
5. Theories and models of Innovative Learning Environments 49

5.1 Innovative Learning Environments – Theoretical foundation 49
5.2 New models or paradigms facilitated by advances in ICT 50
5.2.1 From instructionism to constructionism 51
5.3 Innovative learning environments – new learning activities 54
5.3.1 The organization of the learning situation 54
5.3.2 Encouraging joint enterprises and the shared construction of knowledge 57
5.3.3 Strengthening pupils’ responsibility for their own learning process 61
5.3.4 Differentiating the learning process according to different learning styles and
levels of knowledge 65
5.3.5 Involving external parties in the learning situation 70
5.3.6 Supporting pupils in experimenting and exploring 75
5.3.7 Evaluation and assessment 76
5.3.8 Changes in teachers’ and pupils’ roles 79
5.4 Shift in learning paradigm – main findings and characteristics 82
6. Case studies of Innovative Learning Environments 83

6.1 Methodological remarks 84
6.2 Coal Tyee Elementary School, Nanaimo, British Columbia 86
6.2.1 Framework conditions 88
6.2.2 The organizational setting (Rules) 90
6.2.3 The educational setting (Resources) 92
6.2.4 The learning environment 94
6.2.5 The learning situation 98
6.2.6 Performance measurement and evaluation 102
6.2.7 The future 104
6.2.8 Sources 105
6.3 De Lindt , the Stiphout area of Helmond 106
6.3.2 The organisational setting (Rules) 110
6.3.8 Sources 122
6.4 Gylemuir Primary School, the Municipality of Edinburgh 123
6.4.2 The organisational setting 127
6.4.6 Sources 140
6.5 Maglegårdsskolen, Municipality of Gentofte 141
6.6 Lavinia, City District of Les Corts, Barcelona 161
6.6.8 Sources 178
6.7 Vinstagårdsskolan, the Municipality of Stockholm 179
6.8 Additional case studies and information concerning schools using ICT for
learning 198
7. The Future School 201

7.1 Why try to imagine the future? 201
7.2 Main challenges facing the schools 203
7.3 OECD scenarios 208
7.4 Scenarios of the Scenario and Forecast Report 241
7.5 Imagining the future school and working out school strategies 242
8. Conclusions and Recommendations 245

8.1 Conclusions 245
8.2 Recommendations for future actions and study 248
Annex A: Bibliography
Disclaimer:
This study has been produced by Ramboll Management
The authors of the report are chief consultant Lotte Grünbaum, consultant Marianne
Pedersen and chief consultant Steffen Bohni Nielsen
The study does not necessarily reflect the official views of the European Commission.
Extracts from the document are permitted provided a clear reference of the source is
given.
More information on European cooperation in the fields of 'ICT use in education' and
'eLearning' may be found at:
www.elearningeuropa.info and
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/objectives_en.html
Summary in English
RAMBOLL Management has carried out a “Study on Innovative Learning En-
vironments in School Education” for DG Education and Culture. The study
was carried out between August 2002 and December 2003.
The purpose of the study was to provide DG Education and Culture with a
comprehensive analysis and report concerning the existing innovative trends
in theories behind and practices in innovative learning environments in
school education throughout the European Union. The objectives of the study
were to provide:
x A general description of the current situation in the European Union con-

cerning the creation of new and innovative learning environments
x An in-depth study of innovative learning environments through case
studies
x A future-oriented analysis identifying trends in school development
x A set of recommendations for future action and study
The study has been carried out within the elearning initiative and elearning
Action Plan and hence with a special focus as to the role of new information
and communication technologies in the new learning environments.
The study included both theoretical and empirical investigation.
The following is a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommenda-

tions of the study:
What is an Innovative Learning Environment?

The concept or notion of a learning environment as a separate topic has be-
come current in educational discourse in close connection with the emerging
use of ICT for educational purposes on the one hand, and the constructiv-
ist/constructionist concept of knowledge and learning on the other.
The common features in all of the theoretical definitions of innovative learn-

ing environments are their emphasis that a learning environment is a place
or community in which a number of activities are occurring with the purpose
of supporting learning, and that actors can draw upon a number of resources
when doing so. They also emphasize the constructionist view of learning and
the use of ICT.
The conception of learning environment in the present study adds a socio-

logical dimension to these common features as learning environments are
understood as different learning situations which are characterized by activi-
ties taking place between teachers and pupils in a framework that comprises
a number of structural factors consisting of resources and rules. The reason
for this broad conception is that it was found that a broad analysis model
was needed in order to be able to capture the many elements that are po-
tentially involved when talking about the development of innovative learning
environments.
Innovative learning environments can be defined and described in numerous

ways, depending on the frame of reference being used. Even though global
common features do exist, there are major differences in researchers’ per-
ceptions concerning innovative learning environments. In addition, different
learning traditions, different policies and different ways of managing school
systems exist throughout Europe. So what is perceived as an innovative
Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

learning environment in one country might not be viewed as such in another,
and vice versa.
Hence, it was decided not to choose or apply a single definition of Innovative

Learning Environments, precisely because a given pedagogical tool or appli-
cation of ICT in learning might be innovative in one setting but might not be
considered to be so in another.
So, in order to analyse and describe new learning environments, an interpre-

tive framework for understanding the term rather than a specific definition
was used. Using this framework, it was made possible to capture different
modes of innovation in learning and in the use of ICT in schools. It was as-
sumed that in principle all learning environments can be analysed using this
general model. The model assumes that four levels of focus are important
for the description and understanding of innovative learning environments.
1. The overall external structural framework such as national school poli-

cies, including curricula, funding, etc.
2. The organizational/institutional setting in which learning takes place
3. The learning environment in which learners and teachers interact and in
which pedagogical theories and practises and ICTs are used in different
ways to improve learning
4. Actors/individuals, viewed as the individuals involved in the learning ac-
tivities.
The starting point of the model is that a particular innovative learning envi-
ronment exists within a given overall societal framework. Most importantly,
this external structure consists of the national school policies, the country’s
general level of technological development, and its strategies for accommo-
dating the knowledge society. Other general framework conditions may also
play an important part in understanding the development and characteristics
of a particular innovative learning environment. The overall structural frame-
work gives rise to both constraints and opportunities in relation to the appli-
cation of new pedagogical practises and the use of ICT in learning.
The model also presumes that innovative learning environments can be ana-
lysed in terms of both their educational and their organisational settings. The
organisational setting involves the economy and the funding of the learning
environment, the technological infrastructure, the management and admini-
stration, local school strategies, and the development of educational mate-
rial. The educational setting comprises the pedagogical and didactical meth-
ods in use, the roles of the teachers and pupils, and the content and learning
objectives of the instruction being delivered.
The model intends to encompass and present both the driving forces and the
barriers that affect the development of innovative learning environments. It
assumes that changes can happen at all of the four levels described and that
changes at the four different levels create or influence new challenges and
possibilities when they change existing structures. Structures in this regard
are considered to consist of rules and resources.
Rules are not to be regarded simply as rigid rules to be strictly followed by

individuals. Instead, they should be interpreted as (mainly culturally-bound)
habits and practices. Examples of the practical manifestation of rules are
teacher’s and pupils’ roles in the learning environment, how teachers and
pupils communicate, how teachers sanction pupils’ actions, how teachers co-
operate, how head teachers manage schools, how teachers interpret legisla-
tion and the curriculum. Rules vary according to the context, for example

communication between a class and teacher A might be very different from
the communication between the same class and teacher B.
Resources are of two kinds, authoritative and allocative. Authoritative re-

sources are those vested in individuals, for example the right to lead by vir-
tue of occupying a managerial post or being the best in a given field through
the possession of particular knowledge or skills. Allocative resources are ma-
terial. These might consist of money, computer equipment, buildings and
learning material. The possession of resources is not crucial, but the ability
to use them is.
In conclusion, in this study, Innovative Learning Environments were seen

and analysed as the on-going results of a mix of societal, organisational,
institutional and individual change processes.
Towards a new learning paradigm

The findings of the study suggested a clear move towards a new learning
paradigm. This new learning paradigm represents a shift away from instruc-
tionism towards constructivism. That is, the constructionist visions for the
future education system seem to be globally shared.
In practice, the shift in the learning paradigm in terms of the actual dissemi-
nation and prevalence of the new learning activities actually being under-
taken in schools proved to be limited, whereas throughout the European
Union the acceptance of the shift in pedagogical ideas and objectives was
widespread.
The way the paradigm shift actually occurs was found to be context-
dependent. It was found that even if only minor differences of perception
existed across countries concerning the new possibilities, certain differences
did exist.
The common perceptions relate to a number of potential changes.

x First they relate to a change in the focus on the pupils’ as individuals and
their opportunities for becoming more active and taking more responsi-
bility for their own learning process.
x This aspect seems to be closely linked to a second substantial feature in
the new learning paradigm, namely the differentiated learning approach
which emphasises the need to plan learning differently for different pu-
pils allowing them to work according to their individual learning style and
learning pace. A perception based on a more broad perception of intelli-
gence than the traditional literary intelligence.
x Thirdly, at the same time there is an increased focus on social participa-
tion, hence on working with the communication and collaboration skills
of the children.
x Fourthly, there is a change in the perception of the appropriate role of
the teacher from a ‘teacher to pupils’ process of knowledge processing to
more ‘group-based’ or ‘pupil to pupil’ processes where the teachers act
more systematically as advisors, guides and supervisors for students, as
well as providers of the frameworks for the learning process of their stu-
dents.
x Fifthly, an important aspect of the migration towards another learning
paradigm is a shift in focus away from content and the ability to repro-
duce facts and knowledge towards the creation of knowledge. Pupils
should be active participants in constructing knowledge through their
own learning process, both working alone or together with peers. Ex-
perimenting and exploring are important aspects of this active construc-
tion of knowledge.

x Sixthly, the new learning paradigm involves the belief that learning will
benefit from reorganizing the learning situation in ways that transcend
the traditional curriculum-bound ways of thinking, multidisciplinary ap-
proaches and in radically modified time planning and organization of
both learning and teachers’ work.
The role of ICT in the new learning paradigm

Finally, it seems to be commonly perceived, that the use of ICT holds a great
potential for supporting or even being the transforming agent for the above
mentioned shifts towards a new learning paradigm.
The findings of the study confirm a strong public involvement in promoting

the integration of ICT in learning in the school environment. This means that
even where the integration of ICT in schools is not yet underway, it is a ma-
jor goal which is jointly recognised as representing a priority need among
both central and local government politicians, school administrators, school
management, teachers, parents and pupils. There is a general awareness in
all Member States that ICT potentially has an important part to play in pro-
moting social inclusion and equal opportunities. Considerable emphasis is
therefore being placed on ICT in education as a key instrument in meeting
the EU goals of being at the forefront of the knowledge society of the future.
The concept is not exclusively regarded as a learning tool that is confined to
educational settings, but as one that has broader ramifications encompass-
ing lifelong learning and a general adaptation to the requirements of the
knowledge society.
It was found that in all the Member States there is a strong tendency in the
direction of integrating ICT into education, and that the ICT infrastructure of
schools has been improved considerably in the past few years. Nevertheless,
the study has also demonstrated that there are considerable differences in
the level of infrastructure that exist among the Member States, particularly
in relation to the shortages generally observed among the southern Euro-
pean countries.
As far as many of the informants of the study were concerned, ICT is the
initiator of a revolution within the education system. The study however con-
cludes, that this could be the case, but that it is by no means inevitable.
Instead, it is concluded that ICT could either support and preserve traditional
methods, or else be a means of or a support for changing the pedagogical
methods and the organization of the learning situation.
Case studies of innovative learning environments

Six best practice case studies were undertaken as part of the study. The
purpose of the case studies was to study examples of how innovative learn-
ing theories are being implemented in practise in different national contexts.
The case study objects are concrete schools, which were selected on the
grounds that they were considered innovative in their own national settings,
and therefore represented innovative learning environments in their particu-
lar contexts. Within the European Union, case studies were carried out in
Denmark, Great Britain (Scotland), Holland, Spain (Catalonia) and Sweden.
In addition, a case study was carried out in Canada.
The case studies were carried out within the overall framework analysis mo-
del, which was developed for the study. Hence, each case study compre-
hends an analysis of the interrelated effects of the interaction of the overall
external structural framework, the organizational/institutional setting and
the learning situation in which learners and teachers interact and in which

new pedagogical theories and practises and ICTs are used in learning activi-
ties.
It was not the intention to base any generalisations on the case studies;
instead, these were supposed to essentially represent experiences from
which some lessons might be learnt. Nevertheless, the case studies did de-
monstrate that some developments characterised all the new learning envi-
ronments examined that were independent of the national contexts, i.e.
First of all the case studies support the expressed standpoint of the study,
that many variables - and not the ICTs alone - encourage the development
of innovative learning environments. Factors such as local school strategies,
the schools’ management style, parents’ attitude, combined with the strate-
gic use of ICT encourage the emergence of new learning environments.
x School strategies and action plans

In all 6 case schools they have developed strategies and action plans, which
encompass values, visions and concrete objectives for their development.
This was found to show that the organisational setting is an important factor
when innovative learning environments are developed. Interestingly, how-
ever, none of them was found to have developed specific ICT strategies. The
teachers have undergone training to support (or lead) the process of inte-
grating ICT into learning, but this is rather the result of the external struc-
tures such as national or regional ICT strategies. What is new compared to
before is that via the defined values attention is increasingly being paid to
children’s well-being as a precondition for learning, based on the presump-
tion that children learn much better when they feel safe, secure and com-
fortable.
x Models of school organisation and teachers’ activities

The study posits that in order for the new modes of learning and organisa-
tion of the learning situation to have a permanent effect, the organisational
setting has to be involved. A distinction is drawn between three different
models of school organisation, namely the bureaucratic, the social and the
community models. While it was found that the traditional school usually
represents the bureaucratic system, emphasising basic values such as effi-
ciency, control, supervision and regularity, the schools examined during the
case studies typified the social or community systems, since all of them em-
phasized the importance of holistic values, problem-solving and shared re-
sponsibility. They also exemplified reorganised learning environments in
which the teachers were experimenting with different compositions of pupil
groups in different learning situations.
The case study schools have reorganized both pupils’ and teachers’ activities
in different ways. Some of the schools teach across age groups and subjects
with mixed pupil groups that are sometimes very large and sometimes very
small. In addition – and just as importantly – some of them have reorgan-
ized their teachers’ activities quite radically due to the fact that traditional
classroom-based teaching has been modified away from individual working
towards team-based work and collaboration and at some of the schools in
new physical spaces. The new modes of organization of the teachers’ activi-
ties have been grounded in deliberate pedagogical objectives. At some of the
schools there is a clear expectation that the predominance of the community
based type of organizational format will create a solid and secure learning
environment for all children.

x Staff competence development strategies
The implementation of both new methods and ICT naturally presupposes
that the teachers possess both the practical qualifications and to a great ex-
tent the imagination and creativity that is needed to generate new and inno-
vative thinking and carry it into practice. One way to make this happen is via
the continuous development of teachers’ competencies.
There are numerous ways of doing this. In some schools, teachers partici-
pate in national programmes or local or regional courses, either in a peer-
learning framework or independently. What differs equally from school to
school is how the strategies for competence development among the staff
are formulated either by the management or by the teachers working in con-
junction with the management. Many schools demand no special ICT compe-
tencies from their teachers, though some do. But in those which do not, it is
mainly up to the individual teachers to request and participate in ICT cour-
ses. At some of the schools personal growth plans are being used as a tool in
the development of the competencies of the teachers in order to follow up
their progress.
Teacher education is viewed as being one of the most crucial factors for the
successful use of ICT for learning and teaching, since the main prerequisite
for the use of ICT for pedagogical purposes is the existence of ICT compe-
tencies among the teachers. Up to this point everybody is in agreement, but
there is no unanimity concerning the methods and sequence according to
which the teachers ought to be educated. Some believe that teachers should
learn how to use ICT as a tool for themselves before learning how to use it in
pedagogical contexts, while some believe the opposite.
x School culture and management style

The role of school management is important as it is changing from traditional
“schedule planners” towards managers of change as regards implementing
new organizational structures and exploring the possibilities of setting up
new ICT infrastructure and value managers as regards being drivers of im-
plementing new pedagogical practises.
The case studies are all examples of schools whose management has consid-
ered a transformation in the school culture as being an important priority
and a primary precondition for being able to implement change. It was the-
refore found that the management style has been crucial for the creation of
the innovative learning environments and that an important precondition for
schools becoming more innovative was the creation of shared values. Man-
agers need to be visionary and to have the power to take action, but also
have to be able to delegate responsibility to teachers. In the case studies we
saw different examples of management styles, ranging from managements
who acted as initiators of change and then gave the teachers the responsibil-
ity of carrying out the changes to those who both initiated changes and ma-
naged the process afterwards. The case studies indicate a shift in the role of
the school management away from pure administration towards an HR man-
ager and pedagogical innovation role.
x The role of teachers and pupils

The role of teachers at the case schools tend to change from a ‘teacher to
pupils’ process of knowledge processing to more ‘group-based’ or ‘pupil to
pupil’ processes where the teachers act more systematically as advisors,
guides and supervisors for students, as well as providers of the frameworks
for the learning process of their students.

In the new learning paradigm, one of the purposes of learning is to increase
the responsibility that pupils take for their own learning process. This im-
plies, and can be explained by, both the shift away from a teacher-directed
towards a learner-directed focus, and away from a teacher-centred to a
learner-centred focus. It can also be explained in terms of a number of ex-
ternal structures such as the political and societal tendency to emphasize the
importance of the abilities of pupils to work independently in later life as well
as learning to learn in order to be able to keep on learning throughout their
lives.
Responsibility for their own learning process can be given to pupils at several
levels. For instance, they can learn to take responsibility for minor assign-
ments that must be completed over a very short space of time, or they can
be given responsibility for achieving larger objectives, either in the course of
the school year or during their schooling as a whole.
The case schools are all caracterized by using differentiated learning ap-
proaches based either on the organization of the classroom and the learning
situation or solely on the use of ICT. For instance, pupils work using the
same computer program at the same time, but at different rates and on dif-
ferent topics.
In the case studies, we have seen several different examples of how teach-
ers have organized differentiated learning situations in which the children
take responsibility for their own learning process and in which ICT plays an
important role These examples mainly fall into the category of assignments
that are limited in time and scope. Several main characteristics are common
to all these learning situations and projects:
x Teachers have specific objectives for what they are doing, which in some
cases are also familiar to the pupils
x Teachers play an important role in creating well-defined frameworks for
their pupils’ activities
x Teachers have important roles as guides, advisors and stimulators
x ICT is used as a tool or medium for the realization of objectives, and is
not treated as an objective in itself
x Pupils are expected to have an active participation in their own learning
process.
x Pupils are also supposed to be collaborating more, increasing their social
participation and improving their communication and collaboration skills.
x Classroom activities are being reorganised across subjects.
x Classroom activities are being reorganised so that the pupils either work
together in smaller groups or individually.
x Parental involvement
The case studies also covered the issue of parental involvement, particularly
concerning how the parents assessed the emergence of innovative learning
environments and the part they played in this process. It emerged that all
the innovative schools visited were characterized by a high degree of paren-
tal engagement. Parents contributed considerably to the development of the
schools, whose managers viewed the involvement of the parents as being
essential to their work.

At the school visited the parents interviewed tended to express much more
concern about the ‘teaching methods’ being employed in the innovative
learning environments than the teachers and pupils interviewed.
x Learning material
The schools make use of and to some extent develop their own didactic lear-
ning material to be used in the schools’ learning activities independently of
the available financial resources. These are necessary in order to challenge
the pupils and differentiate the learning in accordance with the individual
needs of the pupils.
Learning material is vital for some applications of ICT, e.g. digital learning
material that is used in place of books, videos or the like. We found that one
of the major problems facing schools and pupils in using digital learning ma-
terial was the copyright issue. This indicated that there is still a long way to
go before the use of digital learning material could become a natural compo-
nent of the learning process in schools.
For the individual teacher, however, there are certain barriers to overcome
in using ICT for teaching and learning purposes. First of all it, is very difficult
to get an overview of the available material and its quality. Secondly, much
of the available material has not been specifically produced for the purpose
of supporting an educational curriculum. In order to overcome these obsta-
cles, some schools organize the purchase of digital learning material in such
a way that for instance their library will test and review it.
x The role of ICT

The six case studies supported the study’s preliminary conclusion that Inno-
vative Learning Environments are not so much dependent on the use of ICT
itself, but rely more on the reorganization of the learning situation and the
teachers’ ability to use technology to support pedagogical learning objectives
that transform traditional learning activities.
On the basis of the case studies, it was clear that if ICT is being used to sup-
port new and innovative ways of learning and thereby create innovative
learning environments throughout a school, the process has nothing to do
with ICT as such. The resulting change proved to be much more closely con-
nected with management style, attitudes among teachers, teacher educa-
tion, pedagogical approaches and new learning styles. In all the best practice
examples, ICT was not an objective for its own sake but merely represented
a mechanism for attaining specific learning objectives.
Even though most schools did not consciously base their group activities on
Computer Supported Collaborative Learning as the underlying concept, and
did not use specific CSCL programmes, we found quite a number of in-
stances in which ICT was being used as a method or instrument for the pu-
pils’ shared construction of knowledge and joint enterprises. Nevertheless,
we also found quite a number of examples in which particular pedagogical
methods had been used to instigate collaboration among pupils where ICT
played only a minor role.
The study also showed that ICT was an excellent tool for creating environ-
ments in which pupils could experiment and explore in many different ways
and for many different purposes. Multimedia and exchange tools make it
possible to perform additional collaborative exercises such as twinning,
which take various forms in relation to education such as pupil-to-pupil, tea-
cher-to-teacher, class-to-class or school-to-school relationships.

Another technology issue is the fact that in most countries, great attention is
paid to the pupil/computer ratio. “The fewer, the better” appears to be the
widespread belief, but the practitioners in the schools do not necessarily sha-
re this view. The physical disposition of the computers, their age etc. are
equally important.
Some of the general characteristics of new and innovative learning environ-

ments in which ICT is being used to support new ways of learning can be
summed up as follows:
x The use of ICT gives schools the opportunity to network with other insti-
tutions – both cultural institutions and other educational institutions –
and gives them access to new forms of learning / multimedia material.
x However, the innovative use of technology often only occurs within the
classroom, and not very often between classrooms, across entire
schools, or between schools and other institutions and organisations.
x ICT is used mainly for collaborative and communication activities, pro-
duction, and information seeking.
x ICT is used more seldom for game playing, simulation and other experi-
mental uses, although such activities have been observed.
x ICT is often a catalyst of change, but does not in itself determine the
direction of change.
x Architecture
The case studies investigated the proposition that an important physical di-
mension exists in relation to novel ways of learning, namely that new modes
of learning can be initiated by the introduction of new physical tools, build-
ings or physical space.
Across the case studies we have seen how the constructionist learning ap-
proach as well as the introduction of ICT into learning challenges the physi-
cal surroundings of the schools. This is either materialised in architectural
innovations or - in the more resource weak societies - in the expressed de-
sire for new and more flexible physical boundaries. As regards the computer
facilities, in order for them to be a natural learning resource there has to be
natural access. As regards the new pedagogies, the teaching personnel re-
quires (and in some of the cases have been provided with) new physical sur-
roundings to be able to experiment with differently sized groups instead of
always performing the traditional classroom teaching.
According to many experts, the architecture and construction of the schools

has an important part to play in the organization and realization of learning.
Some of the case schools had been radically rebuilt, whereas others were
conducting their activities in fairly traditional school buildings. It was found
that when such rebuilding has taken into account the pedagogical objectives
of a school, it has a major positive influence on the organisation of learning
and on the activities carried out. Nevertheless, the opinion among teachers
and management was that innovative learning environments could be cre-
ated anywhere, regardless of how a school was constructed.
x Finance
Finance, interpreted as meaning both time and money, plays a significant
role in the evolution from a traditional mode of organizing teaching and lear-
ning towards a new and innovative learning environment. In the beginning it
takes more time for teachers to plan the learning process in novel ways,
whether or not computers are being used. Competence development and
extra preparation time are some of the activities that schools are forced to

expend extra money on. Later on, these additional activities become less
necessary as the teachers become more accustomed to the new ways of
working and develop new work habits.
Another financial issue relates to the purchase of new computer equipment

and the replacement of old equipment. Many schools bought their computers
or received the funding to buy them 3-5 years ago. This kind of equipment
has to be replaced regularly, which is quite expensive and is also difficult for
the schools, as they are not accustomed to being custodians of computer
equipment or budgeting for this kind of purchase
A final aspect of school finance relates to the physical rebuilding of schools if,
for instance, they decide to set up home areas instead of having conven-
tional classrooms. Some of the schools we visited had received initial funding
for such rebuilding from the local authority, but in most cases the rebuilding
had taken place in response to the need for a new school or for additional
space in an existing school. In these instances the school management has
been able to influence how the rebuilding was to take place.
x Networking and internationalisation

Finally, a common denominator of the cases is that the ICTs have facilitated
networking and internationalisation of the schools. Schools either engage in
cooperation with other schools of with cultural institutions in their own coun-
tries or abroad. Till example, the ICTs make possible cooperation in Com-
puter Supported Collaborative Learning again either within or across national
boundaries.
Main challenges of the innovative learning environments

In the study we found that schools are experiencing the need to evaluate
and assess their pupils’ learning processes in new ways corresponding with
the new learning methods that are not reflected in the present system of
national examinations in any country in Europe. First of all, the existing eva-
luation and assessment methods all primarily focus on content and on a set
of objectives concerning the pupils’ knowledge of any given subject and their
ability to reproduce it, as well as their ability to express themselves orally or
in writing. Secondly, they stress the individual learner’s abilities and intellec-
tual powers for their own sake, while neglecting their social and other abili-
ties. Other competencies, such as the ability to identify and solve problems,
present material in novel ways, collaborate, be creative etc., which are en-
compassed by the new learning paradigm, are not or only to a limited de-
gree covered in the national exams.
This persistent sticking to tradition causes some problems for the Innovative
Learning Environments in several respects. First of all, pupils receive no
credit for the new competencies they have developed, even though these are
regarded as being important for the future development of our societies.
Secondly, some teachers and parents are still nervous about the new meth-
ods’ capability of ensuring that the pupils studying in schools where they are
being used will perform as well in national exams as pupils from schools
which use traditional methods of learning.
Among parents and in the public debate about the innovative learning envi-
ronments doubt has been expressed about the schools’ ability to develop the
competences required for pupils to pass national exams as well as those
from schools that rely on more traditional methods of learning, and the
schools´ ability to support and teach children with special needs has also
been doubted. It has not been the purpose of this study to evaluate whether

these doubts are justified. However, the pupils of two of the case schools
have proven to be excellent achievers in national exams as they were both
second best in national comparisons. Some teachers of the schools claim
that ICT has proved to be a robust tool for helping children with special
needs of all kinds. For instance, children with dyslexia are benefiting from
computer applications that can support their reading skills by reading texts
aloud to them, or which help them to check their spelling. Children with
other special needs such as those with motor problems can also benefit from
using ICT.
In some of the schools visited, a dilemma seems to exist between the desire
to reorganize the mode of learning and a number of other considerations.
For instance, parents expressed their doubts about the value of reorganizing
across time, age and subjects, mainly because they were very concerned
about whether their children would score as highly in national exams as chil-
dren from other schools. In addition, teachers are sometimes resistant to
new modes of organization because it will involve more work for them in the
beginning. However, the teachers we spoke to had all benefited in many
ways from working more closely with their colleagues, and their experience
was that it was worth doing in the long run because their work became much
more interesting and their motivation increased.
Also doubts have been expressed as regards that the structure and motiva-
tion required for independent learning may be more difficult for children with
learning problems, or for children who simply find school work boring and
have trouble motivating themselves. They can more easily get away with
this in an individualized learning environment.. The management at some of
the schools have pointed out in response to this criticism that especially tho-
se children with learning problems have benefited from the use of differenti-
ated learning approaches.
The future school

The study identified trends and worked through possible scenarios involving
the future school. The purpose was to provide input into a discussion of the
influence on school development of various future driving forces - that is, to
touch what kinds of responses to the challenges facing schools are likely to
be selected, and the nature of the resultant school models.
It was found that at a generalised level, three sets of main driving forces
prevail concerning the likely future of the school. These fundamental evolu-
tionary forces are: 1. driving forces pushing for a phasing out of the institu-
tionalised manner in which schools currently operate, 2. driving forces push-
ing for a focus on change processes, and hence creating a qualitative devel-
opment of education that still takes place within core learning institutions,
and 3. conservative driving forces that make fundamental changes in the
nature of the school unlikely. These three driving forces were identified as
the main driving forces which are creating challenges for the future school.
The study argues that a thorough analysis of these main evolutionary forces
would reveal the key factors as related to the values arising out of a variety
of expectations and hypotheses concerning causality relationships between
multiple factors and the development of schooling. Also it is stated that there
are many possible directions that the evolution of the various school-related
subsystems might take in the future (such as the competence development
of teachers, the role of school management, centralized/decentralized school
legislation, use of ICT, development of pedagogies), and that these would
probably depend on what values would prevail, grow and flourish in society
in general, and, specifically, in each of these subsystems.

Accordingly it is argued, that the development of the future organization,
curriculum, role of teachers and pupils etc. in future learning environments
will largely be governed by how different values continue to coexist or con-
flict in the schooling subsystems, and will determine the most important ob-
jective of the school. In other words, that the responses made to the current
challenges will shape the future school.
Recommendations
As regards future action and study, the findings and conclusions of the pre-
sent Study on innovative learning environments give occasion for the fol-
lowing recommendations from RAMBOLL Management:
1. More empirical based studies on how the new learning practises in-
fluence the ability to learn and develop of different groups of pupils
is needed.
2. There is a need for developing new tools for assessment of learning
progress in relation to the innovative learning environments.
3. There is a need for a both theoretical and empirical based study on
the special conditions that distinguish school management from
other management.
4. A mapping and comparison of practical tools for school management
in everyday life and in particular of change processes is needed.
5. Training of teachers in basic knowledge about and use of ICT should
be accompanied by training in new pedagogies and innovative learn-
ing practices.
6. A handbook presenting the practical use of ICT for different pur-
poses in different educational disciplines across the EU would benefit
school managers, teachers, pupils and their parents, in particular if
it could
7. There is a need for studies of integration of knowledge of child de-
velopment and learning in educational policies.
8. Educational policies should be based in knowledge of children’s de-
velopment and its relationship to learning patterns.
9. More studies on good practise examples of the existence and pro-
motion of networks between cultural and educational institutions is
needed.
10. A guide to cultural institutions that provide good material and ex-
periences for educational purposes across Europe should be pro-
duced.
11. A cross country, cross institutional dialogue on innovative learning
environments should be intensified
’

Résume en Français
RAMBOLL Management a fait l’étude “Study on Innovative Learning Envi-
ronments in School Education”, l’Etude des Environnements de Formation
Nouveaux dans l’Ecole pour DG Education et Culture. L’étude a été élaborée
entre le mois d’aout 2002 et le mois de décembre 2003.
L’objectif était de donner à la DG Education et Culture une analyse compre-

hensive sur les tendances innovatrices actuelles dans le domaine des théo-
ries et des pratiques qui gouvernent les environnements éducatifs nouveaux
dans les écoles de l’Union européenne. L’objectif de l’étude est de donner:
x une description générale de la situation dans les pays membres dans le

domaine de la création d’environnements éducatifs nouveaux et innova-
teurs
x une étude profonde des environnements éducatifs nouveaux à l’aide
d’études de cas
x une analyse d’avenir qui identifie les tendances dans le domaine du dé-
veloppement de l’école
x des recommendations en ce qui concerne les plans d’action et les études
L’étude fait partie de l’initiative elearning et du plan d’action elearning et elle

donne attention au rôle des technologies nouvelles d’information et de com-
munication (TIC) pour les environnements éducatifs nouveaux.
L’étude comprend autant des recherches théoriques que des recherches em-
piriques.
Ce qui suit c’est le résumé des trouvailles, des conclusions et des recom-
mandations de l’étude.
Qu’est-ce que c’est l’environnement éducatif nouveau?

Le concept de l’environnement éducatif est devenu un sujet dans le discours
éducatif comme l’usage des TIC pour des buts éducateurs et l’impact de la
conception constructrice des connaissances et de l’éducation.
Toutes les définitions théoriques sur les environnements éducatifs nouveaux

soulignent que l’environnement éducatif est un endroit ou une communauté
où il y a des activités qui ont pour but d’appuyer l’éducation et la formation
et que les acteurs peuvent bénéficier des ressources. Egalement elles souli-
gnent la conception constructrice de l’éducation et de la formation ainsi que
l’usage des TIC.
La conception de l’environnement éducatif de cet étude ajoute la dimension

sociologique aux traits communs c’est-à-dire les environnements éducatifs
sont des situations éducatives qui se caractérisent par des activités qui im-
pliquent des professeurs et des écoliers dans un cadre qui est composé d’un
nombre de composantes et qui comprend des ressources ainsi que des rè-
gles.
Cette conception large est nécessaire afin de donner un modèle d’analyse
large afin d’englober tous les éléments qui font partie du développement des
environnements éducatifs nouveaux.
Les environnements éducatifs nouveaux peuvent être définés et décrits de

plusieurs manières selon le cadre de référence. Bien qu’il y ait des marques
communes, les perceptions des chercheurs dans le domaine des environne-
ments éducatifs nouveaux varient. De plus, les traditions de formation, les
politiques et la gestion des systèmes scolaires en Europe sont différentes. Ce

qui est un environnement éducatif innovateur dans un pays ne l’est pas dans
un autre pays.
C’est la raison pour laquelle nous avons décidé de ne pas choisir ou de nous
servir d’une définition des environnements éducatifs nouveaux. L’usage d’un
instrument pédagogique donné ou l’usage des TIC dans l’éducation peut être
innovateur dans un contexte quelconque tandis que dans un autre contexte
cet usage n’est pas considéré comme innovateur.
En conséquence, pour analyser et décrire les environnements éducatifs nou-

veaux nous avons utilisé un cadre au lieu d’une définition afin de compren-
dre le terme technique. L’usage de ce cadre permet d’englober des modes
d’innovation différents dans l’éducation et dans l’usage des TIC dans les éco-
les. En principe, on peut analyser tous les environnements éducatifs en utili-
sant ce modèle général. Il y a 4 domaines qui sont importants pour décrire
et comprendre les environnements éducatifs nouveaux :
x le cadre externe tel que les politiques de l’éducation nationale, le

programme de formation, le financement, etc.
x le contexte organisationnel/institutionnel dans lequel l’éducation a
lieu
x l’environnement éducatif où les élèves et les professeurs interagis-
sent et les théories et les pratiques pédagogiques ainsi que les TIC
sont utilisés de manières différentes afin d’améliorer la formation
x les acteurs/les individus qui sont engagés dans les activités de for-
mation
D’abord, un environnement éducatif nouveau donné fait partie d’un cadre

externe donné. Cette structure externe comprend les politiques nationales
dans le domaine, le niveau général du pays en ce qui concerne l’usage des
technologies et les stratégies pour promouvoir la société de la connaissance.
D’autres conditions relatives au cadre influencent le développement et les
caractéristiques d’un environnement éducatif nouveau également. Le cadre
donne autant des contraintes que des possibilités en ce qui concerne l’usage
des pratiques pédagogiques nouvelles et l’usage des TIC en la formation.
Le modèle suppose qu’on peut analyser les environnements éducatifs nou-

veaux tant sous l’aspect du cadre éducatif que sous l’aspect du cadre organi-
sationnel. Le cadre organisationnel comprend le financement de
l’environnement éducatif, l’infrastructure technologique, la gestion de l’école,
les stratégies pour les écoles locales et le développement du matériel
d’enseignement. Le cadre éducatif comprend les méthodes pédagogiques et
didactiques, les rôles des enseignants et des élèves et le contenu et les ob-
jectifs de la formation.
Le modèle doit comprendre et illustrer tant le moteur que les obstacles qui
sont susceptibles d’influencer le développement des environnements éduca-
tifs nouveaux. Le modèle suppose que des changements puissent avoir lieu
sur les 4 niveaux ci-dessus et que les changements vont créer ou provoquer
encore des défis et des possibilités quand ils modifient les structures pré-
existantes. Dans le contexte actuel les structures sont considérées comme
les règles et les ressources.
Les règles ne sont pas simplement des principes rigides qu’il faut obéir. Il
faut plutôt les considérer comme des habitudes et des pratiques (qui sont
principalement liées à la culture). Les rôles des enseignants et des écoliers
dans l’environnement éducatif est un exemple des règles, comment les en-
seignants sanctionnent-ils les actes des écoliers? Comment les enseignants

collaborent-ils?, comment les directeurs des écoles gèrent-ils les écoles?,
comment les enseignants interprètent-ils la législation et le programme de
formation. Les règles sont déterminées par le contexte. La communication
entre une classe quiconque et l’instituteur A peut varier de la communication
entre la même classe et l’instituteur B.
Il y a deux types de ressources – les ressources authoritatives et les res-

sources allocatives. Les ressources authoritatives sont acquises par une per-
sonne, par exemple la personne qui occupe un poste de résponsabilité a le
droit de gérer ou la personne qui est le plus qualifié dans un domaine donné
parce qu’elle possède des connaissances ou des compétences particulières.
Les ressources allocatives sont des ressources matérielles c’est-à-dire les
fonds, les ordinateurs, les bâtiments, et les matériels d’enseignement. La
possession des ressources n’est pas décisive tandis que la capacité de les
utiliser est décisive.
Vers un nouveau paradigme dans l’éducation et la formation?

Les trouvailles de cette étude révèlent un changement sensible vers un pa-
radigme nouveau dans l’éducation et la formation. Ce paradigme représente
le changement d’une attitude instructive vers une attitude constructrice. Il
paraît que les visions constructrices du système d’éducation et de formation
de l’avenir sont partagées par les acteurs dans tous les pays membres.
En pratique, il s’avère que la dissémination des activités de l’éducation nou-

velle dans les écoles qui ont participé à l’étude est limitée tandis que
l’acceptation du fait que les idées pédagogiques ont changé est répandue
dans tous les pays membres.
Il s’avère que le changement du paradigme dépend du contexte. L’étude

montre que si les idées sur les possibilités nouvelles ne varient pas beaucoup
selon le pays il y a quand même certaines différences.
Les idées communes concernent quelques changements éventuels :
x D’abord, l’idée que les écoliers sont des individus et qu’ils ont la possibi-
lité de devenir actifs et de prendre la responsabilité de leur propre pro-
cessus de formation
x Il paraît que cet élément est étroitement lié à un autre aspect du para-
digme nouveau de formation celui de l’approche de la formation différen-
ciée qui souligne le besoin de planifier la formation selon les écoliers dif-
férents ce qui leur permet de travailler selon leur facon d’apprendre indi-
viduel et à leur rythme. Cette perception se base sur une conception
large de l’intelligence par rapport à la conception traditionnelle qui re-
connaît l’intelligence littéraire.
x En même temps on met l’accent sur la participation sociale et donc sur
les capacités de communication et de collaboration des enfants
x De plus, la perception du rôle convenable de l’enseignant a changé. Ce
n’est plus un processus “enseignant-à-écolier” mais plutôt un processus
“écolier-à-écolier” où l’enseignant sert de conseiller, de guide et de su-
perviseur d’une facon systématique pour les étudiants et en même
temps il fournit le cadre du processus de formation.
x Un autre aspect important de ce changement de paradigme est le fait
qu’on met l’accent sur la création de connaissances plutôt que de mettre
l’accent sur le contenu et la capacité de reproduire des faits. Les écoliers
doivent participer d’une facon active à la construction des connaissances
à l’aide de leur processus de formation à eux, tout en travaillant seul et
en travaillant avec leur pairs. Les experiences et les recherches sont des
aspects importants de cette construction active de connaissances.

x Finalement, le paradigme nouveau se base sur la croyance dans le sui-
vant : la formation va profiter d’un réorganisation de la situation de for-
mation qui sort de la la facon traditionnelle qui est liée à un programme
de formation. La réorganisation est obtenue à l’aide des approches mul-
tidisciplinaires et de l’usage des méthodes restructurées afin de planifier
le temps en ce qui concerne tant les activités de formation des étudiants
que le travail de l’enseignant.
Les TIC dans le paradigme nouveau de formation

Finalement, il semble qu’il y a la perception que les TIC peuvent appuyer ou
devenir l’agent transformateur pour l’ensemble des changements vers le
paradigme nouveau de l’éducation et la formation nouvelle mentionnée ci-
dessus.
Les trouvailles de cette étude confirment que l’administration est très enga-
gée dans la promotion de l’intégration des TIC dans l’éducation aux écoles.
C’est-à-dire même si les TIC ne sont pas encore intégrées dans les écoles,
les hommes politiques, les administrateurs, les directeurs d’école, les ensei-
gnants, les parents et les écoliers reconnaissent que cette intégration est un
besoin prioritaire. Dans les pays membres on reconnaît que les TIC sont im-
portantes pour la promotion de l’inclusion sociale et des possibilitiés pour
tous. Par conséquent, on souligne que les TIC est un instrument clé dans
l’éducation pour atteindre le but de l’UE : être en première position dans la
société de la connaissance de l’avenir. Les TIC ne sont pas seulement consi-
dérées comme un outil dans la formation qui est reservé au contexte éduca-
tif, le concept est large et il comprend la formation tout au long de la vie
ainsi que l’adaptation générale aux demandes de la socitété de la connais-
sance.
Dans tous les pays membres l’intégration des TIC dans l’éducation se mani-
feste et l’infrastructure dans les écoles a été améliorée pendant les dernières
années. Néanmoins, l’étude montre qu’il y a des différences sensibles entre
les pays membres en ce qui concerne le niveau de l’infrastructure, en parti-
culier nous avons remarqué le manque d’infrastructure dans les pays de
l’Europe du Sud.
Beaucoup d’informateurs de cette étude trouvent que les TIC représentent le

commencement d’une révolution dans le système éducatif. Cependant, c’est
la conclusion de l’étude que ceci est une possibilité mais ce n’est pas inévita-
ble. Au contraire, les TIC peuvent servir d’appui à et de la préservation de
méthodes traditionnelles au lieu de faciliter ou appuyer la transformation des
méthodes pédagogiques et de l’organisation de la situation de formation.
Etudes de cas sur les environnements de formation innovateurs

Six études de cas font partie de l’étude principale. Le but des études de cas
était d’examiner des exemples de l’implémentation des théories sur la for-
mation innovatrices dans des contextes nationaux différents. Les objets des
études de cas concernes écoles qui ont été sélectionnées parce qu’elles
étaient innovatrices dans le contexte national et par conséquent, elles ont
représenté des environnements de formation nouveaux. Dans l’Union euro-
péenne, des études de cas ont été faites au Danemark, en Grande Bretagne
(Ecosse), aux Pays-Bas, en Espagne (Catalogne) et en Suède. De plus, une
étude de cas a été fait au Canada.
En faisant les études de cas nous avons utilisé le modèle de l’analyse de ca-
dre qui a été développé pour l’étude principal. En conséquence, chaque
étude de cas contient une analyse des effets liés les uns aux autres causés

par l’interaction du cadre principal, le contexte organisationnel/institutionnel
et le contexte des interactions des enseignants et des écoliers dans lequel
les théories pédagogiques, les pratiques, et les TIC nouveaux sont appliqués.
Nous n’avons pas eu l’intention d’établir des généralisations à la base des

études de cas; elles devaient représenter des expériences desquelles on peut
tirer une leçon. Néanmoins, les études de cas ont prouvé que quelques dé-
veloppements observés dans tous les environnements de formation nou-
veaux ne sont pas dépendants du contexte national.
C’est la proposition explicite de cet étude que beaucoup de facteurs non seu-
lement les TIC encouragent le développement des environnements de for-
mation nouveaux ce qui est confirmé par les études de cas. La stratégie des
écoles locales, le style de gestion du directeur d’école et l’attitude des pa-
rents encouragent l’apparition d’un environnement de formation nouveau
conjointement avec l’usage stratégique des TIC.
x Les stratégies des écoles et les plans d’action

Toutes les écoles des études de cas ont préparés des stratégies et des plans
d’action qui comprennent les valeurs, les visions et les objectifs de leur pro-
pre développement. Ceci prouve que le contexte organisationnel est un fac-
teur important pour le développement d’un environnement de formation
nouveau. Cependant, nous avons observé qu’aucunes des écoles n’ont pré-
pare une stratégie des TIC. Les enseignants avaient pris des cours afin de
pouvoir appuyer le processus d’intégration des TIC dans le processus de
formation mais ceci était le résultat des facteurs externes tels qu’une straté-
gie des TIC régionale ou nationale. Ce qui est nouveau par rapport au passé
c’est que les valeurs définies servent d’expliquer le fait qu’on apporte beau-
coup d’attention au sentiment de bien-être des enfants, c’est la base de
l’éducation.
Ceci repose sur l’idée que les enfants sont prêts à apprendre quand ils se
sentent sécurisés.
x Modèles de l’organisation de l’école et des activités des ensei-

gnants
Afin d’avoir des effets permanents, les méthodes nouvelles de formation et
d’organiser la situation de formation doivent impliquer le contexte organisa-
tionnel. Il faut distinguer entre les trois modèles d’organisation dans les éco-
les, c’est-à-dire le modèle bureaucratique, social et communautaire. Nous
avons observé que normalement, l’école traditionnelle est une copie d’un
système bureaucratique qui met l’accent sur des valeurs fondamontales tels
que l’efficacité, le contrôle, la supervision et la régularité. Les écoles exami-
nées dans les études de cas représentent le système social ou communau-
taire étant donné qu’elles ont toutes souligné l’importance des valeurs holis-
tes, la capacité de résoudre les problèmes et partager la responsabilité. De
plus, elles représentent un environnement de formation où les enseignants
font des expériences : ils établissent des groupes d’écoliers différents dans
des situations de formation différentes.
Les écoles examinées dans les études de cas organisent les activités desti-
nées aux élèves et aux enseignants d’une manière nouvelle. Les enseignants
de certaines écoles donnent des leçons à travers les groupes d’âge et à des
groupes mixtes qui sont parfois très larges et parfois très petits. De plus,
d’autres écoles ont réorganise les activités des enseignants d’une facon radi-
cale étant donné que l’enseignement traditionnel basé sur la salle de classe a
changé, il n’est plus un travail individuel mais plutôt un travail en groupes.
De plus, quelques écoles ont changés les espaces physiques. Ces méthodes
d’organiser les enseignants sont justifiées par les objectifs pédagogiques.

Dans quelques écoles on espère que le style communautaire va créer un
environnement de formation solide et sécurisé pour les enfants.
x Stratégies pour le dévéloppement des compétences du personnel

L’implementation des méthodes pédagogiques nouvelles et des TIC demande
que les enseignants possèdent tant les qualifications pratiques que
l’imagination et la créativité pour produire les réflexions innovatrices et les
utiliser en pratique. A cette intention il faut dévélopper les compétences des
enseignants d’une facon continue.
Il y a plusieurs options : dans quelques écoles les enseignants participent à

des programmes nationaux ou ils suivent des cours locaux ou régionaux, ou
bien dans un cadre de “formation pair-à-pair” ou bien au niveau individuel.
Les stratégies du développement des compétences du personnel varient,
parfois elle est rédigée par le directeur parfois par les enseignants et le di-
recteur. Beaucoup d’écoles ne demandent pas que les enseignants possèdent
des connaissances en TIC tandis que d’autres le demandent. Pour ce qui est
des écoles qui ne le demandent pas les enseignants doivent demander des
cours en TIC eux-mêmes. Dans quelques écoles les plans de développement
du personnel sont utilisés comme un outil pour développer les compétences
des enseignants, on fait le suivi-évaluation du progrès des enseignants.
C’est l’opinion généralement recue que la formation des enseignants est un

facteur essentiel pour que l’usage des TIC dans la formation réussisse étant
donné que les enseignants doivent être capable d’utiliser les TIC afin de
pouvoir les utiliser pour des fins pédagogiques. Il y a un désaccord en ce qui
concerne les méthodes et le rythme selon lesquels il faut former les ensei-
gnants. Les uns pensent que les enseignants doivent apprendre à utiliser les
TIC eux-mêmes avant de les utiliser dans un contexte pédagogique tandis
que d’autres sont de l’avis contraire.
x La culture de l’école et le style de gestion

La gestion de l’école est important étant donné que son rôle a changé : elle
n’établit pas seulement le calendrier du travail elle doit gérer les change-
ments lors de l’implementation de la structure organisationnelle nouvelle et
lors de l’exploration des possibilités offertes par l’installation des TIC nouvel-
les. En même temps elle doit prendre à sa charge la gestion des valeurs et
être le moteur dans l’implementation des pratiques pédagogiques nouvelles.
.
Les études de cas donnent des exemples des écoles dont le directeur consi-
dère que la transformation de la culture de l’école est important et la condi-
tion de l’implementation des changements. Il est établi que le style de ges-
tion est essentiel pour la création des environnements de formation nou-
veaux et que la condition pour que les écoles puissent devenir innovatrices
c’est la création des valeurs partagées. Les directeurs doivent être visionnai-
res et capables d’agir mais en même temps, ils doivent être capable de délé-
guer la responsabilité aux enseignants. Dans les études de cas nous avons
vu des styles de gestion différents. Il y a des directeurs qui sont l’animateur
des changements et qui ont donné la responsabilité de l’execution des chan-
gements aux enseignants par la suite. D’autres directeurs mettent en oeuvre
les changements et sont le gérant du processus. Les études de cas indiquent
que le rôle du directeur de l’école a changé, il ne s’occupe pas seulement de
l’administration, il a le rôle d’un gérant des ressources humaines et de
l’animateur des innovations pédagogiques.
x Les rôles des enseignants et des écoliers

Dans les écoles examinées dans les études de cas nous avons vu que le rôle
de l’instituteur tend à changer du processus “enseignant-à-écolier” qui traite

les connaissances vers un processus “écolier-à-écolier” basé sur le groupe où
les enseignants ont la fonction systématique de conseillers, de guides et de
superviseurs des étudiants et en même temps ils encadrent le processus de
formation des étudiants.
Selon le nouveau paradigme de formation l’un des objectifs de la formation

c’est de responsabiliser les élèves en ce qui concerne le processus de forma-
tion. Cela implique le changement d’une approche ”l’enseignant dirige” pour
une approche ”l’écolier dirige” et le changement d’une approche
“l’enseignant au centre” pour une approche “l’écolier au centre”.
La raison de ce changement est aussi le fait que les structures politiques et
communautaires tendent à souligner la capacité des élèves de travailler
d’une facon indépendante plus tard dans la vie et la capacité d’apprendre
afin qu’ils sont capables d’apprende tout au long de la vie.
On peut responsabiliser les élèves en ce qui concerne leur propre processus

de formation à plusieurs niveaux. Par exemple, ils peuvent apprendre à
prendre la responsabilité pour des petites tâches qu’ils doivent finir dans une
durée très limitée ou ils doivent atteindre des objectifs importants ou bien
pendant l’année scolaire ou bien pendant la période scolaire entière.
Les écoles de cet étude se caractérisent par l’usage des approches de forma-
tion différenciées qui se basent sur l’organisation de la salle de classe et la
situation de formation ou seulement sur les TIC. Par exemple, les élèves
peuvent s’occuper du même logiciel en même temps mais but at different
rates et sur des sujets différents.
En élaborant cet étude nous avons vu que les instituteurs organisent les si-
tuations de formation différenciées où les enfants prennent la responsabilité
de leur propre processus de formation et où les TIC ont un rôle important.
Les exemples mentionnés ci-dessus se trouvent dans la catégorie de tâches
d’une durée et d’une étendue limitée. Il y a des charactéristiques communs à
tous les projets de formation :
x Les instituteurs ont des objectifs précis et parfois ils les ont communi-
qués aux élèves
x Les instituteurs jouent un rôle important parce qu’ils fournissent les ca-
dres des activités des élèves
x Les instituteurs sont les guides, les conseillers et ceux qui stimulent les
élèves
x Les TIC sont utilisées comme un outil pour atteindre les objectifs et elles
ne sont pas l’objectif
x Les instituteurs s’attendent à ce que les élèves participent d’une facon
active dans le processus
x Les instituteurs s’attendent à ce que les élèves travaillent ensemble afin
de déveloper la participation et d’améliorer leurs compétences de com-
munication et de collaboration
x Les activités dans la salle de classe sont réorganisées à travers les ma-
tières
x Les activités dans la salle de classe sont réorganisées de sorte que ou
bien les élèves travaillent ensemble en petits groupes ou bien ils travail-
lent tous seuls.
x L’engagement des parents

Les études de cas comprennent également l’engagement des parents, en
particulier les vues des parents sur l’apparition des environnements de for-
mation nouveaux et sur leur rôle dans ce processus. Il s’avère que les écoles
examinées se caractérisent par l’engagement fort des parents.

Les parents contribuent au développement des écoles et les directeurs
d’écoles trouvent que l’engagement des parents est indispensable à leur
travail.
Dans les écoles examinees les parents qui ont été interviewés sont très
preoccupés des méthodes d’enseignement qui sont utilisés dans
l’environnement éducatif nouveau par rapport aux instituteurs et aux
élèves qui ont été interviewés.
.
x Les matériaux didactiques
Les écoles se servent de et jusqu’à un certain point développent leur propre
matériaux didactiques sans tenir compte des fonds qui sont à la disposition.
Ceux-ci sont nécessaires afin de défier les élèves et afin de différencier les
activités d’enseignement de sorte qu’ils correspondent aux besoins indivi-
duels des élèves.
Les matériaux didactiques sont vitaux pour certaines applications des TIC,
c’est-à-dire les matériaux digitaux utilisés au lieu des livres, des vidéos, etc.
Nous avons constaté que les écoles et les élèves font face à un problème
difficile quand ils utilisent les matériaux didactiques digitaux : à savoir le
copyright. Cela peut durer longtemps avant que l’usage des matériaux didac-
tiques digitaux devient un élément naturel du processus de formation dans
les écoles.
En ce qui concerne l’enseignant il y a certains obstacles à surmonter quand

on souhaite d’utiliser les TIC dans l’enseignement. D’abord, c’est difficile de
se faire une vue des matériaux qui sont à la disposition et de la qualité.
Deuxièmement, souvent les matériaux n’ont pas été produits pour appuyer
un programme de formation. Afin de résoudre ce problème il y a des écoles
qui ont organisé l’achat des matériaux didactiques digitaux de la manière
suivante : un unité comme la bibliothèque vérifie et présente son critique
des matériaux.
x Le rôle des TIC

Les 6 études de cas confirment la conclusion préliminaire de l’étude : les
environnements éducatifs nouveaux ne dépendent pas tellement de l’usage
des TIC elles-mêmes mais plutôt de la réorganisation de la situation de for-
mation et de la capacité des enseignants de se servir de la technologie pour
appuyer les objectifs pédagogiques qui change les activités de formation
traditionnelles.
A la base des études de cas nous constatons que bien qu’on utilise les TIC
pour appuyer des méthodes de formation nouvelles et innovatrices et crée
des environnements éducatifs nouveaux le processus n’a rien avoir avec les
TIC en tant que telles. Les changements sont associés au style de gestion du
directeur de l’école, à l’attitude des instituteurs, à la formation des institu-
teurs, et aux approches pédagogiques. Tous les exemples pratiques mon-
trent que les TIC ne sont pas l’objectif mais elles servent d’outil pour attein-
dre des objectifs de formation.
Bien que la plupart des écoles ne basent pas les activités destinées aux
groupes sur Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) comme
l’idée sous-jacente et bien qu’elles n’utilisent pas les programmes CSCL nous
avons vu plusieurs écoles où les TIC ont été utilisées par les élèves en com-
mun pour construire les connaissances et pour de projets communs. Néan-
moins, nous avons vu des exemples où on a utilisé des méthodes pédagogi-
ques particulières afin d’animer la collaboration des élèves mais ici le rôle
des TIC était réduit.

De plus, l’étude montre que les TIC étaient un outil excellent pour la création
d’un environnement où les élèves peuvent experimenter de manières diffé-
rentes et pour des buts différents. Les outils multimédias et les outils
d’échange permettent l’execution des exercises en commun comme le “twin-
ning” qui prend beaucoup de formes par rapport au contexte éducatif : des
relations élève-à-élève, enseignant-à-enseignant, classe-à-classe ou école-à-
école.
Pour ce qui est de la technologie dans beaucoup de pays on donne beaucoup

d’attention au taux d’élève/ordinateur. “Le moins sera le meilleur” c’est la
conviction mais les professionnels des écoles ne sont pas du même avis. La
disposition physique des ordinateurs, leur âge, etc. cela est important aussi.
Les environnements éducatifs nouveaux et innovateurs où les TIC sont utili-

sées pour appuyer les nouveaux modes de formation se caractérisent par :
x L’usage des TIC permettent aux écoles de faire le réseau avec d’autres
institutions – tant les institutions culturelles que d’autres institutions
d’enseignement et elles peuvent utiliser des méthodes de formation
nouvelles/ des matériaux multimédias
x Cependant, souvent l’usage innovateur de la technologie a lieu dans la
salle de classe et rarement entre les salles de classe, entre les écoles ou
entre l’école et une autre organisation
x Les TIC sont utilisées pour travailler ensemble ou pour des activités de
communication, pour la production et pour la recherche de renseigne-
ments
x Les TIC sont rarement utilisées pour des jeux, la simulation ou d’autres
expériences. Cependant, nous avons observés ces activités.
x Souvent les TIC sont l’agent catalytique des changements mais elles
n’indiquent pas la direction des changements
x Architecture
Les études de cas ont examinés la proposition qu’il y a une relation entre la
dimension physique et les nouvelles formes de formation, c’est-à-dire les
nouvelles formes de formation peuvent être initiées par l’introduction des
outils physiques nouveaux, des bâtiments nouveaux ou des espaces nou-
veaux.
Dans les études de cas nous avons vu que l’approche de formation construc-
trice ainsi que l’introduction des TIC dans l’enseignement sont un défi aux
locaux de l’école. Concrètement par des innovations architecturales ou dans
des sociétés qui sont dépouvues de ressources par un souhait explicite
d’avoir des cadres physiques nouvelles et flexibles. Il faut que les ordina-
teurs soient accessibles pour qu’ils deviennent une ressource de formation
naturelle. En ce qui concerne la pédagogie nouvelle les enseignants deman-
dent un milieu extérieur nouveau afin pouvoir experimenter avec des grou-
pes différents au lieu de donner des lecons traditionnels dans la salle de
classe.
Selon beaucoup d’experts l’architecture et la construction des écoles sont

importantes pour l’organisation et l’execution de l’enseignement.
Parmi les écoles de cetet étude quelques-uns ont été rénovés tandis que sur
d’autres écoles les enseignants ont travaillé dans des locaux traditionnels.
Nous avons constaté que si l’on considère les objectifs pédagogiques lors de
la rénovation de l’école elle a une influence positive sur l’organisation de la
formation et les activités. Néanmoins, les enseignants et les directeurs

d’école trouvent qu’on peut créer les environnements éducatifs nouveaux
partout sans tenir compte de la construction de l’école.
x Fonds
Les fonds – ce qui comprend tant le temps que les fonds – sont importants
pour le développement de l’environnement éducatif nouveau et innovateur.
Au début les enseignants ont besoin de beaucoup de temps afin de planifier
le processus d’une manière nouvelle, à l’aide d’un ordinateur ou non. Les
écoles doivent utiliser des moyens extraordinaires pour le développement
des compétences et pour des heures de préparation extraordinaires. Par la
suite, ces activités extraordinaires ne sont pas nécessaires parce que les
enseignants sont habitués aux méthodes nouvelles et ils ont développé des
habitudes de travail nouvelles.
Quant à l’achat des ordinateurs nouveaux, beaucoup d’écoles ont acheté

leurs ordinateurs ou elles ont recu les fonds il y a 4-6 ans. Il faut remplacer
les équipements d’une manière régulière ce qui est très coûteux et difficile
pour les écoles parce qu’elles ne sont pas habituées au rôle de l’inspecteur
des ordinateurs et elles n’ont pas l’habitude de préparer des budgets pour de
tels achats.
Le dernier aspect financier c’est la rénovation de l’école si on décide d’établir

des zones au lieu des salles de classe traditionnelles. Nous avons rendu vi-
site à des écoles qui ont recu des fonds pour la première phase de cette ré-
novation des authorités locales mais souvent la rénovation a eu lieu parce
qu’on avait besoin d’une école nouvelle ou parce qu’on avait besoin d’élargir
une école pré-existante. Dans ce cas, le directeur de l’école pouvait influen-
cer la rénovation de son école.
x Réseau et l’internationalisation
Finalement, en ce qui concerne les écoles examinées dans les études de cas
les TIC facilitent le réseau et l’internationalisation des écoles. Les écoles
s’engagent dans une collaboration avec d’autres écoles ou avec des instituts
culturels dans leur pays ou à l’étranger. Par exemple, les TIC permettent la
coopération dans le domaine de “CSCL”.
Les défis aux environnements éducatifs nouveaux

Nous avons constaté que les écoles doivent evaluer les processus de forma-
tion des élèves d’une manière nouvelle qui correspond aux méthodes de
formation nouvelles. Actuellement, aucuns système d’examen en Europe ne
les reflète. D’abord, les méthodes d’évaluation pré-existantes mettent
l’accent sur le contenu et sur un ensemble d’objectifs qui concernent les
connaissances des élèves dans une certaine matière et sur leur capacité de
les reproduire et de s’exprimer oralement et par écrit. Deuxièment, elles
soulignent les compétences de chaque élève et ses capacités intellectuelles
tandis qu’elles négligent les compétences sociales. D’autres compétences
telles que celle de pouvoir identifier et résoudre des problèmes, celle de pré-
senter un sujet d’une manière nouvelle, celle de collaborer avec les autres
élèves, être créatif, etc. qui font partie du paradigme nouveau ne sont pas
couvertes par les examens nationaux ou jusqu’à un certain point.
Le maintien persistant des traditions pose des problèmes pour les environ-
nements de formation nouveaux. D’abord, les élèves ne recoivent pas de
reconnaissance des compétences qu’ils ont développés bien qu’on considère
qu’elles sont importantes pour le développement de la société.
Deuxièment, certains enseignants et certains parents s’inquiètent à cause de
la nouvelle méthode de formation : est-elle capable d’assurer la performance
des écoliers qui vont à une école qui a choisi ces méthodes? Lors des exa-

mens nationaux, la performance sera-t-elle au même niveau que celui des
écoliers qui fréquentent une école qui se sert des méthodes de formation
traditionnelles? Les parents et le public mettent en doute la capacité des
écoles qui ont créé les environnements de formation nouveaux de dévelop-
per les compétences des élèves de sorte qu’ils puissent passer les examens
nationaux. De plus, on a mis en doute la capacité des écoles d’appuyer et de
former les enfants qui ont des besoins spéciaux.
Ce n’est pas l’objectif de cette étude d’évaluer ces doutes. Cependant, les
élèves de 2 écoles qui ont été examinées par cet étude sont des achevés
excellents lors des examens nationaux étant donné qu’ils sont venus en
deuxième quand on a fait la comparaison au niveau national. Les ensei-
gnants de quelques écoles affirment que les TIC sont un outil robuste en ce
qui concerne l’appui aux enfants qui ont des besoins spéciaux. Par exemple,
les enfants qui ont la dyslexie bénéficient des applications d’ordinateur qui
appuie leur capacité de lire : l’ordinateur lit à haute voix ou il contrôle
l’ortographe de l’enfant. Les enfants qui ont d’autres besoins spéciaux tels
que des problèmes relatifs à la motricité peuvent bénéficier de l’usage des
TIC.
Il s’avère qu’il y a un conflit entre le souhait de réorganiser les méthodes de

formation et d’autres considérations. Par exemple, les parents mettent en
doute la valeur de la réorganisation à travers les heures, l’âge et les matiè-
res parce qu’ils s’inquiètent des examens de leurs enfants. De plus, parfois
les enseignants s’opposent aux méthodes d’organisation nouvelles parce
qu’au début il faudra travailler plus. Cependant, les enseignants de cette
étude disent qu’ils ont bénéficié de la collaboration étroite avec les collègues.
A long terme il vaut la peine parce que leur travail est devenu plus intéres-
sant et ils sont motivés.
De plus, on a mis en doute la formation indépendante par rapport aux en-

fants qui ont des problèmes d’apprendre ou qui trouvent que le travail à
l’école est ennuyeux. Il est possible que ces élèves seront capables de sur-
monter les problèmes dans un environnement éducatif nouveau. En réponse
à cette critique les directeurs des écoles ont souligné que ces enfants ont
bénéficiés de l’usage des approches de formation différenciée.
L’école de l’avenir
L’étude a identifié des tendances et a élaboré des scénarios qui traitent de
l’école de l’avenir. Le but est de fournir des exposés pour la discussion sur
l’influence de différentes forces sur le développement de l’école – autrement
dit de considérer comment répondre aux défis des écoles et la nature des
modèles d’école qui seront le résultat de ce processus.
Nous avons vu 3 ensembles principaux de moteurs qui vont probablement

gouverner ou défier l’école de l’avenir c’est-à-dire : 1. des moteurs qui pro-
meuvent la fin de la manière institutionalisée dans laquelle les écoles travail-
lent; 2. des moteurs qui mettent l’accent sur les processus de changement
et sur la création d’un développement qualitative de la formation qui va avoir
lieu dans des institutions d’enseignement centrales; 3. des moteurs traditio-
nalistes qui vont s’opposer aux changements fondamentaux de la nature de
l’école.
C’est notre avis qu’une analyse approfondie des moteurs primaires vont ré-
veler les facteurs clés qui sont liées aux valeurs qui proviennent des attentes
et des hypothèses relatives aux relations entre plusieurs facteurs et le déve-
loppement de la formation. C’est notre avis que les systèmes qui sont asso-
ciés aux écoles (comme le développement des compétences des ensei-

gnants, le directeur d’école, législation scolaire centralisée/décentralisée,
l’usage des TIC, et le développement des pédagogies) peuvent s’orienter
dans des directions différentes. La nature des systèmes dépend probable-
ment des valeurs prédominantes dans la société tant au niveau général
qu’au niveau des systèmes eux-mêmes.
En conséquence, c’est notre avis que le développement des environnements

éducatifs nouveaux, de l’organisation, du programme de formation, des rôles
des enseignants et des écoliers seront gouvernés par les valeurs différentes
– si les valeurs coéxistent ou elles sont en conflit les unes avec les autres
dans les systèmes scolaires.
Autrement dit les réponses aux défis actuels vont faconner l’école de
l’avenir.
Recommandations
Les trouvailles et les conclusions de cette étude des environnements éduca-
tifs nouveaux ont mené aux recommandations suivantes :
1. Il faut encore des études empiriques sur l’influence des nouvelles

pratiques. Comment influencent-elles la capacité des groupes diffé-
rents d’apprendre et de développer ?
2. Il faut développer des outils nouveaux pour évaluer le progrès de
formation dans les environnements éducatifs nouveaux.
3. Il faut des études qui traitent des facteurs qui différencient la gestion
d’une école de celle des autres instituts/entreprises tant au niveau
théorique qu’au niveau empirique.
4. Il faut une déscription et une comparaison des outils pratiques qu’on
peut utiliser dans la gestion quotidienne de l’école en particulier dans
le domaine des processus de changement.
5. La formation des enseignants en les TIC et l’usage pratique doit être
suivie de formation en les pédagogies nouvelles et les pratiques de
formations innovatrices.
6. Les directeurs d’école, les enseignants, les écoliers et les parents
bénéficieront d’un guide pratique de l’usage des TIC pour des buts
différents dans des disciplines éducatives différentes dans les pays
membres.
7. Il faut élaborer des études sur l’intégration des informations sur le
développement de l’enfant et sur la formation dans les politiques
éducatives.
8. Il faut baser les politiques éducatives sur la connaissance du déve-
loppement de l’enfant et ses relations au processus de formation.
9. Il faut des études sur les exemples des réseaux entre des institutions
culturelles et éducatives et sur la promotion de ces réseaux.
10. Il faut élaborer un guide pratique sur les institutions culturelles en
Europe qui produisent les matériaux pédagogiques et les informa-
tions pratiques.
11. Il faut renforcer le dialogue international et le dialogue entre les ins-
titutions dans le domaine des environnements éducatifs nouveaux

1. Introduction
This final report is the final deliverable for the ‘Innovative Learning Environ-
ments for School Education’ project, contract no. 2002-0997/002-001 EDU
ELEARN. This study is Lot 3 of the four studies presented in the context of
the e-learning initiative of the European Commission, DG Education and Cul-
ture.
The study has been produced by Ramboll Management.

The authors of the report are chief consultant Lotte Grünbaum, consultant
Marianne Pedersen and chief consultant Steffen Bohni Nielsen.
The study does not necessarily reflect the official views of the Euro-
pean Commission.
Extracts from the document are permitted provided a clear reference of the
source is given.
More information on European cooperation in the fields of 'ICT use in educa-

tion' and 'eLearning' may be found at:
www.elearningeuropa.info and
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/2010/objectives_en.html
1.1 Background of the study

As stated above, this study has been conducted within the framework of the
European Commission’s eLearning initiative, which was adopted in May
2000. The elearning initiative is part of the overall eEurope Action Plan, who-
se aim is to encourage Europe to exploit its strengths and overcome the bar-
riers to the take-up of digital technologies. The 4 main foci of the elearning
initiative are:
x To provide high-quality information and communications technology
(ICT) infrastructure and equipment in the field of education
x To improve the standard and level of ICT training for teachers and those
involved in the wider workforce
x To develop high-quality educational content
x To reinforce ICT-related co-operation and dialogue.
The purpose of the elearning Action Plan, which was adopted by the Com-
mission in March 2001 and endorsed by the European Council in May 2001,
is to promote opportunities and solutions for the implementation of the
elearning initiative. The intention is to involve all those in education and
training, both in the public and private sectors, in the realization of the po-
tential of e-learning methods and resources for lifelong and universally-
available learning.
One of the conclusions of the Action Plan was that there was a deficiency of
up-to-date and reliable information concerning the situation in Europe re-
garding several key issues. Therefore the Commission has undertaken stra-
tegic studies on innovative approaches in the following areas:
x Virtual models for European universities
x Financing ICT equipment and utilisation by schools, pupils and teachers
x New learning environments for school education
x Cultural institutions as new learning environments.

1.2 The assignment of RAMBOLL Management
Following a tender procedure in the spring of 2002, RAMBOLL Management
was asked to carry out the study of innovative learning environments in
school education.
The overall purpose of the study is to provide the European Commission, the
DG Education and Culture with a comprehensive analysis and report con-
cerning current innovative trends in the theory and practice of new learning
environments for school education.
However, as stated above, the study has been undertaken in the context of
a general requirement for information about the development of innovative
learning environments for school education, and therefore also has the pur-
pose of targeting a large audience of users, practitioners, theoreticians and
others with an interest in scholastic development.
This report presents the findings of the study, which also includes recom-
mendations concerning the evolution of future developments and mentions
potential initiatives that might be undertaken by the Commission. This Final
Report presents the results arising from the priorities stated in the study’s
terms of reference.
According to the terms of reference, the four overall focus points to be ad-
dressed by the study were:
x A general description of the current situation in the European Union re-
garding the creation of innovative learning environments
x An in-depth study of innovative learning environments using case studies
x A future-oriented analysis identifying trends in pedagogical and other
developments in schools
x A set of recommendations for future action and study.
Moreover, according to the terms of reference:
1. The educational focus of the study should address issues such as:
x Learning as a form of social participation
x Context-embedded forms of evaluation
x Changes in the level of control or influence within the learning envi-
ronment among pupils and between pupils and teachers
x Changing roles among teachers and pupils.
2. Case-studies should provide examples and evaluations on how ICT can

support the development of school environments in which:
x Pupils are asked to create, explore, research, discuss, and build
knowledge as a shared endeavour
x Teachers act as designers of the environment and as mediators, fa-
cilitators and nurturers of critical thinking, cognitive challenges, joint
enterprises, mutual engagement and shared practices.
3. Consideration should be given to how innovative learning environments

may contribute to an improvement in the quality of education, taking in-
to account the many facets of the innovation process as well as any ob-
stacles encountered, e.g.:
x Technical innovation (new tools, laboratories, simulators, vir-
tual/physical infrastructures)
x Organisational settings (innovations in the use of time and space)
x Pedagogical approaches (context-related approaches instead of a fo-
cus on content)

x Social relationships (collaboration rather than instruction, positive
induction, games approach)
x Usability (user-friendliness, relevance to pedagogical uses)
x Funding schemes
x Etc.
4) The following issues should be addressed during the study:

x A theoretical foundation for the concept of ‘innovative learning envi-
ronments’, describing the various forms they might take and how
they might be affected by organisational and cultural factors
x Technology-related approaches for encouraging joint enterprises and
the shared construction of knowledge; how information and commu-
nication technology can best stimulate learning as a form of social
participation
x Approaches that take into account the perceptions, characteristics
and the communicative and physical behaviour of pupils
x Innovative practices occurring in schools in relation to curricula (mul-
tidisciplinary approaches, basic skills, tackling school failure), time
planning, new school architectures and the design of new working
environments inside or outside the school
x The establishment of links between schools and other innovative or-
ganisations outside the school system, such as libraries and muse-
ums, as well as parental involvement either at home or in other con-
texts
x Good learning and teaching practices which foster closer collabora-
tion and involve the use of new technologies for the purpose of net-
working among those who are directly involved in education and tho-
se who can contribute to it
x Identification of good practice or good models that could easily be
disseminated and adapted for wider use.
5) The study should provide the European Commission with:

x An in-depth review and analysis, together with any relevant docu-
mentation, concerning innovative learning environments which have
been or are currently being implemented and evaluated. It should
also attempt to build a projective framework for the learning envi-
ronments of the future
x Concrete references and analytical descriptions of the relevant re-
search programmes and results for all the countries involved in the
study
x Information, analysis, documentation and examples of innovative
experiments
x Examples of innovative experiments, good practice and models
x Recommendations concerning:
o Innovative proposals to take existing studies further
o Future and possible actions by the Commission, e.g. support
for further work in particular fields, or the dissemination of
results
x A user-friendly and practical guide to existing resources in the field
(experts, institutions, projects).
Given the very broad scope of the terms of reference and the prior existence
of a magnitude of research literature, websites etc. which are concerned with
the subject matter of the study, RAMBOLL Management has aimed to deliver
a relatively easily accessible overview of the issues covered by the terms of
reference, including references to more in-depth analyses of the theories and
practices applicable to innovative learning environments, which we have only
been able to touch on in a cursory manner in this report.

1.3 Report content
In accordance with the specifications contained in the Terms of Reference
that are summarised above, RAMBOLL Management has structured this re-
port into eight chapters.
At the beginning of the report the findings of the study are summarised in
both French and English. The French-language summary will be incorporated
in the Final Report after the incorporation of the Commission’s comments on
the draft final report.
Chapter 1 (i.e. the current chapter) introduces the context of the present
Study on Innovative Learning Environments in relation to the eLearning Ac-
tion Plan adopted by the European Commission in March 2001. It also speci-
fies the purpose of the study and describes the general content of the report.
Chapter 2 describes the study’s methodology. First of all, it describes the

data-generating activities undertaken for the study. Secondly and more im-
portantly, it explains the analytical framework model which has been devel-
oped for investigating the development of innovative learning environments,
including a special focus on the use of ICT in such environments.
Chapter 3 presents an overview and analysis of the external structures that

are currently influencing the activities of schools. The chief emphasis is on
the national approaches and initiatives of the EU Member States concerning
ICT integration and e-learning in schools. This chapter is based on desk re-
search plus interviews with government and other national representatives.
In Chapter 4, the organizational and institutional settings that are influencing

the work of both teachers and pupils are discussed.
Chapter 5 presents and discusses some of the main new theories and models
of learning in the context of the developments currently occurring in schools.
Chapter 6 is about innovative learning environments in practice, and de-

scribes the six case studies carried out for the overall study. These were
chosen to exemplify best practice in new school environments that have
based their pedagogies, use of ICT, physical architecture etc. on some of the
more innovative pedagogical theories. The chapter closes with a discussion
of the findings emerging from the six studies.
Chapter 7 describes and discusses the future responses to some of the main
challenges facing schools, and how these are likely to influence future school
development.
Chapter 8 presents a set of recommendations for future action and study.
Annex A to the study presents a bibliography of available relevant informa-

tion sources concerning school education and innovative learning environ-
ments.

2. Methodology
The study provides both theoretical and practical insights into the current
situation concerning Innovative Learning Environments in the European Un-
ion. In this chapter, we describe the analytical framework for understanding
Innovative Learning Environments which has been developed in the course
of the study. This outlines our interpretation of the concepts and approaches
we have applied in our understanding of Innovative Learning Environments
that use ICT in innovative ways. Our interpretation of the term is based on
our examination of relevant literature plus our experience from other pro-
jects concerning the use of ICT in education, and is consistent with the
guidelines contained in the tender material.
An emphasis is placed on new educational paradigms or models which have

been facilitated by advances in information and communication technology
(ICT). The focus of the study is on the use of ICT in learning and education,
not on ICT technology for its own sake.
2.1 Data-generating activities

The analysis and results contained in the present report are based on a vari-
ety of data-generating activities, namely:
x A desk study of websites, organisations, strategies and other avail-
able reports and written material
x Telephone interviews with government and other national represen-
tatives from each of the 15 Member States
x Six good-practice case studies carried out as on-site visits including
interviews with local school administrators, school management, tea-
chers, pupils, parents and stakeholders
x A future scenario workshop involving theoretical and practical school
experts which was held in Brussels on 7 October 2003.
2.2 Analytical framework for analysing the use of ICT in innovative

learning environments : What constitutes an innovative learning
environment?
Innovative learning environments can be defined and described in numerous
ways, depending on the frame of reference being used. Our theoretical read-
ing so far confirms this, as there are major differences in researchers’ per-
ceptions concerning innovative learning environments. In addition, different
learning traditions, different policies and different ways of managing school
systems exist throughout Europe. So what is perceived as an innovative
learning environment in Sweden might not be viewed as such in Italy, and
vice versa.
We have decided not to choose or apply a single definition of Innovative

Learning Environments, precisely because a given application of ICT in learn-
ing might be innovative in one setting but might not be considered to be so
in another.
Therefore, in order to analyse and describe innovative learning environ-

ments, we have used an interpretive framework for understanding the term
rather than a specific definition, which has enabled us to encompass the
general concept in the course of the study. Using this framework, we have
been able to capture different modes of innovation in the use of ICT in learn-
ing in schools by describing the different contexts in which learning takes
place.

Four levels of focus are important for the description and understanding of
innovative learning environments. Each of these levels consists of a number
of elements that are summarised in the following sections.
5. The overall external structural framework which encompasses the

three levels described below, such as curricula, funding, etc.
6. The organizational/institutional setting in which learning takes pla-
ce
7. The learning environment in which learners and teachers interact and
in which ICT is used in different ways to improve learning
8. Actors/individuals, viewed as the individuals involved in the learning
activities.
Figure 2.1 represents a summary of the different factors that may be influ-
encing the development of Innovative Learning Environments in schools. The
triangle in the corner represents the overall structural framework conditions,
the outermost circle represents the institutional and organisational setting
for each school, and the inner circle represents the Innovative Learning Envi-
ronments – primarily to be understood as the learning situations. The box in
the lower left corner represents all the individuals involved in the school’s
learning activities.
Figure 2.1: Analytical framework model for describing Innovative

Learning Environments
The boxes in the model represent the structure at all levels. These structures
both influence and are influenced by the activities taking place in the
schools. For instance, the way ICT is being used in the classroom might be
influenced by numerous factors, such as the age and quantity of available

technology, how the school day is structured, teacher’s and pupils’ attitudes,
etc. In addition, the activities taking place in the learning situation might
affect these or other factors. For instance, one teacher’s innovative use of
technology might influence the learning material available in the school, how
other teachers organize their teaching, etc.
In other words, the model encompasses and presents both the driving forces
and the barriers that affect learning actions at all levels, and the changes
that these factors bring about. These changes create or influence new chal-
lenges and possibilities when they change existing structures. Structures
consist of rules and resources1. Rules are not to be regarded simply as rigid
rules to be strictly followed by individuals. Instead, they should be inter-
preted as (mainly culturally-bound) habits and practices. Examples of the
practical manifestation of rules are:
x Teacher’s and pupils’ roles in the learning environment
x How teachers and pupils communicate
x How teachers sanction pupils’ actions
x How teachers co-operate
x How head teachers manage schools
x How teachers interpret legislation and the curriculum.
Rules vary according to the context, for example communication between a

class and teacher A might be very different from the communication between
the same class and teacher B.
Resources are of two kinds, authoritative and allocative. Authoritative re-

sources are those vested in individuals, for example:
x The right to lead by virtue of occupying a managerial post
x Being the best in a given field through the possession of particular know-
ledge or skills.
Allocative resources are material. These might consist of:

x Money
x Computer equipment
x Buildings
x Learning material.
The possession of resources is not crucial, but the ability to use them is.
The model illustrated above has been the main analytical tool used for
studying and explaining the learning actions taking place at school level. The
model was developed in the course of the study, and could certainly be ex-
panded further in other contexts. The following sections elaborate each of
the levels of the model, describing the different factors in general terms in
order to give examples of what they might comprise in practice. The same
structure will be used in subsequent chapters to describe innovative learning
environments.
2.3 The overall external structural framework

An appreciation of the learning traditions within the countries and regions of
Europe is important for a background understanding of the overall frame-
work in which their schools operate. Education policies and control and qual-
ity systems form a part of these traditions. The European Commission, local
and regional governments and education authorities are all key players in
1
The perspective concerning Innovative Learning Environments is influenced by An-
thony Giddens’ theory and structuring.

the overall structural framework affecting the improvement of learning
through the use of ICT. The education authorities create the overall frame-
work by introducing policies, providing funding schemes and by delegating
control to various degrees. Some countries have highly centralized curricula,
while others have decentralized decision-making etc. The overall structural
framework creates constraints as well as opportunities for the utilisation of
ICT in learning. The model’s external structures are briefly elaborated below.
Figure 2.2: External structures influencing schools’ work
Political & societal tendencies:

• Lifelong learning
EXTERNAL STRUCTURES
• Knowledge society
• Social inclusion INFLUENCING SCHOOLS’
• Labour market demands ACTIVITIES
• Competence needs
Rules and resources
Curricula
ICT strategies and action plans

national and regional
External supply of educational material
Teacher education
Pedagogical
styles & trends
Internationalisation
Infrastructure
Support & funding
Political and societal tendencies encompass such things as lifelong learning,

the knowledge society, social inclusion, labour market needs and compe-
tence needs. In one way or another, these overall tendencies influence the
perceptions of learning and the school-level educational objectives. For ex-
ample, the promotion of lifelong learning calls for a learning perspective in
which pupils learn to learn during their school education and also learn to
control their own learning process. On the other hand, the promotion of an
education system as a provider of new workers to meet the needs of the
labour market calls for a learning perspective in which pupils are taught spe-
cific skills.
ICT strategies and action plans at national and regional levels can be formu-
lated either as intentions or demands. They are meant to influence the way
schools use ICT. They can contain objectives for how ICT should be inte-
grated in teaching and learning or pupil/computer ratios etc. The focus of the

strategies or action plans can for instance be the use of ICT as a means for
achieving learning objectives that are not directly related to it, or it can be
ICT itself.
Support and funding is the means by which national or regional strategies or

action plans are implemented. This can take different forms, such as web
services or project funding, and can have either a bottom-up or top-down
perspective. Different mechanisms and perspectives promote or encourage
different activities. For example, bottom-up project activities encourage di-
versity of learning approaches, whereas a top-down approach can contribute
to the achievement of more homogeneous objectives through the use of ICT.
Infrastructure is the software and hardware (such as computers and net-

works) made available to schools at a national or regional level, either free
of charge or on a paid-for basis. The national definition of IT standards, pur-
chase arrangements etc. are other factors affecting the nature and extent of
infrastructure provision. The adoption at national level of responsibility for
the development of digital networks in schools, and the provision of rela-
tively low-cost conference systems or portals, can encourage school use of
the Internet.
The curriculum encompasses the schools’ overall learning objectives. Curric-

ula can be centralized so that they control many details of the schools’ ac-
tivities, or decentralized, allowing considerable local decision-making. Sylla-
buses are closely connected with the curriculum. The curriculum can set out
either specific or more indeterminate requirements for the use of ICT in lear-
ning and teaching, and follow up the quality and activities of the latter.
Teacher education relates to how the development of teachers’ competencies

in using ICT for learning is encouraged at a national or regional level. The
strategies, activities, methods and priorities for teacher education within the
field of ICT are closely connected with the teachers’ opportunities for using it
in their work. The motivation to participate in training is also important, as
teachers may receive specific rewards for completing an ICT course, such as
a higher salary or a home computer.
The external supply of educational material comprises such things as offi-

cially-funded and publicly or privately-produced digital learning material that
supports the fulfilment of curriculum objectives. It can also include the avail-
ability of digital learning material developed by publishers and other com-
mercial organizations or by other privately-owned or semi-private organiza-
tions. The availability of relevant and high-quality learning material, as well
as knowing about their existence, is important for the integration of ICT in
learning.
Pedagogical styles and approaches are regarded as the primary factors that
influence how learning is planned and conducted. They can be set out offi-
cially, for instance through demanding that pupils must do project-based
work, or they may merely be approaches that teachers wish to try out, for
example by using Storyline, problem-oriented work or ICT-based simulation
programs.
Internationalisation and globalisation refers to the extent to which the Mem-

ber States are working strategically to establish international co-operation
and exchange. Internationalisation provides schools with new opportunities
and the exchange of ideas and experiences.

In Chapter 4, for each of the countries involved in the study we present in-
formation such as policy papers and initiatives concerning the issues referred
to above in order to provide a background understanding of the overall
structural framework. These are described in more detail in the case studies
in order to fully elucidate and describe the relevant structural frameworks.
In relation to the overall external structure described in this study, the main
issue will be to obtain answers to the following questions:
x What are the specific traditions and overall external structural frame-
works governing the schools’ use of ICT in learning, and how do they in-
fluence the learning environment?
2.4 The organizational/institutional setting

Throughout Europe, differences in perception exist concerning innovative
learning environments among countries, regions and even individual schools.
The activities of schools and teachers, and the opportunities for creating in-
novative ways of learning, are defined not so much by the external frame-
work as by the organizational setting on the one hand and the teachers’ in-
dividual motivations on the other.
The organizational/institutional setting in which learning takes place is there-

fore an important framework for an understanding of the actual learning
process. Such elements as the quantity, age and location of ICT equipment,
the leadership and management of a school, the school culture, and the or-
ganization of work among teachers, comprise the context for the interactions
of teachers and pupils in the learning situation.
Although the learning situation is the primary focus of this study, the organ-
izational setting plays an important role in understanding why ICT is used for
learning. Not only the individual elements but the interplay between them is
important.
Figure 3-3 below depicts some important elements comprising the organiza-
tional/institutional setting in accordance with our overall analytical schema,
Figure 3-1. These elements will be used to describe and analyse the organ-
izational and institutional settings of the Innovative Learning Environments.
10

Figure 2.3: The school as organization
Rules
Co-operation and
networking strategies
School strategies and

action plans
Staff development
strategies
School culture
Management style
Resources
Learning material
Technology
Economy
Architecture
Co-operation and networking strategies define the internal functioning of

schools. The concrete activities connected with these strategies are impor-
tant factors for the creation of innovative learning environments. There may
be differences between those schools in which teachers usually work in te-
ams and those where the teachers usually work alone. In addition, there
may be different strategies regarding how schools support co-operation, e.g.
through the establishment of intranets and portals.
School strategies and action plans define the directions that schools decide
to follow, both in general terms and in relation to the use of ICT. One impor-
tant aspect of strategies and action plans is their procedures for control, re-
sponsibility, follow-up and evaluation. Another important aspect is the extent
to which the staff take part in the development of their own organizations’
strategies, and/or to what extent the details of such strategies are known
among the staff.
Staff development strategies define how schools choose to develop their

teachers’ competencies. These can be very different, ranging from strategies
for peer-to-peer learning, external courses or ad hoc in-house courses to e-
learning or learning by doing etc.
The school culture comprises the underlying assumptions and attitudes that
largely define how teachers and pupils work, their roles etc. Staff attitudes
towards development and change influence the extent to which changes in
11

praxis and innovation are possible and desirable. Individual values, disposi-
tions and expectations are important here.
Management style is concerned with how the school management controls or

delegates control and responsibilities. It also has to do with how it initiates
changes, for instance by using a bottom-up versus a top-down approach.
Management style can either promote or impede innovation and new ways of
organizing learning.
Learning material is regarded as being a resource. The school can buy learn-
ing material which will be able to support new ways of learning when it is
designed and used for that purpose. The availability of a broad selection of
learning materials can support new ways of planning and carrying out learn-
ing.
Technology and infrastructure are also regarded as resources. The quantity,

age and physical location of technological infrastructure affect both the or-
ganization of learning and access to the Internet.
Economy refers to financial resources are important for providing opportuni-

ties for the development of teachers’ competencies, technological infrastruc-
ture, the carrying out of activities related to innovative learning environ-
ments, the rebuilding of schools etc.
Architecture relates to the construction and furnishing of school buildings.

Schools can be built and adapted for educational purposes in ways that
greatly influence the planning and practice of learning.
The main issues in relation to the organizational setting are:

x What characterizes those schools that succeed in creating innovative
ways of improving learning though their use of ICT?
x How is the learning situation influenced by the organiza-
tional/institutional setting, and vice versa?
In the course of our analysis we have attempted to determine whether some

individual elements are more important than others for the creation of inno-
vative learning environments.
2.5 The learning environment

The main focus in this study is naturally on the learning environment and
how ICT can be used in innovative ways to support new learning paradigms
or models. In our view, a learning environment comprises a number of peo-
ple who are working together with the purpose of learning. Learning can
occur in both physical and virtual contexts, either within or outside the
school setting, as well as through co-operation between schools and other
institutions such as museums.
The elements of the overall analytical framework in Figure 3-1 that represent
a concrete learning environment are isolated in Figure 3-4 below. As the
study has progressed, the number of elements and their content have chan-
ged slightly to reflect the insights gleaned from specific situations.
12

Figure 2.4: Learning environment
The roles of teachers and pupils are tied to their respective functions and
roles in the learning situation and the control of the learning process. The
teachers’ roles in particular influence learning by limiting or broadening their
pupils’ learning opportunities. Teaching which takes the form of the trans-
mission of knowledge from teacher to pupils defines their roles in one way,
whereas the creation of space by teachers for individual pupils to learn does
so in another way.
Content can be understood as the fields in which the pupils are supposed to
acquire knowledge, as well as the expectations concerning the level of their
knowledge. The extent or scope of the knowledge to be acquired by the pu-
pils is often outlined in curricula at the national, regional or local levels.
Communication styles and the exchange of ideas and viewpoints among and
between teachers and pupils can take different forms. Communication during
the use of ICT can be written, oral or visual as well as either synchronous or
asynchronous. These different forms support different learning styles.
Learning objectives define the competencies that pupils are supposed to de-
velop and how their learning is meant to occur. An example of a learning
objective might be that pupils must learn to define and solve problems. So-
metimes these objectives will be tied to mechanisms for tracking pupil per-
formance, such as log books, portfolios, or both.
Technology is an important factor in this study, as it is a crucial element in

discussions concerning e-learning. Technology can be used and perceived for
learning purposes in a number of ways. We have chosen to use metaphors
to illustrate the various possibilities. Examples of these are:
x ICT as a medium for communication
x ICT as shared material for co-operation
x ICT as an information resource for locating information
x ICT as a tool for processing and making products
x ICT as a simulator of experiments
x ICT as a framework for controlling the learning process
x ICT as a provider of feedback for exercises
x ICT as an instructional tool for setting preliminary guidelines
x ICT as a communication forum for the exchange of ideas and viewpoints
13

x ICT as a market place, e.g. for exchanging learning materials
x ICT as a connection between learning environments where it is the
means of co-operation.
Learning approaches are considered as the manner in which learning activi-

ties are planned and conducted. Examples are:
x Integration of other learning environments than the school
x Multidisciplinary approaches
x Context-related learning
x Collaborative learning
x Distributed learning
x From teacher-controlled to pupil-controlled learning
x Differentiated learning which is dependent on different learning styles
x Differentiated learning which is dependent on the pupil’s level of knowl-
edge
x Learning as social participation
x Learning as playing
x From instruction to self-directed learning
x Project-oriented learning
x Learning by doing.
Co-operation as opposed to individual learning activities is one dimension of

this element. Another is co-operation with pupils from other schools, possibly
in other countries.
The issues cited above have guided and directed our analysis and the selec-
tion of case studies. In addition, we will focus on learning processes in which
ICT is used to improve the quality of learning in accordance with the ap-
proaches mentioned previously.
The main issue in relation to the learning situation is:

x How is ICT used as a means of improving learning and creating innova-
tive ways of learning in schools?
2.6 Actors/Individuals
The analytical framework includes both teachers and learners, as they com-
prise the learning environment by virtue of their joint activities as individu-
als. Each of them contributes to the activities occurring in the learning envi-
ronment. One purpose of including the individual level is to explain, for ex-
ample, how teachers’ actions, motivations, competencies and skills influence
how learning takes place. Another is to explain how different learning activi-
ties support pupils with different backgrounds, skills etc., and how they de-
velop their competencies etc.
14

Figure 2.5: Actors
The power of individuals to act is determined both by their particular abilities

and by the context in which they act. The power to act is especially crucial if,
for instance, traditions need to be changed in a non-dynamic organization.
Motivation is as essential as the power to act. Both students’ and teachers’

motivation to learn, work and develop is important for the creation of inno-
vative learning processes. It is connected with the teachers’ ability to create
incentive frameworks for the learning of all the children by using different
methods and creating variety.
Tacit knowledge is closely connected to individuals’ skills, i.e. those things

they know how to do but which they are not necessarily able to express or
explain. It also has to do with their ability to act without first needing to re-
flect. Tacit knowledge can be used in different contexts.
Explicit knowledge is the knowledge that an individual is able to express ver-

bally or in writing. Explicit knowledge is used when communicating and pre-
senting information to others.
Some people are strongly predisposed towards action, whereas others are
better at explaining and expressing themselves verbally. When examining a
learning environment it is important to be aware of whether and how teach-
ers are supporting pupils with differential abilities in these respects.
In relation to the learning situation, the main issues are:

x Are there specific attributes that distinguish the characteristics. How
active are the teachers and pupils?
x Do teachers work to empower their pupils?
x How motivated are the teachers and pupils, and what motivates them?
x How do they work to develop tacit skills and knowledge?
x How do they work to develop explicit knowledge?
15

16

3. External structures influencing the activities of
schools
A study concerning the overall external framework for the use of ICT and
innovative learning environments has been carried out for each of the EU
Member States. Organizations such as Eurydice (the Information Network on
Education in Europe), OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development) and EENet (the European Experts’ Network for Education and
Technology) have already made comprehensive up-to-date comparative stu-
dies on the use of ICT in school education at the global level. In this report,
the main findings of these studies are outlined in terms of our analytical
framework’s focus on the external structures which influence the activities of
schools.
Each of the following sections contains conclusions regarding the current

state of affairs concerning:
x Political and societal tendencies
x ICT strategies and action plans, both national and regional
x External supply of educational material
x Infrastructure
x Support and funding
x CurriculaTeacher educationPedagogical styles and approaches
x Internationalisation.
First of all, we describe the special factors that must be taken into account
when summarising the current state of affairs.
3.1 Special factors to be considered

Drawing cross-country comparisons concerning e-learning is an analytical
exercise which requires a number of limitations to be addressed.
This is because the framework conditions for primary education vary signifi-
cantly across the Member States. The educational systems and policies all
have different forms, content and histories, which consequently entails the
need to be very cautious when pedagogical practices are isolated from their
environments.
Firstly, the age of pupils at primary school entry and primary school exit var-
ies from one country to another. Equally, the years of compulsory schooling
vary, as do the educational strands and the kinds of institutions.
Figure 5-1 below illustrates the different ages of school entry, school leaving,
and the kinds of institutions which offer primary education in the Member
States.
Depending on the conceptual delimitation of what comprises primary educa-

tion in the respective institutions, the pupils’ ages range from 4-19. In some
countries, such as Sweden and Denmark, the institutions offering primary
education are of a fairly uniform type, while others, such as Austria, have a
number of different educational strands under the general heading of pri-
mary education.
17

Figure 3.1: Primary schooling in the Member States
DK
DK 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Folkeskole/Grundskole
D
D
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Grundschule Oriente- Gymnasium
rungsstufe
Vorklasse/Schulkindergarten Gesamtschule
Realschule
Schularten mit mehreren Bildungsgängen
Hauptschule
GR
GR 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Dimotiko scholeio Gymnasio
E
E
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Educación primaria Educación secundaria
obligatoria
FF
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Écoles élémentaires Collège Lycée général &
technologique
Lycée professionnel
IRL
IRL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Primary school Secondary/Vocational
Comprehensive schools
Community schools & colleges
18

II
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Scuola primaria Scuola media Liceo classico /scientifico/linguistico
Liceo artistico
Istituto magistrale
Istituto d’arte /professionale
Istituto tecnico
LL
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Spillschoul École primaire Lycée
Lycée technique
B
B fr 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Enseignement primaire Secondaire de transition général
technique/ artistique
Secondaire de qualification
technique /artistique
Secondaire professionel
BB 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
de
de age
Primarunterricht Allgemeinbildender/
technischer Übergangsunterricht
Technischer Befähigungsunterricht
Berufsbildender Unterricht
B
B nl
nl 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Lager onderwijs Allgemeen secundair onderwijs
Teknisch/kunst secundair onderwijs
Beroepssecundair onderwijs
DBSO
19

NL
NL 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Basisonderwijs VWO
HAVO
VMBO
Praktikonderwijs
A
A
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Volksschule Allgemeinbildende höhere Schule
Oberstufenrealgymnasium
Hauptschule
Berufsbildende höhere Schule
Berufsbildende mittlere Schule
Polytechnische Schule
P
P
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Ensino basico
Cursos professionais
FIN
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Perusopetus – Grundläggande utbildning
S
S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 years of
age
Grundskola
Equally, the management and governance of the education systems differs

from one country to another. The decision-making powers in some countries,
such as France, have historically been centralized at the national level. In
other countries, such as Germany and Spain, the regions have considerable
autonomy in education. In yet other countries, municipal or local authorities
are heavily involved in defining the economic resources and policies of the
primary-level educational institutions.
The Member States also differ in the proportions of privately- and publicly-
run schools engaged in primary education. In some countries, such as the
Netherlands, private schools comprise approximately 70% of the schools,
while elsewhere public schools prevail.
20

While such framework conditions do not define the content and the way that
ICT is integrated into the children’s learning processes, they condition the
mechanisms through which ICT policies are implemented.
3.2 Political and societal tendencies

The integration of ICT appears to be the object of considerable attention in
the Member States. However, the context in which the importance of using
e-learning is determined differs. In Table 3.1 below, we have sought to illus-
trate the main approaches being pursued in the different Member States. For
each Member State we have chosen to assess whether its e-learning or ICT
strategy emphasises the European employment strategy themes of lifelong
learning, adaptation to the information society, social inclusion and equal
opportunities. It should be noted that the emphasis can differ considerably
among the different regional contexts in countries such as the UK, Spain,
Belgium and Germany, where regional priorities are prevalent.
The themes are rather broad, but it is nonetheless apparent that across the
Member States ICT is acknowledged as a tool for lifelong learning, and that
learning does not only take place in a formal educational setting but occurs
throughout life. Therefore, lifelong learning is simultaneously a personal re-
sponsibility and a societal challenge in which e-learning can be a decisive
medium.
Table 3.1: Thematic emphases in relation to e-learning in the

Member States
Lifelong Adaptation Social Equal oppor-

learning to the infor- inclusion tunities
mation soci-
ety
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
Finland
France
Germany ()
Greece
Ireland
Italy
Luxembourg
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
The Netherlands
United Kingdom
It is also apparent that considerable emphasis is being placed on ICT in edu-

cation as a key instrument for meeting the EU’s goal of being at the forefront
21

of the knowledge society in the future. Accordingly, most countries stress
the importance of integrating ICT in education as a means of adapting to the
needs of the knowledge society. The specific rationales which have been
brought to bear under this rubric differ. Some countries, such as Austria,
emphasise the importance of competitiveness. Others, such as Sweden, em-
phasise a general concern with upgrading the ICT competence levels of all
their citizens.
In some countries, the use of e-learning is also conceived as a means of

providing access to training and education, and thereby of combating social
exclusion among disadvantaged groups. Equally, countries such as Belgium
and Greece see e-learning as a measure for creating equal opportunities for
all.
Generally speaking, it is notable that in the debates taking place in the

Member States, e-learning is not viewed exclusively as a learning tool that is
confined to educational settings. It has also been recognized as having wider
ramifications for lifelong learning and facilitating adaptation to the demands
of the knowledge society. Equally, some countries conceive of e-learning as
a measure which can potentially be applied to bringing about social inclusion
and equal opportunities.
3.3 National and regional ICT strategies and action plans

The national and regional ICT strategies of the Member States differ. This
naturally reflects the differing national contexts, framework conditions and
requirements which influence ICT policy.
Although this is an extremely complex area, RAMBOLL Management has

sought to identify a number of themes that cut across the content of the
individual Member States’ policies. Table 3.2 below illustrates the emphases
of the respective countries’ national strategies.
Table 3.2: Objectives emphasised in national ICT strategies
Increasing Development Increasing Content Development

computers of internet ICT com- devel- of innovative
with Inter- platform petences opment learning en-
net access of teach- vironments
ers
Austria ()
Belgium
Denmark () ()
Finland () ()
France ()
Germany ()
Greece () ()
Ireland () ()
Italy () ()
Luxembourg () ()
Portugal () () ()
22

Increasing Development Increasing Content Development
computers of internet ICT com- devel- of innovative
with Inter- platform petences opment learning en-
net access of teach- vironments
ers
Spain ()
Sweden () (V)
The Nether- () (V)
lands
United King- () (V)
dom
To some extent these themes can be regarded as successive stages that

have been adopted by the different Member States, although the emphasis
and priority given to each theme may differ from one country to the next.
RAMBOLL Management interprets ‘emphasis’ as signifying that considerable
importance has been attached to attaining a given objective. It should also
be noted that the signs enclosed in brackets signify uncertainty as to
whether that particular theme can be said to be fully developed, but they do
indicate that the dimension in question is receiving considerable attention
and financial support.
All member states have made it a priority to create the proper framework
conditions for e-learning in primary education by investing in the provision of
access to computers with Internet connectivity. This overall trend is also
manifested in Table 3.2. These figures show that the ratio of Internet-
connected computers per pupil has risen in most countries. Accordingly, the
EU average for the number of Internet-connected computers per 100 pupils
has risen from 4% to 5.9% between 2001 and 2002.
The same study carried out by the European Commission shows that 93% of
all primary schools in the EU were connected to the Internet in 2002, versus
89% in 2001.
Another priority that cuts across the Member States is the establishment of
national and regional education portals2. These portals differ in format and
content, but in general significant attention appears to be being paid to fa-
cilitating the integration of ICT into education.
ICT training and the competence development of teachers and other profes-
sional staff are widely recognised as being essential to advancing the use of
ICT in education. Correspondingly, most Member States have initiated some
kind of ICT training for teachers in particular. The approach to teacher train-
ing, and how teaching is incorporated into operational goals, differs from
country to country.
For example, Sweden initiated its ITiS programme with an operational goal
for 60,000 teachers to receive ICT training. Austria has systematised its trai-
ning by focusing on goals for the ICT qualifications of all its teachers, who
are all eventually intended to obtain standardized European certification of
their ICT qualifications (ECDL). Equally, Great Britain has allocated signifi-
cant resources to teacher training in the use of ICT.
2
Links to these portals are mostly provided by the national school networks, which
are in turn linked to the European Schoolnet Network.
23

In some countries, an approach has been adopted in which some front-
runners (for instance entire schools that receive grants, or individual teach-
ers who are identified as ICT resource staff) are evolution drivers, while
other countries prefer to adopt a generalised approach to upgrading their
teachers’ ICT qualifications. The former approach is based on the belief that
the resource staff are available to be consulted and will influence their col-
leagues in their use of ICT in education. The latter is based on the idea that
all teachers must receive (certified) upgrading of their skills if the use of ICT
in schools is to become widespread.
Regarding content development, there is a general recognition that further

integration of ICT in the learning environment requires the development of
appropriate content which corresponds to the requirements of the curricu-
lum. Some form of content development is occurring in most countries. It
appears that content is generally developed in three different settings: (i)
local projects, (ii) private-public partnerships (e.g. involving publishers
and/or software companies), and (iii) centralized content development insti-
tutes/centres. In addition, some countries, such as the Netherlands, have
assigned the responsibility for the quality assurance and accreditation of
such content to central institutions that are also responsible for making the
resulting material available to interested schools.
Arguably, the development of innovative learning environments is the last of

the five successive stages that all Member States appear to follow. Some
countries have supported a number of pilot projects, such as the Danish
ITMF programme and the Swedish ITiS programme. The aim has been to
find innovative ways to organise and integrate ICT into the learning envi-
ronment. At present, the results from some of these projects have been
mainstreamed in primary education at the local level but have not yet been
incorporated into a national approach to learning.
3.4 Support and funding

Commensurate with the fact that all Member States have drawn up national
ICT policies for education, very significant funding has been invested in this
area during the past five years. Additionally, support structures are gradually
being established in each country.
Funding
It has not been possible to undertake a detailed examination of the level of
public spending on ICT during the current study, since the details of national,
regional and municipal spending in this area do not appear in publicly-
available publications; equally, the conceptual boundaries delimiting dura-
tion, human resource development, capital investment and depreciation
would have to be defined in detail.
However, it is possible to give some examples of public expenditure on ICT

in education:
x The Netherlands spent nearly Euro 1.5 billion during 1998-2002 on the
‘Education on-line’ programme
x The United Kingdom has allocated £920 million for all education sectors
during 2005-2006 (comprising national and matching municipal funding
for the ‘ICT in Schools’ programme).
x Sweden set aside 166 million Euro for the ITiS programme during 1999-
2002
x Ireland has earmarked a future expenditure of 79 million Euro on ICT in
education
24

x Denmark has allocated 81 million Euro for the development of Sektornet,
which links up all its educational institutions, plus a further 46 million
Euro subsidy for the ITMF programme which runs from 2001-2004.
The funding has been earmarked for different areas, but capital investment
in computer hardware and software, the establishment of Internet portals
and platforms, and investments in training are evidently the major invest-
ment areas. It appears that considerable and similar priorities and invest-
ment are being devoted to ICT in education in the countries mentioned
above.
Support
Support for the use of ICT in education exists in all Member States. This ty-
pically takes the form of one or more education portal(s)/platform(s) provid-
ing a practical guide and information source. These functions may be dis-
persed among different institutions and websites, depending on the extent of
the regionalized structure of the education system (e.g. in Germany and
Austria especially).
In most countries, these functions are closely linked with the European-wide
initiatives, European Schoolnet and Virtual School.
The most common support function provided to school teachers and man-
agement by national/regional authorities are:
x ICT Infrastructure development and support
x National/regional networks to support and advise schools concerning the
promotion and implementation of ICT in education
x Checking the quality and functionality of content software
x Dissemination of curricular innovations
x Establishment of frameworks to support content development
x Conducting of studies and monitoring.
As mentioned previously, no single authority or platform necessarily encom-

passes all these functions. For example, the Netherlands’ School Net is a
practical guide to ICT educational resources, while the ICT Op School organi-
sation, whose objective is to stimulate educational ICT expertise in schools,
is driving development towards a coherent national educational ICT market
and support for co-operation concerning ICT issues. In addition, eight ICT
Expertise and Development Centres focusing on school subject clusters or
specific education sectors and ‘electronic learning environments’ have been
established. Finally, regional centres for technical troubleshooting known as
GOLDDISK also exist.
In the Dutch case, it is notable that content development is quality checked

before the products in question are disseminated further. This is also the
case in some other countries. It is also apparent that the on-line educational
resources available in the Member States vary significantly in content, rang-
ing from reference works, pedagogical practice guides, news releases and
thematic dossiers to exchange/discussion media, links, shareware etc.
3.5 Infrastructure
As mentioned in the discussion above concerning strategies, the priority gi-
ven to support and funding and investment in an adequate ICT infrastructure
has been a key consideration in all Member States. The recognition that In-
ternet access and the adequate availability of modern computers are a pre-
requisite for e-learning is widespread among policy makers. Nevertheless,
the extent to which this has been realized in practice varies.
25

It is also the norm that primary education institutions tend to trail secondary
and post-secondary institutions in making use of the ‘information superhigh-
way’.
In many countries, the task of setting up a better ICT infrastructure has

been farmed out to private companies or has been undertaken via partner-
ships with private companies.
In the figure below, we examine the extent to which the various Member
States have succeeded in establishing an ICT infrastructure that is facilitat-
ing the further integration of ICT in education.
Figure 3.2 shows that most primary schools in the European Union are con-
nected to the Internet, and that the number is increasing. In 2001, 89% of
all schools were connected to the Internet. By 2002, 93% were connected.
While they are beginning to catch up, Greek schools still trail all the other EU
countries in terms of this particular benchmark.
Figure 3.23
Percentage of schools connected to the Internet
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
A B D DK E F FIN GR I IRL L NL P S UK EU
March 2001 72.0 91.0 94.0 98.0 94.0 84.0 99.0 45.0 89.0 98.0 92.0 93.0 62.0 100.0 95.0 89.0
March 2002 94.0 93.0 99.0 100.0 94.0 89.0 99.0 59.0 88.0 99.0 67.0 92.0 92.0 99.0 99.0 93.0
Figure 3.3 shows that most countries increased the ratio of Internet-
connected computers per pupil between 2001 and 2002. However, the figure
also shows that significant differences exist for this benchmark. Denmark
has one Internet-connected computer for every 4 pupils, while in Ireland 34
pupils have to share each Internet-connected computer, and in Greece 40
pupils must share each Internet-connected computer.
3
Source: European Commission (Eurobarometer):
http://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/benchmarking/list/2002/e_lea
rning/schools_connected/index_en.htm
26

Figure 3.34
Number of Internet-connected computers per 100 pupils
30
25
20
15
10
0
March 2001 6.0 4.1 2.5 22.7 3.3 3.8 12.7 1.9 2.2 5.5 20.8 3.6 1.9 11.9 6.5 4.0
March 2002 6.3 4.6 4.1 25.0 6.4 6.1 12.0 2.5 2.9 5.0 7.1 5.4 5.1 11.0 10.6 5.9
Figure 3.4 below shows that the Netherlands, Sweden and Denmark are the
leaders in Internet penetration in domestic households. Nearly two thirds of
all households here have access to the Internet. In fact, a recent survey car-
ried out by the Swedish ICT Commission shows that 90% of Swedish house-
holds containing children in primary education have access to the Internet.
The figure also shows that Greece lags far behind all the other countries of
the EU, with less than 10% of all households being connected to the Inter-
net. However, the European Commission’s survey also indicates that house-
hold access to the Internet has more than doubled from 2000 to 2002.
Figure 3.45
Internet penetration in domestic households, 2000-2002
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
March 2000 16.9 20.2 13.6 45.3 9.6 12.9 28.2 5.8 19.2 17.5 26.9 46.1 8.4 47.5 24.4 18.3
June 2001 46.2 34.7 37.9 58.9 23.4 26.2 48.1 11.7 32.9 46.2 43.6 58.5 23.4 64.3 46.5 36.1
June 2002 49.1 40.9 43.7 64.5 29.5 35.5 53.7 9.2 35.4 47.9 55.0 65.5 30.8 64.2 45.0 40.4
4
Source: European Commission (Eurobarometer)
http://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/benchmarking/list/2002/e_lea
rning/online_pcs/index_en.htm
5
Source: European Commission (Eurobarometer)
http://www.europa.eu.int/information_society/eeurope/benchmarking/list/2002/intern
et_users_june2002/int_acc_hh_2000_02/index_en.htm
27

When comparing the figures above, it is apparent that some correspondence
exists between those countries with a high Internet penetration in domestic
households and a high ratio of Internet computers per pupil. The figures in-
dicate that Denmark and Sweden have very well developed infrastructures in
relation to both schools and households, while Finland, the United Kingdom,
Luxembourg, and to some extent the Netherlands all have well-developed
infrastructures.
It is worth noting that the ICT strategies of these countries also appear to
address all the topics listed in Table 3.2: Objectives emphasised in national
ICT strategies. Their focus on content development and the learning envi-
ronment indicates that an adequate infrastructure has been securely estab-
lished, and that attention is gradually shifting towards the development of
new forms of content and learning.
3.6 The curriculum

The curriculum encompasses both general and specific demands and objec-
tives for the activities of schools within and across individual subjects, as
well as for the use of ICT for learning. However, the degree of centralization
of the curriculum varies considerably across Europe, reflecting the extent to
which local governments, schools and teachers are able to set their own ob-
jectives and choose their own ways of organising the school day and their
pupils’ learning processes, and the extent to which specific frameworks and
measures are established centrally at the government level.
In this section, we outline some of the central findings and potentials con-
cerning the frameworks for the use of ICT in compulsory education which
exist among the schools of the Member States. We will also describe the
findings regarding the curricula for each of the countries where case studies
were undertaken.
The varying autonomy of schools in pedagogy or teaching among the Mem-

ber States
Eurydice has examined four broad areas of school organization. One of these
is pedagogy, or teaching as such. Eurydice has collected Information con-
cerning the freedom that schools enjoy in these four areas in relation to a
number of parameters, and has accordingly identified three main levels of
decision making:
x The school has full powers and autonomy
x The school takes decisions in consultation with the competent authority
at a higher level and/or within the limits set by the latter, and has lim-
ited autonomy
x The school is not involved in the decision-making process and has no
autonomy.
Figure 3.5: Public-sector primary and lower secondary schools’ autonomy in

choosing textbooks and methods. below shows the autonomy of public-
sector schools for the two levels of compulsory education, i.e. primary and
lower secondary level, in 2000 and 2001.
28

Figure 3.5: Public-sector primary and lower secondary
schools’ autonomy in choosing textbooks and methods.
Public-sector pri-
lower secondary
mary schools
Public-sector
Textbooks
Textbooks
Methods
Methods
schools
B fr z z z z
B de z z z z
B nl z z z z
DK z z z z
D z z z z
GR { z { z
E z z z z
F z z z z
IRL z z z z
I z z z z
L { z z z
NL z z z z
A z z z z
P z z z z
FIN z z z z
S z z z z
UKE/W z z z z
UK NI z z z z
UK SC z z z z
Source: Eurydice, Key Data on Education in Europe 2002.
z Autonomy of decision making z Limited autonomy { No autonomy
Germany, Greece and Luxembourg are the only countries which do not have
full power and autonomy concerning the selection of learning methods and
textbooks at the school level.
Our study of each country’s curriculum shows significant variation in the au-
tonomy of the schools regarding the number of hours spent on each subject,
the choice of learning material and methods, and how the quality of learning
is measured. The key findings are described below:
29

ICT is supposed to be integrated into all subjects in some Member States
ICT is integrated into the curriculum in different ways throughout the Mem-
ber States. This means that the emphasis on ICT is applied very differently.
In some countries, ICT is to be integrated in all subjects at all or some lev-
els, in others it only has to be integrated into some subjects.
In Austria, there are explicit goals for the use of ICT at both the primary and
secondary levels. For instance, primary school teachers must exploit the
opportunities of ICT in education and use it to create individually differenti-
ated, goal oriented learning environments for their pupils. At the secondary
level, the focus is somewhat different, as the pupils are supposed to develop
programming skills, learn how to use a word processing program, spread-
sheet etc., learn to search for information on CD-ROMS, networks etc., and
to communicate via a network. In the UK, the use of ICT is compulsory in all
subjects. In Italy, the inclusion of ICT in the curriculum has begun primarily
through its incorporation into other subjects.
ICT is supposed to be taught as a separate subject in some countries

In some of the 15 Member States, the curriculum does not state that ICT is
supposed to be integrated into all subjects. Instead it is intended to be
taught as a separate subject at the different educational levels, sometimes
compulsorily and sometimes as an optional subject.
For example, in Spain’s primary schools ICT exists as a separate subject in

the curriculum as well as being used as a tool in other subjects. It is up to
the secondary schools whether they wish to provide ICT as a compulsory or
optional subject or as a core element of the curriculum.
The perspective regarding ICT in this type of curricular integration is that ICT
is the subject matter itself, a machine to be operated, a tool to be used etc.
In some countries, goals for the use of ICT are not incorporated into the na-
tional curriculum
The curricula of a few Member States do not mention ICT at all. The reason
is that in these countries, the responsibility for describing the objectives and
aims concerning the use of ICT lies with the local authorities.
In Sweden, for instance, it is the responsibility of the municipal authorities
and the teachers to use ICT to achieve the goals laid down in the national
syllabuses. Neither the general national curriculum nor the individual sylla-
buses explicitly state that a given standard of ICT skills must be attained.
The quality of education is measured by different means

A major difference exists among the Member States concerning how the
quality of the educational provision and the objectives for the integration of
ICT outlined in the curriculum are measured. A few Member States conduct
inspections based on national regulations, as in the UK. In other Member
States, schools must devise their own methods for measuring quality as part
of their planning. In the Netherlands, for instance, every school must have a
plan that describes its policy concerning educational matters, staffing and
internal quality assurance. The school uses this document to account for its
policies to the Inspectorate.
Support systems for the integration of ICT into learning

In order to support their implementation of ICT into school education, some
countries have developed mechanisms such as websites to support their tea-
chers’ use of ICT-based material for learning within the curriculum frame-
work. In some instances teachers can exchange learning materials they have
30

developed themselves, while elsewhere the learning materials available are
subject to centralised quality assurance.
In the UK, a website called Curriculum Online has been created to support
the teachers’ use of ICT in achieving the goals laid down in the national cur-
riculum. In Austria, a corresponding education portal, www.bildung.at, pro-
vides a similar service. In both the UK and Austria, it is the intention that the
development of learning materials should be carried out by both public and
private providers. In the Netherlands, the government has prioritised the
development of software to meet those curriculum standards specified by
the government in which ICT has been assigned a role.
3.7 Teacher education

It has been generally recognised that upgrading the qualifications of teach-
ers with regard to ICT is essential to the integration of ICT into the learning
environment.
This issue involves two areas for action, namely upgrading the skills of future
teachers on the one hand, and upgrading the skills of the current teacher
population on the other.
The former has received some attention through the introduction of curricu-
lar goals regarding ICT in teacher training institutions, which in some coun-
tries have been supported by additional funding. The curricular goals range
from the evaluation of ICT literacy and the ability to use ICT as a general
didactic and pedagogical tool, to specific opportunities for using ICT in par-
ticular subjects. For example, the French Ministry of Education has con-
tracted 29 ‘Instituts Universitaires de Formation de Maîtres’ (IUFM) to train
teachers in ICT, with an emphasis on the pedagogical aspects of the use of
ICT in the school curriculum.
The latter has also been targeted by most Member States’ ICT policies, as a
general awareness exists that teachers’ ICT skills are a prerequisite for the
integration of ICT in the learning environment. Correspondingly, a number of
action plans to upgrade the qualifications of teachers via different training
schemes have been carried out or are currently being implemented.
As mentioned above, the approach regarding these upgrading initiatives var-

ies from country to country. Some have adopted a strategy of universality,
while others have focused on a ‘front runner’ strategy or a combination of
the two. In France and Sweden, significant efforts have been made to de-
velop the competences of ‘resource staff’ at the level of the schools. The
resource staff possess state-of-the-art knowledge in the field, and are avail-
able to help their colleagues. Meanwhile, both countries are also focusing on
upgrading the skills of the general teacher population. In particular, between
1999 and 2002 Sweden set itself the ambitious goal of training 60,000 tea-
chers under its ITiS programme. Significantly, training was also provided for
head teachers and school managers, politicians and administrative heads,
thereby acknowledging the importance of a broad understanding among all
stakeholders of the role of ICT.
Equally, in its national strategy Austria has set itself the goal that all its tea-
chers must know about Internet technologies and web-based learning sys-
tems by 2005. This will be achieved via training delivered by an online acad-
emy, culminating in ECDL certification for all teachers. A similar ambition
regarding the certification of teaching qualifications is shared by the Danish
government, which is currently implementing a corresponding policy.
31

While most countries have set aside a substantial proportion of their ICT
funding for the upgrading of the qualifications of their teachers, the United
Kingdom has also set aside extra funding through the New Opportunities
Fund (NOF) for upgrading the ICT capabilities of newly-qualified teachers,
and has established a discount scheme under which teachers can purchase
their own computers (CIT scheme). Today, 90% of the teaching staff are
computer-trained, and 76% state that they feel confident in using ICT within
the framework of the curriculum. To underline the differences existing in the
Community, the results of the IPETCOO survey in Greece showed that just
7.5 % of the teachers had received ICT training, and 54% of the teachers
had never previously used ICT .
3.8 External supply of educational material

Digital educational material can be supplied by external sources such as pri-
vate companies or partnerships, or by public institutions contracted to de-
velop such products in accordance with particular curricular requirements.
Externally-supplied educational material varies from country to country in

terms of both content and mode of delivery.
Externally-supplied products range from the delivery and maintenance of

educational platforms to content such as online materials, CD-ROMs and
other software.
The delivery of such products also takes different forms. Some services have
been procured, such as the delivery and maintenance of educational plat-
forms in Spain. Others are delivered through extensive framework agree-
ments, as is the case in France.
In a number of countries, national, regional, and even local educational au-

thorities have entered into some form of private-public partnership. The
partner companies range from publishers, ICT companies and advertising
companies to sponsors from a number of different sectors. Some of the
partnerships take the form of strategic partnerships formed to create innova-
tive digital products, while others offer support by delivering services at re-
duced prices. In other instances, the existence of outright sponsorships is
evident.
In some countries, existing products are systematically collected and made

available to interested parties. The UK Curriculum Online server and the Aus-
trian education server provide information about all free and paid-for digital
products.
It is notable that some countries, such as Austria and the Netherlands, have
opted for a centralised quality assurance unit to ensure that the content
meets curricular standards.
It should also be noted that a market-based approach might have certain

limitations in smaller linguistic markets such as the Nordic countries. Accord-
ingly, the evaluators of the Swedish ICT strategy have pointed out that the
novelty of digital educational products, coupled with the restricted market,
has resulted in a limited range of products.
3.9 Pedagogical styles & trends

One of the aspects of the external framework governing the activities of
schools is the pedagogical styles and trends that are currently in evidence
32

throughout the Member States. These are hard to determine and generalize
about even on the basis of country reports, since the schools and teachers
have to a great extent selected the methods independently of each other.
The styles and trends will therefore be described in greater detail in the case
studies.
3.10 Internationalisation
International co-operation in education is well developed in most Member
States. Both teachers and pupils participate in trans-national projects that
range from exchanging letters to systematic attempts to swap pedagogical
practices and content.
Under the auspices of initiatives undertaken by the European Commission,

primary schools from all Member States have been participating in pro-
grammes such as COMENIUS.
While this may represent an exchange of ideas and practice among pupils
and teachers at the local level, a number of steps have also been taken at
the national level to ensure international collaboration.
The European Network of Innovative Schools (ENIS) seeks to link up schools

that are recognized for their experience in the use of ICT. The target groups
are all types of institutions (e.g. for compulsory, vocational, higher and con-
tinuing education and teacher training etc.). The majority of the ENIS pro-
jects (Virtual School, ENIS, eSchola and myEurope) are intended for teach-
ers working in compulsory education.
The European Schoolnet Network is a framework for networking and ex-

changing information and projects. It was initiated following an informal
meeting of education ministers in Amsterdam on 2-3 March 1997 on the ba-
sis of the Swedish minister’s proposal to set up a network of European
schools in accordance with the Commission action plan, ‘Learning in the In-
formation Society’. The network enables schools in EU countries to commu-
nicate, test educational resources and services, and invest in multilateral
projects etc. However, it appears from our study that Schoolnet is not being
used very effectively.
A number of other multi- and bilateral relationships have also previously

been established. Some focus on general collaboration in education, while
others target ICT in particular.
For example, France has engaged in a number of multi- and bilateral rela-
tionships via Unesco and the OECD, and has bilateral agreements with a
number of countries in the field of education.
Equally, Germany has focused on internationalisation since the establish-

ment of the PAD (Pädagogischer Austausch Dienst) in 1952.
The Scandinavian countries have also been collaborating via the ODIN Nordic
school network for several years. These agreements and networks form the
basis for continuing collaboration concerning the further integration of ICT in
education.
However, a number of international initiatives have also been undertaken.

For example, the Netherlands, the Scandinavian countries and Canada have
established a standing informal network for policymakers and experts with
the aim of exchanging and refining views on integrating ICT in learning and
33

education through the so-called ‘ICT League’. In addition, the Netherlands
has established a Memorandum of Understanding on ICT with Canada. This
collaboration is manifest in a twinning project between Dutch and Canadian
schools, the so-called ‘Grassroots project’, in which contacts, projects, and
content are exchanged between the schools.
Finally, most countries share an international outlook regarding actions and

strategies that is clearly inspired by other Member States and the process of
engagement in European Community initiatives. It is also evident through
the conducting of comparative studies and benchmarking by the Member
States, the Commission and the OECD.
34

4. The organizational/institutional settings influenc-
ing teachers‘ and pupils’ work
As our analytical model indicates, we have chosen not to focus on the learn-
ing situation in isolation but also to include the organizational context. This
arises out of long experience of working with new and innovative ways of
using ICT for learning purposes. If new ways of learning and organizing the
learning situation are to be effective, they must involve the whole school,
not just the project of an individual teacher.
In this chapter we discuss various perspectives and approaches towards the

introduction of innovation into schools, and present concrete examples of
how this has been achieved in the case studies we have undertaken in the
course of this study.
4.1 Organizational framework for innovation in learning

To a certain extent, teachers can create new and innovative learning envi-
ronments themselves. But as research has shown, the organizational setting
in which learning takes place is important for maintaining the teachers’ op-
portunities for development. In other words, the organization of work, school
culture, management, etc. are important for entire schools to be able to in-
novate and continue developing.
Sharan, Shachar and Levine outline one approach for treating schools as
organizations in The Innovative School. They outline three different ways of
organizing schools – bureaucratic, social systems and communities. The
three models can be summarized as shown below:
Table 4.1: Models of school organizations
BUREAUCRATIC SOCIAL COMMUNITY
SYSTEM
PERSPECTIVE Efficiency, control and Holistic Shared common
BASIC VALUES supervision, regularity Complex of re- values
lated elements Acceptance and care
ORGANIZATION Specialization Integration of Integration of

disciplines disciplines
Co-operation Co-operation
FOCUS Defined hierarchy, one Short- and long- Shared

class-one teacher-one term problem- responsibility
subject, curricular em- solving and pro-
phasis on academic ject teams among
disciplines, uniform teachers and
schedule, documentation students, trans-
disciplinary cur-
riculum, flexible
schedule, Interac-
tion and feedback
DEVELOPMENT Resistant to change Open to change Proactive

POSSIBILITIES
The authors’ opinion is that all three modes operate in most schools, but that
the bureaucratic form of school organization is the most prevalent by far.
The objective of The Innovative School is to map the road towards change
and innovation in schools through a restructuring of their organization away
from bureaucracy towards community in crucial areas.
35

We have used this typology of the different styles of school organization to
expand our analytical framework and improve the analysis of our case stud-
ies by investigating whether any of these modes predominates in innovative
school settings.
4.2 Organization of teachers’ activities – co-operation

Few schools have reorganized both pupils’ and teachers’ activities in the way
that our case studies illustrate. As can be seen from the following examples,
some of the schools teach across age groups and subjects with mixed pupil
groups that are sometimes very large and sometimes very small. In addition
– and just as importantly – some of them have reorganized their teachers’
activities quite radically in ways that actually support the social system and
community models described in the previous section.
Teachers working in teams at the Vinstagårdsskola

Vinstagårdsskolan is a new school that enrolled its first pupils in 2001. Vin-
stagårdsskolan is a school for Grades 7 to 9, and mostly enrols pupils from
three Grade 1-6 schools in the district, although a few pupils come from
other schools and school districts as well. At the moment, 352 pupils attend
the school, and 37 teachers work there. 25% of the pupils are of foreign
origin.
The school is currently organized into four units of approximately 80 pupils

and 7 teachers each, as well as two special units containing 40 pupils plus 8
teachers/assistants, and 10 pupils plus 10 teachers/assistants respectively.
Each unit has its own home area with a meeting place for all pupils, plus
smaller rooms for up to 16 pupils and a teacher. There is also an office whe-
re the teachers can work. Besides the unit areas there are common areas
such as the gym and art and needlework rooms, where the pupils take those
particular subjects. When fully operational, the school will house approxi-
mately 540 pupils and 50 teachers altogether.
There are three weekly conferences in each unit in which the teachers plan
their work and discuss important matters. There are also meetings across
units on specific topics in which teachers from different units can discuss
their work experiences. There are also groups of teachers across units who
discuss organizational matters such as quality criteria.
In their previous jobs, many of the teachers at the school were accustomed
to working on their own, teaching only a few subjects and working within
narrowly-defined frameworks. Starting at Vinstagårdsskolan has also been a
challenge to them, as there is no principal who plans their working day, and
they must find new ways to plan and conduct the learning process. Some
teachers have left the school for these and other reasons, primarily because
they did not fit in.
Another model for the organization of pupils’ activities is represented by Lav-

inia, whose pupils are also grouped across different ages.
Three cycles at Lavinia

In Spain, school is compulsory from ages 6 to 16. The compulsory school
system is divided into primary and secondary schools, and in addition to
preschool, Lavinia teaches at the primary school level. The primary school is
organised into three cycles, each consisting of two grades for pupils aged 6-
8, 8-10 and 10-12.
36

Lavinia’s teachers are usually organised in accordance with these three cy-
cles. Two teachers work together in each cycle, and each teacher is respon-
sible for one class. Usually the teachers working within the same cycle plan
the school year together and teach all subjects, each in their own class. In
addition to his or her individual class responsibilities, each teacher is respon-
sible for one particular topic or subject, and most teachers also participate in
transversal projects that either cut across the school cycles or involve sev-
eral schools.
At Maglegårdsskolen in Denmark, a different but similar way of organizing

pupils’ and teachers’ activities is occurring.
Team-managed home area learning at Maglegårdsskolen

Traditional classroom-based teaching has been modified into so-called team
managed home area learning.
The school is now organised into nine self-managing entities known as home
areas. Each home area consists of three ‘classes’ from three different
learning levels, i.e . home areas consisting of a 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade class,
a 4th, 5th and 6th grade class, and a 7th, 8th and 9th grade class
respectively.
Accordingly, a home area hosts around 75 children across 3 age groups. 5-7
teachers form a team which shares the responsibility for planning and
facilitating all the learning for a single home area. A teacher can only belong
to one team.
In this way, the organisational role of each teacher has changed from that of
an individual agent planning and performing his or her individual teaching in
different classes, which in principle might encompass every level from 1st to
10th grade in accordance with a schedule set by the management, to that of
a participant in a team which has to plan, co-ordinate and administer and
facilitate the learning of a home area. In a way, each home area can
therefore be regarded as a small self-contained school.
The new modes of organization of the teachers’ activities have been groun-
ded in deliberate pedagogical objectives. For instance, at Vinstagårdsskolan
there is a clear expectation that the predominance of this type of organiza-
tional format will create a solid and secure learning environment for all chil-
dren.
4.3 School strategies and action plans

All the schools we visited in the course of our case studies had developed
what could be called strategic action plans for their activities. These plans
encompass both a visionary dimension and concrete objectives for the activi-
ties of the schools. Common to them all is that none includes a specific ICT
strategy, with ICT being regarded as just another tool or medium along with
all the other tools and media.
Central to these plans is a view that reflects the characteristics of the social
system or community models, since all the schools emphasize holistic val-
ues, problem-solving and shared responsibility.
Overall pedagogical principles of Vinstagårdsskolan

At Vinstagårdsskolan, the following pedagogical principles and values guide
the innovative learning environment:
37

x The school aims to encourage job satisfaction and well-being, as well as
promote knowledge and skills within the areas of language acquisition,
mathematics, information handling and knowledge seeking
Vinstagårdsskolan will:
x Create holism in pupils’ school attendance, and will therefore to a great
extent work with cross-disciplinary projects/themes for longer periods of
time
x Train pupils to be responsible for their own learning process
x Involve pupils in planning, carrying out and following up their own
learning process
x Develop pupils’ social competencies through co-operation in flexible
groupings
x Give every pupil an individual development plan
x Plan and carry out activities in such a way that the majority of them can
be achieved within the framework of the school day
x Create learning environments that promote and develop creativity and
knowledge seeking. This presupposes an array of pedagogical methods
and work formats, and the taking into account of every pupil’s individual
learning style. Traditional didactic pedagogical methods are moderated in
favour of more tailored learning methods.
The school’s work plan lists its five most important cornerstones:
x Personal and social development
x Acquisition of knowledge and skills
x Development of work methods
x Development of forms of influence and co-operation
x Development of a good work environment and organization.
For each of the cornerstones, the fundamental perspective, vision and views
are stated in addition to the aims. Some of the basic perspectives influencing
how learning takes place are:
x The school will create the basis for transforming pupils into independent
and democratic citizens through participation and co-operation
x The school prepares and trains pupils for society and work as it exists
both today and in the future
x The school develops the pupils’ lifelong learning strategies
x The organization and its work are founded on the basic assumption that
each and every person is unique, and has different qualifications and
backgrounds for learning
x The teachers’ ways of working and co-operating comprise models and
examples for their pupils’ work
x Parents play an important and active role in developing the pupils’ social
and knowledge-based competencies
x ICT is an important tool in the pupils’ work
x The focus should not be on all pupils learning similar content, but on the
quality of what they are learning
x There should be constant alternation between written and oral work
x Individual assignments are also part of the group work
Maglegårdsskolen in Denmark has a similar approach to learning which fo-

cuses on the pupil as an individual learner.
38

Child-centred mission statement at Maglegårdsskolen
According to the school’s mission statement6, its activities are supposed to
be guided by the following values and pedagogical principles:
x Children are different and learn in different ways. Their learning is close-
ly related to their emotional life. A feeling of self-respect and hence the
belief that they can be successful is a precondition for optimal learning.
x The school should be a multifarious pedagogical and professional envi-
ronment that stimulates and increases the self-respect of the children
and their motivation to learn, experience and seek out knowledge.
x The learning environment should be challenging and inspiring, and
should create the basis for values that support the development of the
community and the individual development of the children.
x The everyday life of the school should be influenced by different activi-
ties that contain intellectual, artistic, practical and physical elements.
x The everyday pedagogical activities should take place at a highly profes-
sional level, enabling the pupils to become confident regarding the con-
cepts, content and methods of different subjects and interdisciplinary ac-
tivities.
From the interviews, there seems to be a common understanding that es-

sentially this means that the guiding principles practised must be as follows:
x To focus on the needs of the individual child
x To create space for differences, and hence to become a more inclusive
school
x To respect and work with individual learning styles and different intelli-
gences
x To focus on the acquisition of qualifications and their transformation into
competencies.
What is new compared to before is that attention is increasingly being paid

to children’s well-being as a precondition for learning, based on the pre-
sumption that children learn much better when they feel safe, secure and
comfortable.
4.4 Staff competence development strategies

The implementation of both new methods and ICT naturally presupposes
that the teachers possess both the practical qualifications and to a great ex-
tent the imagination and creativity that is needed to generate new and inno-
vative thinking and carry it into practice. One way to make this happen is via
the continuous development of teachers’ competencies.
There are numerous ways of doing this. In some schools, teachers partici-
pate in national programmes or local or regional courses, either in a peer-
learning framework or independently. What differs equally from school to
school is how the strategies for competence development among the staff
are formulated either by the management or by the teachers working in con-
junction with the management. Many schools demand no special ICT compe-
tencies from their teachers, though some do. But in those which do not, it is
mainly up to the individual teachers to request and participate in ICT cour-
ses.
6
Every year the school prepares a mission statement which reviews the work of the
school during the past year, the school’s basic values and principles, and its aims and
strategies for the year(s) to come.
39

Development of the competencies of the teachers has been central to the
change processes occurring in the Maglegårdsskole.
Competence development as a critical factor for change

All the teachers at the Maglegårdsskole have completed a five-week course
covering the new pedagogical ideas and values underpinning the school’s
innovative learning environment. The fact that all the teachers have followed
exactly the same course which ran either concurrently or back-to-back with
the other teachers’ courses is seen both by management and the teachers
interviewed as an important step towards creating a collective “we culture”
instead of the more solipsistic “me culture” that used to characterize the
school. The successful creation of a “we culture” is seen as being a prerequi-
site for the team-based structure, and also as being the reason that it is
functioning successfully.
The starting point in relation to the integration of ICT competencies into the
learning processes was that most teachers were normal users of ICT. Most of
them (though not all) have obtained their IT driver’s licences7.
The further development of the teachers’ competencies with regard to the

use of ICT has primarily taken place in internal workshops. One example is a
workshop on how to use digital cameras and digital video cameras. The idea
was to undertake practical work using the technology, but to focus on the
pedagogical issues. Professional users managed the workshop, and both tea-
chers and pupils participated. The workshop was held just before the experi-
ence gained was to be applied. The workshop was considered very success-
ful, since it succeeded in providing the teachers with both practical inspira-
tion and self-confidence regarding the use of digital photographic media for
learning purposes.
The Danish pedagogical driver’s license consists of multiple course modules

that focus on how particular programs can be used for teaching and learning.
It has been developed with support from the Government, and some 53,000
teachers have taken part, with 35,000 completing their courses. The course
combines physical meetings with distance education. The teachers complete
an assignment for each module and send it back to their tutor. The teachers
are required to work in groups, preferably with other teachers from their
own school, as this will enable them to work together on the integration of
ICT in teaching and learning later on. The driver’s licence concept has now
been exported to Norway8.
The driver’s licence concept links pedagogy closely with the use of ICT, as
this is seen as essential for motivating teachers and ensuring the transfer-
ability of what is learnt during the course to what actually takes place in the
classroom subsequently. A similar approach is being used in Spain.
7
See www.skole-it.dk for further information concerning the pedagogical driver’s
licence.
8
For further information see http://www.larerikt.no/info/.
40

The combination of learning to use ICT and using new pedagogical
methods
According to the Department of Education’s representatives in Catalonia,
teacher education is an important tool not only for introducing ICT into the
schools but for encouraging the integration of ICT into the schools’ curricula,
methodology and pedagogy. The ideas concerning teaching and the ap-
proach to learning must change, otherwise it is pointless to be developing
new learning material.
Lately, the courses have focused on changing the teacher profile concept to
encourage:
1. Active learning
2. Student responsibility for the learning process
3. Development of social and team working skills
4. The integration of student diversity as an asset
5. Self-paced student learning and more student-specific learning processes
which are adapted to the needs of the individual pupil.
Coal Tyee Elementary in Canada uses a differentiation strategy for develop-

ing teachers’ competencies.
Three groups of ICT users among teachers

At Coal Tyee Elementary School, and in the school district in general, the
experience has been that the use and integration of ICT in education occurs
at different speeds. Some teachers are highly computer literate, while others
are hesitant in using the technology.
In pioneer terminology, three different kinds of ICT users are identified

among the teachers: (i) the trailblazers, (ii) the pioneers and (iii) the
settlers.
(i) The trailblazers are the explorers who break new ground and uncover
the new opportunities created by the medium.
(ii) The pioneers follow the trailblazers, and are the first to exploit the
opportunities created.
(iii) The settlers follow the trailblazers and pioneers and ensure that the new
ground is harvested.
In other words, ICT integration occurs at different speeds. Rather than

pushing the pace of progress and risking a loss of ownership, it has proven
more fruitful to nurture the different learners and encourage their personal
development. Such an approach recognizes that the trailblazers will take the
first innovative steps, the pioneers will contribute to expanding the usage of
ICT in the school, and the settlers help to mainstream the technology-based
practices.
The use of personal growth plans has proven to be a particularly useful tool
for upgrading the skills of all the teachers, using the skills they already have
as their starting point and directing their learning towards the needs
identified by the teachers themselves. Thus instead of regarding the
differential in the levels of ICT literacy which exist among its staff as an
impediment to the use of ICT in the learning process, the Coal Tyee
approach encourages the growth of ICT usage.
As described in the example cited above, personal growth plans are being
used as a tool in the development of the competencies of the teachers in
order to follow up their progress. A similar approach towards individual ICT
development plans exists at the De Lindt School in the Netherlands:
41

Individual ICT development plans as tools for developing teachers’
competencies
To improve their ICT literacy, individual ICT development plans were defined
for each teacher in order to direct and motivate them in acquiring the skills
they required for their teaching.
This initiative was sparked by the school’s awareness that ICT is an impor-
tant educational tool both currently and in the future, and that making the
pupils ICT literate was an essential challenge for the school. Accordingly,
each year it still draws up global ICT action plans for itself.
One particular challenge for the organization of the school is the existence of
different levels of ICT literacy and different approaches to the use of ICT in
education. To improve this situation, the management decided that individ-
ual ICT action plans for each teacher needed to be developed and imple-
mented. The teachers state that these action plans have proved to be an
excellent incentive for directed learning and the acquisition of the ICT skills
they have required.
The different approaches to the use of ICT have triggered heated discussions
among he teaching staff concerning the usefulness of ICT as an educational
tool. The strength of this debate has been the unanimous support for, and
ownership of, the ICT strategy which the school has chosen.
Teacher education is viewed as being one of the most crucial factors for the
successful use of ICT for learning and teaching, since the main prerequisite
for the use of ICT for pedagogical purposes is the existence of ICT compe-
tencies among the teachers. Up to this point everybody is in agreement, but
there is no unanimity concerning the methods and sequence according to
which the teachers ought to be educated. Some believe that teachers should
learn how to use ICT as a tool for themselves before learning how to use it in
pedagogical contexts, while some believe the opposite.
4.5 School culture

At the schools we visited in the course of our cases studies, a transformation
in the culture of the school was one of the management’s priorities, since
this was not only regarded as being an essential prerequisite for effecting
change in relation to the use of ICT, but change in general.
Moving towards a collective culture at the Maglegårdsskole in DK

The collective “we culture” is maintained and developed via the management
planning of meetings involving all the teachers. These mostly take the form
of workshops in which new ideas and practices are discussed and knowledge
is shared. There are some 16-18 meetings of this kind per year.
According to the teachers interviewed, another important reason that the

team-based structure works well is that teachers are generally much more
satisfied and happy with their work than previously. They feel they need to
take more responsibility for the planning, administration and co-ordination of
the content of their instruction with other teachers, and that the job feels
more demanding, but it seems that they are all enjoying their new roles9.
9
However, a few teachers have left the school because they were unhappy with the
new structure and culture. The average age of the teachers is 42. There is a big cohort
of teachers aged between 27 and 35, and another aged between 42 and 55. There are
only two teachers who fall chronologically between these groupings.
42

There are similar approaches in other innovative schools, for instance in the
De Lindt school in the Netherlands, where a learning organization approach
prevails.
Learning organization at De Lindt

The school management places considerable emphasis on the school as a
‘learning organization’ by emphasizing constant debate and assessment con-
cerning how the learning approach at the school can be improved. The tea-
chers and management agree that the management style is ‘bottom-up’, and
that the teaching staff has a significant influence on the pedagogical direc-
tion of the school. They emphasize the fact that they must all agree and ad-
here to a number of common pedagogical principles that govern and struc-
ture their teaching.
Even though the De Lindt school has a bottom-up strategy, the initial impe-
tus towards a radical change in the culture of the school is heavily dependent
on the management of the school, which has the responsibility for initiating
such changes. However, many school managers hesitate to do this. This is
because for a long time, schools have generally consisted (and mostly still
do consist) of a number of individual teachers working in parallel and teach-
ing their subjects to the pupils in isolation from each other rather than in an
integrated manner. As Section 4.1, Organizational framework for innovation
in learning describes, one of the prerequisites for the transformation of
schools in the direction of increased innovation is precisely that of construct-
ing common values.
4.6 Management style

Management style is therefore also crucial in the creation of innovative
learning environments. Managers need to be visionary and to have the
power to take action, but must also be able to delegate responsibility to
teachers. We have observed various different management styles while un-
dertaking our case studies. For instance, some school heads act as initiators
of change and then give the responsibility for carrying it out to the teachers,
while others both initiate change and manage the process afterwards.
The following examples illustrate the different management styles.
Teachers as managers of self and others in the Vinstagårdsskola

However, there is one area where teachers would prefer the principal and
the vice-principal to be more visible. These two individuals have the primary
overall pedagogical responsibility for the school, as set out in the work plan.
The teachers would like them to provide more feedback on their practical
work and to follow up with new ideas, e.g. through being present in the units
during learning sessions.
The principal is well aware of this, and finds himself in a dilemma in which he
is forced to find a balance between a traditional managerial role and a new
role in which he needs to be more of a stage manager or director than a su-
pervisor. On the one hand, the units are supposed to function as schools
within a school, and on the other hand the school also needs to be a self-
contained entity. So far, there has been much work to do with the work units
to get them to function properly, but in the long run increased working
across the work units might become necessary.
43

Role of management at the Maglegårdsskole
The role of the management has been redefined to focus on setting the
agenda for the continuing evolution of the pedagogical practices, to perform
management tasks in accordance with the values governing the develop-
ment of the school, to manage the change processes, to maintain the peda-
gogical focus, and to be responsible for maintaining a general overview.
Role of management at the De Lindt school

The principal describes the main management roles as being to promote the
following:
x Human resource management
x Planning
x Resources for the development of the school (e.g. in ICT)
x Innovation and vision for the future of the school
All the examples above indicate a shift in the role of management away from
pure administration towards an HR manager/leadership and pedagogical
innovation role.
4.7 Learning material

Learning material is vital for some applications of ICT, e.g. digital learning
material that is used in place of books, videos or the like. In the UK, for in-
stance, quite a lot of learning material is being developed and distributed via
the Curriculum Online website.
At www.teachernet.gov.uk are to be found over 1,200 reviews of National

Curriculum Online lesson plans which have been produced with the assis-
tance of museums, galleries and charities.
Other countries have similar services, and the teachers regard them as in-
valuable. For the individual teacher, however, there are certain barriers to
overcome in using ICT for teaching and learning purposes. First of all it, is
very difficult to get an overview of the available material and its quality. Se-
condly, much of the available material has not been specifically produced for
the purpose of supporting an educational curriculum. In order to overcome
these obstacles, some schools organize the purchase of digital learning ma-
terial in such a way that for instance their library will test and review it.
Organization of the purchase of learning materials at the Vin-

stagårdsskola
Purchases are also made in co-operation with the library, and all units have
access to the learning material available from Skolverket’s website10. At the
moment, the computers are mainly used for word processing and internet
searches, and therefore there is no urgent need for buying or accessing digi-
tal learning material.
At the Lavinia school in Spain, the teachers produce their own digital learn-
ing material.
Production of own learning material at Lavinia

The school produces its own learning material, and has earned several
awards for some multimedia learning programmes which it shares with other
schools in Catalonia and internationally.
10
See http://www.skolverket.se
44

One of the major obstacles facing schools and pupils when using digital lear-
ning materials is that of copyright. When a school purchases such materials
it is often limited by licensing policies that forbid its pupils from using the
material at home. In other cases, pupils may be prevented from accessing
online material because they have no Internet access at home. These prob-
lems indicate that there is still a long way to go before the use of digital
learning material is incorporated into the learning process in schools in the
same way that books are today.
Some schools are not using digital learning material, but have chosen in-
stead to focus on the use of tools in the way described in the example be-
low.’
Use of Office programs rather than digital learning material

Another case in point is the use of software applications such as the
Microsoft Office programs rather than content programs, despite the easy
availability of the latter. Several teachers explain that such content
programs may be effective in drilling some of the students’ skills, but are
less effective when they have to be integrated with learning outcomes, e.g.
in social studies.
4.8 Technology
There are several important issues in relation to ICT technology. The first of
these is the question of how the schools choose to locate or situate their
computers within the school setting. Secondly, there is the question of how
they tackle issues such as licensing and access for pupils and teachers at
home, and finally the issue of how they organize their ICT support. This stu-
dy focuses primarily on the first issue, as this is very closely related to the
learning situation. However, the other issues are equally important elements
of the learning context.
How schools choose to locate and organize their ICT equipment varies enor-
mously. As is demonstrated both in our case studies and others (such as the
INSIGHT schools mentioned in an eWatch project survey of the practical
implementation of ICT), schools decide to locate their equipment according
to greatly varying criteria that correspond to their overall pedagogical objec-
tives.
Traditionally, schools have installed their computers in a dedicated room or

suite, but the trend nowadays is to introduce computers directly into the
classroom in order to increase their usage for all subjects11. The approach or
rationale behind this is that ICT is supposed to be a tool just like a pen or
pencil. This is not feasible when a teacher has to book the computer suite
several weeks in advance in order to let his pupils search the Internet for ten
minutes on a particular topic.
However, this perspective regarding the placement of computers is not sha-
red by all the schools we visited. For instance, Gylemuir Primary school in
Scotland has also decided to install a computer suite in which its pupils learn
how to use the computer equipment, and where a whole class of children
can, for instance, learn to create their own websites.
11
IDG Global Solutions with Apple Computer, Inc., Can we learn digitally – technology
to enhance teaching, Apple Computer, Inc., 2002, p. 16.
45

At the De Lindt School in the Netherlands, each classroom was equipped
with at least three computers connected to a local network and a permanent
link to the Internet and the Dutch knowledge network12.
Priorities at the Vinstagårdsskola

ICT is viewed mainly as a learning tool, not as a topic in itself. This is re-
flected in the minor focus on ICT which exists in the work plan and the peda-
gogical objectives described in it. All the teachers use ICT as a natural part
of their work, both for lesson preparation and for teaching. When asked why
ICT is not more clearly emphasised in the school plan, the principal and the
teachers both state that the focus is on learning. ICT is used daily, and the
pupils say that they use ICT much more in this school than they have done
before. The goal is to have 6 pupils per computer at the school. At the mo-
ment this is not the case, but the pupils say that they never lack access to a
computer. This is due to the fact that the work methods of the pupils are
mixed, and they are not using computers all the time.
In most countries, great attention is paid to the pupil/computer ratio. “The

fewer, the better” appears to be the widespread belief, but the schools do
not necessarily share this view. The physical disposition of the computers,
their age, and so on, is equally important.
4.9 Finance
Finance, interpreted as meaning both time and money, plays a significant
role in the evolution from a traditional mode of organizing teaching and lear-
ning towards a new and innovative learning environment. In the beginning it
takes more time for teachers to plan the learning process in novel ways,
whether or not computers are being used. Competence development and
extra preparation time are some of the activities that schools are forced to
expend extra money on. Later on, these additional activities become less
necessary as the teachers become more accustomed to the new ways of
working and develop new work habits.
Another financial issue relates to the purchase of new computer equipment

and the replacement of old equipment. Many schools bought their computers
or received the funding to buy them 3-5 years ago. This kind of equipment
has to be replaced regularly, which is quite expensive and is also difficult for
the schools, as they are not accustomed to being custodians of computer
equipment or budgeting for this kind of purchase.
Participation in contests
At Gylemuir Primary School, the principal and the teachers participate in all
kinds of contests in order to try to win computer equipment for their school.
This has two purposes, firstly to obtain free equipment, and secondly to se-
cure a particular pedagogical objective.
Shopping points from the Condis supermarket at the Lavinia School

The school has entered into an agreement with the Condis supermarket
chain whereby like all its other customers, the parents and personnel of the
school receive purchase points whenever they shop in one of its supermar-
kets. The points acquired by all the parents are collected up and used to
provide equipment for the school, either free of charge or at a discount. So
far, this has enabled the school to obtain a printer.
12
The Dutch knowledge network was established in order to support the integration of
information technology in education. See
http://www.kennisnet.nl/portal/home/index.html.
46

Another aspect of school finance relates to the physical rebuilding of schools
if, for instance, they decide to set up home areas instead of having conven-
tional classrooms. Some of the schools we visited had received initial funding
for such rebuilding from the local authority, but in most cases the rebuilding
had taken place in response to the need for a new school or for additional
space in an existing school. In these instances the school management has
been able to influence how the rebuilding was to take place.
Now that it is established, the Swedish Vinstagårdsskola operates with the

same budget as the municipality’s other schools.
4.10 Architecture
According to many experts, the architecture and construction of schools is
highly significant for the possibilities for organizing and conducting the learn-
ing activities taking place inside them. Some of the schools we visited had
been radically rebuilt, whereas others were carrying out their activities in
fairly traditional school buildings.
Units at the Vinstagårdsskola in Sweden

In each of the units at the school there is a large room in which all the pupils
can be present simultaneously, six smaller rooms where 16 pupils can be
present at the same time, and a media lab. There is also a wardrobe where
each pupil has a locker and can store his jackets and footwear.
Besides the units’ own individual areas, there are rooms for such activities as
physical exercise, physics, art, chemistry etc., as well as a café, a cafeteria
and a library in which pupils can work on projects. There are also two units
for special needs education in the school. The school’s furniture is bought
from Kinnarps, a company that specializes in creating flexible, mobile furni-
ture designed to facilitate the reorganization of the learning environment.
The shift from traditional classroom instruction towards learning in small

project-based teams has been supported by a change in the physical
framework of the school. The school has been rebuilt in such a way that each
self-managing unit occupies a physical home area consisting of three
classrooms and a central shared space. This is an open area with corners
and nooks for group and/or project work.
Before the school was rebuilt, the classrooms were 48 square metres; during
the rebuilding, they were reduced to 35 square metres. The reason is that
with the new pedagogical approach, not much time is devoted to traditional
classroom teaching. Instead, the surplus space has been incorporated into
the central shared room, along with space previously comprising the
corridors linking the classrooms.
All the static IT equipment has been consolidated in the central room.
Additionally, the home areas have at their disposal a wireless network and
portable computers, digital cameras and digital video cameras.
Of course, rebuilding that takes into account the pedagogical objectives of a

school has a major positive influence and significance for how its learning
can be organized and its activities are carried out. But the general opinion
among the teachers and management at the schools we have visited is that
innovative learning environments can be created anywhere, regardless of
how the school is constructed.
47

The attitude is more important than architecture at the Vin-
stagårdsskola
The school was rebuilt in such a way as to support the organizational, envi-
ronmental and pedagogical objectives. Extra funding was made available in
order to provide the school with networks, furniture, computer equipment
etc., to a greater extent than with any other school. Of course, this means
that the school has had a better starting-point than other schools. Neverthe-
less, the teachers agree that the way in which their work is organized and
the learning takes place could be copied even in a traditional school building
with long corridors and classrooms. The parents endorse this view, and em-
phasise that the really crucial factor for the success of such a learning envi-
ronment is the attitudes of management and teachers.
4.11 Parents’ involvement

All the innovative schools visited in the course of our case studies are char-
acterized by a large degree of parental involvement. For instance, the Vin-
stagårdsskola board of parents has continuously appointed working groups
to deal with school issues throughout the school’s entire existence.
Helpful involvement of parents at Lavinia

The high level of involvement of the pupils’ parents in the daily life of the
school is helpful, as they provide both physical, moral and financial support.
In addition, the school maintains continuous contact with the parents, either
directly or by phone and e-mail. For their part, the parents list the following
as being important aspects of their relationship with the school:
x The high degree of information
x The positive attitude of the teachers
x The focus on developing the children’s personalities
x The daily contact with the school
x The fact that the majority of the school work is carried out in the school
x The fact that the school operates an unorthodox timetable (as compared
with most other Spanish schools)13
Parents contribute considerably to the development of the other schools too,

and the school managements regard this as being very important to their
own work.
13
In Spain, compulsory school usually consists of morning and afternoon classes with
a 1-2 hour break at midday. Whenever possible, the pupils return home during the
break in order to have lunch etc. At Lavinia, since the founding of the school the mid-
day break has been shorter than in other more traditional schools. The pupils eat at
the school, an arrangement that costs the parents 25 Euro a month, and which ac-
cording to both teachers and parents is appropriate to their needs. School finishes at 3
p.m., and those children who cannot return home at that time because of their par-
ents’ work schedule are offered recreational facilities on the school premises.
48

5. Theories and models of Innovative Learning Envi-
ronments
5.1 Innovative Learning Environments – Theoretical foundation

The concept of the learning environment as a phenomenon has entered edu-
cational discourse in close conjunction with the emerging use of ICT for edu-
cational purposes on the one hand, and the constructivist conception of
knowledge and learning on the other. The constructivist view emphasises
learning as an active process of constructing rather than acquiring or receiv-
ing knowledge. In this view, instruction is therefore a process of supporting
construction rather than of communicatInnovative ing knowledge from
teachers to pupils14. ICT is viewed as one of the means through which such
learning environments can be created.
Constructivism15 (or constructionism) is further described and explained by

MIT Media Lab’s ‘Future of Learning Group’ as being:
Based on two different senses of ‘construction.’ It is grounded in

the idea that people learn by actively constructing new knowl-
edge, rather than having information ‘poured’ into their heads.
Moreover, constructionism asserts that people learn with particu-
lar effectiveness when they are engaged in constructing person-
ally meaningful artifacts (such as computer programs, anima-
tions, or robots)16.
There are quite a number of suggested definitions of learning environments

that all encompass constructionism, and to a certain extent also the use of
ICT.
For instance, according to Wilson, B., “A learning environment is a place or

community where people can draw upon resources to make sense out of
things and construct meaningful solutions to problems.”
Another definition is “(A) place, space, or practice whose purpose is to sup-

port learning” (Manninen & Pesonen, 1997). Manninen illustrates this under-
standing in the model presented below, which encompasses the same – but
less detailed – structures as the ones presented in our own analytical
framework:
14
Marja Mononen-Aaltonen, p. 164.
15
One of the first theorists to apply constructivism for classrooms and childhood de-
velopment was Jean Piaget (1896-1980). Piaget's constructivism is based on his view
of the psychological development of children. According to Piaget, teachers should
understand the steps in the development of the child's mind. The fundamental basis of
learning, he believed, was discovery. To reach an understanding of basic phenomena,
according to Piaget, children have to go through stages in which they accept ideas
they may later see as not truthful. In autonomous activity, children must discover
relationships and ideas in classroom situations that involve activities of interest to
them. Understanding is built up step by step through active involvement.
http://www.pathsoflearning.org/AtoZ/construct.cfm
16
http://learning.media.mit.edu/projects.html
49

Figure 5.1: Learning environment according to Manninen and
Pesonen
Pulkkinen and Peltonen (1998) state: "A learning environment is a place or

community arranged specifically for learning purposes, and is based on ideas
of:
x Knowledge, the structure of knowledge and learning.
x Practical arrangements necessitated by learning connected with time,
place and repetitive rituals (seen as a system and process in constructiv-
ism) which together provide the social organisation for learn-
ing/teaching".
Three essential main components of any learning environment are required

to enable learning to take place (Pulkkinen and Ruotsalainen, 1998):
x Pedagogical functions: learning activities, teaching situations, learning
materials, tutoring and support, evaluation, etc.
x Appropriate technologies: how the selected tools are connected with the
pedagogical model.
x Social organisation of education: time, place, and community.
Learning environments are to be viewed as both physical and virtual envi-

ronments. Virtual learning environments (VLEs) were first perceived as being
on-line domains allowing both synchronous and asynchronous collaborative
interaction among teachers and learners, while providing learning resources
to be used by learners at any time. This conception has recently been modi-
fied so that now it can apply to any combination of distance and face-to-face
interaction in which some kind of time and space virtuality is present, such
as is encompassed by the notion of blended learning. Compared with tradi-
tional learning environments, the chief role of different technologies and
technology configurations, especially Internet-related ones, is to trigger the
new educational opportunities inherent in these virtual environments.
Common to all the definitions is their emphasis that a learning environment

is a place or community in which a number of activities are taking place with
the purpose of supporting learning, and that actors can draw on a number of
resources when doing so. Several of the above definitions also emphasize
the constructionist view of learning and the use of ICT. Our analytical fra-
mework approach encompasses all of those elements. In our model, the
learning environment is understood as comprising different learning situa-
tions, and is characterized by actions occurring between teachers and pupils
in a framework comprising a number of structural factors which are distin-
guished by resources and rules.
5.2 New models or paradigms facilitated by advances in ICT

ICT is claimed by many to be the initiator of a revolution in the education
system. Our view is that this might be the case, but is not necessarily so,
since ICT can be used to change the learning situation but does not neces-
sarily have to. It can be used to support and preserve traditional methods,
or it can be used to change the pedagogical methods and the organization of
the learning situation radically.
50

This view is supported by the findings from SITES Module 2, which have de-
monstrated that ordinary technology such as productivity tools, e-mail and
the web is being used to do innovative things. This suggests that innovation
is not dependent on technology so much as on the creativity of schools, tea-
chers and pupils. A BECTa report goes as far as saying that the successful
use of ICT depends on five critical factors: good school leadership, a good
general standard of teaching, good management of ICT, good teaching of
ICT, and the availability of good ICT resources17.
Findings like these lead to the preliminary conclusion that Innovative Learn-
ing Environments are not so much dependent on the use of ICT, but rely
more on the organization of the learning situation and the ability of teachers
to use technology to support pedagogical learning objectives that change
and transform traditional learning activities. This is important if we are to
draw the correct conclusions from the six case studies described later in this
report. If this is the case, then what are the new educational paradigms or
models that are enabled by advances in information and communication
technology?
Plainly, how any shift in paradigm actually occurs will be dependent on its
context. From our reading we are able to conclude that there are only minor
differences among the various countries’ views concerning the nature of the
new possibilities, even though such differences do exist.
These common perceptions are related to a change in teachers’ roles from

that of providers of information to tutors, guides and advisors for their stu-
dents. They are also related to a change in the focus concerning the pupils’
opportunities to become more active, to take more responsibility for their
own learning process, and to collaborate with others. The differences which
exist among the countries relate to their priorities concerning the intent be-
hind the use of ICT for learning purposes, with some countries emphasizing
the development of teamwork and collaborative skills and others emphasiz-
ing the development of creative thinking skills or student-centred peda-
gogy18.
5.2.1 From instructionism to constructionism

Because innovative learning environments are the focus of this study, it is
essential that we take a closer look at the shift towards constructionism and
the use made of ICT under this pedagogical approach, as these have been
the two main areas of interest in the general discussion about learning envi-
ronments.
All of our study’s findings suggest that the change in the learning paradigm
broadly involves a shift from instructionism towards constructivism, and that
as far as the visions regarding the education system of the future are con-
cerned, this tendency is universal. However, in practice the transformation of
the learning paradigm in terms of the dissemination and prevalence of learn-
ing activities actually occurring in schools remains limited, even though the
geographical dispersal and prevalence of an acceptance of the shift in peda-
gogical ideas and objectives throughout Europe is widespread.
Paradigm shifts are by definition longitudinal in nature, which indicates that

the change of focus is ongoing and will continue for many years to come.
What we illustrate in the table below should therefore be viewed as an ongo-
17
Primary Schools – ICT and Standards, BECTa report.
18
SITES Module 2, p. 77, plus interviews with experts.
51

ing transformation in the learning paradigm or model, which means that in
practice the two models will co-exist in the education world:
Table 5.1: Shift in learning paradigm
FROM TOWARDS
x Teaching as transmission of knowl- x Teaching as encouragement of in-

edge from teacher to pupil teraction, construction and com-
munication
x Learning as memorizing and repe- x Learning as the understanding of
tition general rules & principles plus the
ability to apply them in different
contexts
x Knowledge can be delivered x Knowledge can be constructed as a
component of existing knowledge
structures
x One perception and solution – the x Multiple perceptions and solutions
teacher’s – is regarded as the cor- of the same problem are equally
rect one correct
x Fixed curriculum focusing on con- x A flexible (i.e. integrated) problem-
tent & objectives based curriculum focusing on com-
petence development & processes
x Teacher-directed x Self-directed
x Teacher-centred x Learner-centred
x Closed learning settings x Open learning settings
A general assumption of the constructionist paradigm is that it is up to the

pupils themselves to do the learning. For instance, teachers cannot read and
write for the children, all they can do is help, support and challenge them.
This view of the children’s learning process is not new, with the theories of
John Dewey, Maria Montessori and those of the Summerhill School etc. all
emphasizing it in different ways. The novel element in relation to the activi-
ties and methods promoted via these theories is that ICT plays an increas-
ingly bigger role in supporting them.
In the instructionist approach, ICT is viewed merely as a tool for reproducing

facts, providing feedback or as being itself an object of study. In construc-
tionism, ICT is used merely as a medium of communication, as shared mate-
rial, as an information resource, as a simulator, as a set of tools to express
creativity etc.
The figure below illustrates some of the new pedagogical activities that have
been facilitated through the advances in ICT and the transformation of the
learning paradigm. It also illustrates the role that ICT can play in the per-
formance of such activities, and how the structural framework both influ-
ences and is influenced by them.
52

Figure 5.2 Innovative Learning Environments – examples of
innovative learning approaches, the role of ICT and the struc-
tural framework
Many opportunities for innovation arise from the introduction and deploy-
ment of ICT in education and training. The research evidence from the DELI-
LAH project19 suggests that whereas there seems to be considerable scope
for change in relation to the use of ICT, in practice this is not unlimited; nor
does the rhythm and pace of such change appear to be constant across sec-
tors and countries – instead, the rhythm and pace of change varies in accor-
dance with sector-dependent features, and also in accordance with the cycle
of innovation and change existing in the respective countries.
19
Looking at Innovations in Education and Training – Framework, Results and Policy
Implications of the DELILAH project.
53

5.3 Innovative learning environments – new learning activities
The shift in the learning paradigm and the extended use of ICT in learning
have opened up new opportunities concerning both the organization of the
learning situation and the activities taking place within it. In this section, we
describe and illustrate the practical application of ICT for learning purposes,
illustrated by examples from our own and other case studies in the field be-
ing investigated. We describe some of the emerging but still rarely-used
methods that have been made easier by advances in the development of ICT
for learning purposes. We illustrate each of the issues being discussed with
examples, and discuss the learning potential of each as well as the potential
obstacles that might prevent them from becoming widespread.
The subsequent sections will all deal with each of the innovative learning
approaches illustrated in Figure 5.2 Innovative Learning Environments – ex-
amples of innovative learning approaches, the role of ICT and the structural
framework. For each of the approaches we describe our interpretation, give
examples taken from studies and case studies, and interpolate a brief dis-
cussion.
5.3.1 The organization of the learning situation

During this study we found a number of innovative practices taking place in
schools in which the way the learning situation is organized differs from the
traditional mode of organisation consisting of pupils primarily being taught
one subject by one teacher for one lesson at a time.
As described previously, some schools have reorganized their learning situa-

tions in ways that transcend the traditional curriculum-bound modes of
thought. The consequence is that their approaches are often multidiscipli-
nary, and that time planning and organization have changed radically.
Some of the examples we have found come from schools that have turned
the organization of the whole school year (or all school years) upside-down,
whereas others have chosen to change their time schedule or organisation
for periods of days or weeks at a time.
Radical and permanent changes are often closely related to changes in the
organization of the activities of teachers away from individual working to-
wards team-based work and collaboration. Sometimes it is also closely linked
to a reorganization of the pupils’ work and group affiliations.
As the example from Vinstagårdsskolan in Sweden shows below, 90 pupils in

Grades 7-9 belong to one group and work multidisciplinarily and across gra-
des on some occasions, and sometimes they concentrate on a single subject
for one or two lessons.
Total reorganization into smaller units across age groups

Vinstagårdsskolan in Sweden is organized into smaller units containing 75 to
90 children and 7 teachers. The pupils are aged 13-15, and instead of divid-
ing them into Grades 7, 8 and 9, the children belong to a work unit that
straddles the traditional grades. 5 of the 7 teachers in each unit work only in
that unit, whereas the other two work in several units because they are spe-
cialists in minor subjects such as art or physical exercise.
The work units are completely autonomous in the sense that they plan and
perform their work precisely as they wish within the framework of the
school’s overall work plan. The teachers share an office in the unit, and must
be present in the school for 35 hours a week.
54

The reasons for organizing the work into smaller units (known as ‘schools
within a school’) are that this organization makes it possible to:
x Follow pupils’ social, emotional and intellectual development for a rela-
tively long time (3 years)
x Obtain a holistic picture of each pupil
x Create security
x Achieve continuity and holism in teaching and other activities
x Focus on the pupils’ maturity, stage of development, intellectual apti-
tudes and knowledge of skills, as well as focusing on their interests in-
stead of their chronological age, and to plan their learning on this basis.
Each of the 5 teachers working solely in one unit is mentor for circa 15 pupils
of different ages. This means that they have close contact with these pupils
and follow their performance throughout their three years in the school.
The children work together in groups across age boundaries, and are not
kept in the same groups for more than one project in a row. The teachers
put the groups together on the basis of a number of criteria, for instance
interests, level of knowledge or skill within the area, age, etc.
The world outside the school is not separated into subjects, and therefore
the learning process should not be either. As a consequence of this, the tra-
ditional division into subjects should not be the dominant model for the or-
ganisation of work. 40% of the time spent at the school is supposed to be
spent on creative working methods and projects which mirror holistic think-
ing. But in those subjects where national examinations are used to assess
the pupils, the teachers continue to teach in the traditional way.
The overall view of pupils, parents and teachers alike is that the school and
the manner in which learning is planned and carried out has been a success.
Both the teachers and the pupils have stated that the first year was a chal-
lenge. This was certainly the case for those pupils who came from schools
where traditional teaching methods had primarily been used. The new meth-
ods employed at Vinstagårdsskolan, and the freedom to choose them (and to
a certain extent the content), together with the free planning of time and
space, were both thrilling and frustrating. Pupils in the present Grade 8 say
that they were confused by the lack of direct control, and found it hard to
handle in the beginning. The pupils in the current Grade 7 have only partially
shared this experience. The pupils themselves are convinced that the new
Grade 7 has benefited from Grade 8’s experiences and help. It is therefore
anticipated that the newcomers’ problems will increasingly diminish.
The Netherlands provides other examples of the organization of learning in

ways other than the traditional one in which pupils may have 7 or so differ-
ent lessons covering as many subjects during a single school day. Slash 21,
for instance, offers just 2 subjects each day, namely intensive language
courses and key concepts in science and the humanities.
Total reorganization into home groups of 50 students with changed

division of subjects
Another example of a total reorganization of time planning is found in the
Dutch school known as /21 (Slash 21). There are no classes in /21, just
‘home groups’ consisting of about 50 students. Three ’home groups’ of three
successive course years are combined into a single ‘learning community’
under the supervision of a team of staff.
55

The members of the ‘home group’ quickly get to know one another; there-
fore it is easy to split them into small, changing groups in order to carry out
work projects. In order to provide course-like tuition, ‘home groups’ from
several ‘learning communities’ are combined from time to time.
/21 follows the principles of intensive language teaching. In a twelve-week

period, the students will work intensively for four three-hour periods a week
on one modern foreign language. From day one they are motivated to speak
in that language, encouraged by an English, French or German native spea-
ker that stimulates, motivates and corrects them whenever necessary20.
Another of our case study schools had also organized pupils into groups
which transcended age.
Heterogeneous groups
At the De Lindt school, children of different ages are taught in single groups.
The school refers to these learning groups as ‘heterogeneous groups’.
x Toddlers' section: Groups 1 and 2 (3 groups in all)
x Junior section: Groups 3 and 4 (3 groups in all)
x Intermediate section: Groups 5 and 6 (3 groups in all)
x Senior section: Groups 7 and 8 (2 groups in all)
The size of the groups varies, but there is an average of 27 children in each
group, with younger groups tending to be somewhat smaller.
The school is divided into four sections containing 2 to 3 heterogeneous

groups each.
The children are part of each heterogeneous group for two years. These
group structures require an appropriate form of organization which differen-
tiates the learning approach used in accordance with the competence level of
the individual students. The De Lindt school has practised this organizational
format ever since it was founded, and the school management states that
the children from Group 8 have been achieving above-average marks in the
Grade 8 performance results.
Other schools have not reorganised themselves as consistently as in the

above examples, but do so for shorter periods in the course of the day, week
or year. This mode of organizing the learning situation is not as closely lin-
ked with a total change in the organization of work among teachers or the
composition of pupil groups.
Transversal co-operation between cycles

For instance, at the Lavinia school in Spain, the primary school section is
organised into three cycles, each consisting of two grades for pupils aged 6-
8, 8-10 and 10-12. The purpose behind those projects which involve the
transversal collaboration of two or more cycles is to enable the pupils to ac-
quire some knowledge and understanding of the next cycle, and to carry out
large-scale projects. The preparatory work is carried out in so-called com-
missions which are established on a voluntary basis. Nevertheless, much of
the teaching is still based on individual planning, particularly in day-to-day
planning and teaching.
Naturally, the organization across classes, age groups and subjects occa-
sionally supports new learning approaches based on the new learning para-
digm. But on the whole it does not promote the migration of a school away
20
www.slash21.nl
56

from the old paradigm towards the new one. One of the major findings of
the DELILAH project was that the innovative use of ICT in education seems
to involve considerable restructuring of the organizations, their curricula and
their timetables, as well as requiring an increased workload and dedication
from the teachers21.
Some of the schools we visited appeared to be experiencing a dilemma be-

tween their desire to reorganize themselves and the existence of a number
of other factors. For instance, parents may be doubtful about the value of
reorganizations across time, age and subject, mainly because they are con-
cerned about whether their children will score as highly in national exams as
children from other schools. Teachers too sometimes oppose new ways of
organization because it will involve more work for them in the beginning.
The teachers we spoke to who had experienced such a change had all bene-
fited in many ways from working more closely with their colleagues, and
their view was that in the long run it was worth doing because their work has
become much more interesting and they are correspondingly better moti-
vated.
5.3.2 Encouraging joint enterprises and the shared construction of knowledge

One of the issues dealt with in this study concerns how ICT can be a means
of encouraging joint enterprises and the shared construction of knowledge,
and how it can best stimulate learning as a form of social participation.
One all-encompassing theoretical approach to the use of ICT as a means for

co-operation and collaboration, for instance in the form of communications
forums, shared information etc. is CSCL – Computer-Supported Collaborative
Learning.
CSCL – Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning

Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (CSCL) is a didactic concept
whose focus is on using computer-supported systems to support and facili-
tate group processes and group dynamics in the educational setting in ways
that are not achievable by face-to-face interaction. An explicit goal of the
CSCL environment is to promote reflection and inquiry that assist in-depth
learning.
Koschmann (1996) states that “Computer supported collaborative learning

(CSCL) is an emerging paradigm for research in educational technology that
focuses on the use of information and communications technology (ICT) as a
mediational tool within collaborative methods (e.g. peer learning and tutor-
ing, reciprocal teaching, project- or problem-based learning, simulations,
games) of learning"22. Specific communication activities performed using
CSCL are a) classroom discussions, b) group meetings, 3) discussion forums,
4) chat and 5) e-mail.23
CSCL systems are designed to be used by multiple learners working at the

same workstation or across networked machines. Hence when used in edu-
cational situations, teachers and students may be separated in time and
space. Therefore CSCL is suitable for learning both inside and outside the
classroom. These systems can support the communication of ideas and in-
21
Kikis, Dr Kathy & Dr Andreas Kollias: A framework for understanding ICT-related
teaching/learning innovations in primary and secondary education & Policy recommen-
dations, p. 84.
22
http://www.uib.no/People/sinia/CSCL/web_struktur-782.htm
23
Stahl, Gerry: Concepts of Communication in CSCL,
http://www.cis.drexel.edu/faculty/gerry/cscl/papers/ch17.pdf
57

formation, enable access to information and documents, and provide feed-
back on problem-solving activities.
The framework underpinning CSCL consists of theories such as socio-cultural
theory, constructivism, self-regulated learning, situated cognition, cognitive
24
apprenticeship and problem-based learning.
One project known as CL-Net had the aim of investigating the cognitive and
didactic aspects of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning Networks
(CLNs) in primary and secondary education. One of the project’s objectives
was to collate the existing research concerning this form of learning, which
aims to stimulate knowledge building. The project involved empirical re-
search in the form of case studies and small-scale, informal comparative
experiments involving almost 600 students and 25 teachers from 20 schools
in five European countries. Some of the main findings of the case studies in
this project were as follows:
x The culture of most schools and classrooms offers scant opportunity for
collaborative knowledge building. Most schools are still heavily depend-
ent on the traditional didactic triangle.
x The educational system does not consider these kinds of innovations as
representing a potential mainstream reality of the teaching profession.
They are regarded as optional luxuries, and teachers have insufficient
time to reflect on their practice or to discuss and refine these innova-
tions.
x It is not very easy to integrate new didactic practices into existing cur-
ricula. Teachers do not have the time available, and are unable to design
the assignments and questions without extensive support.
x School timetables often leave little time for experiments that diverge
from mainstream instruction25.
x Working with CSCL requires the teachers to adopt a particular educa-
tional philosophy and students to take on a new role. It focuses on
knowledge building instead of knowledge reproduction as the main learn-
ing activity, which involves a belief and faith in active, self-regulated,
constructive and contextualized learning on the part of groups of stu-
dents.
x A substantial change in pedagogical practices and in the general culture
of education is needed to facilitate CSCL in primary and secondary level
education.
x The physical location of computers needs to encourage collaborative
learning.
x The students were observed to be working in a more self-regulated
manner and to be directing their own projects instead of following de-
tailed assignments from teachers.
x The general motivation of the students is increased.
x The role of the teacher as information provider is transmuted into that of
facilitator and co-learner.
x A constructivist pedagogy of learning underpins CSCL.
Specific applications and computer programs have been developed to sup-

port CSLC, but quite a number of other programs are also used as a means
of supporting collaboration. Collaboration and communication itself strength-
ens the pupils’ construction of knowledge, for instance through giving them
new insights when they encounter opinions that differ from their own. So
24
See, for instance, http://www.euro-cscl.org/ & http://kn.cilt.org/cscl99/
25
dations, pp. 89-98.
58

even though most schools do not consciously use CSCL as the concept un-
derlying their group activities or use purpose-designed CSCL programs, we
have found quite a few examples of ICT being used as a tool or instrument
for the pupils’ shared construction of knowledge and joint enterprises.
We have found quite a number of examples of particular pedagogical meth-

ods being used with the objective of encouraging collaboration between pu-
pils, but in which ICT plays only a minor role.
Working in groups with advertisements

At Vinstagårdsskolan in Sweden we observed a project where pupils where
creating an advertisement for a product. Teachers provided the pupils with 6
different product descriptions. One of these was of a jacket that changed its
appearance in response to current fashion trends. On the basis of a brief
description of the jacket (or one of the other products), groups of pupils we-
re supposed to create a single-page ad for the jacket. They were to use both
text and graphics to market the jacket. After finishing the advertisement, it
had to be presented to the entire group which was working on producing
advertisements. Each of the smaller groups was also asked to prepare a
number of critical questions concerning each of the products prior to the in
plenum presentation.
Computers were used as a tool for creating the advertisement and laying out
the text and graphics. In addition, they were used to find information and
inspiration for the pupils’ advertisements. The pupils worked on this project
for three days.
There are other reasons for carrying out this kind of project. The pupils were
supposed learn to work together in a group to plan and accomplish a task.
The pupils knew the purpose of the project and its anticipated result. They
were also given advice on how to work, but the planning and completion of
the project were their own responsibility. They were of course able to seek
help from the teachers during their work.
They were also supposed to learn about the methods and effects employed
by commercials and advertisements through creating an advertisement
themselves, instead of just analysing one or a few of them. The creation of
an advertisement was also intended to stimulate and develop the pupils’
analytical skills and their creativity and skills in Swedish. The computer was
used as a creative tool in conjunction with paper, pencils and crayons.
When the pupils knew beforehand that the other pupils would ask critical
questions, they also had to prepare for these. The purpose here was to make
the children consider the strengths and weaknesses of their products and
advertisements. They needed to be prepared to discuss, argue and reason
with others.
The Swedish example does not rely on a specific method, but does embody
specific aims and objectives. By contrast, one of the teachers at the Lavinia
school in Spain uses a specific method – the Johnson and Johnson method –
for collaborative learning.
Using the Johnson and Johnson method for collaboration

One of the teachers at the Lavinia school in Spain explained that she was
heavily inspired by the methods of Johnson and Johnson (1989), and uses
them in the learning situation. On her own initiative she underwent training
in North America, which induced her to use this method in her teaching. She
uses a group learning technique within a collaborative learning framework. It
59

takes place in small groups, which comprise the primary classroom learning
structure. It is based on the principle of simultaneously giving the pupils free
choice while still maintaining teacher control. Groups of 1-4 pupils come to-
gether, and each individual assumes a role of 1) communicator, 2) secre-
tary, 3) facilitator, 4) spokesperson, or 5) the person responsible for the
group’s materials.
The purpose of the technique is to teach three skills to the pupils, i.e.:
1. Assuming personal responsibility for working to achieve collective goals
2. Face-to-face interaction
3. Effective group process skills26
The 1989 Johnson and Johnson-inspired model of collaborative working, al-

though introduced and applied by the teacher, has not been systematically
integrated into the teaching at Lavinia. While knowledge sharing exists, it
mainly occurs as the result of individual initiative. This is where the man-
agement structure is more traditional in giving autonomy to each teacher.
The above two examples both illustrate how ICT can be used as a collabora-
tive tool in which the objectives have nothing or very little to do with the use
of ICT as such. At Gylemuir Primary School in Scotland, computers were also
used as a tool for creating collaboration between Grade 1 and 5 and Grade 2
and 6 pupils respectively. In this example, a conscious choice was made to
use computers as the vehicle for collaboration between the two age groups.
At Gylemuir Primary School, the pupils in Primary 6 each have a Primary 2

partner pupil, and the pupils in Primary 5 each have a partner in Primary 1.
The partnerships last for two years, and once a week the partner pupils go to
the computer suite to work on different topics.
When we were at Gylemuir, the Primary 2 pupils were going to learn about
shapes with the help of their partners from Primary 6. Half the pupils from
each of the classes were present in the computer suite. The remainder were
carrying out other activities somewhere else.
The pupils walked into the computer suite in two lines, sat quietly down on
the floor in front of the large screen on the wall, and waited for the teacher
to start the lesson. First, the teacher introduced the purpose and the activi-
ties of the lesson. She showed the children how to draw and colour rectan-
gles using a drawing program on the computer. She talked to her pupils
about the characteristics of a rectangle, and asked them if they knew them.
Then she told them to go to a computer, where the Primary 2 pupils were
supposed to draw and colour three rectangles each. The Primary 6 pupils
were to help and guide the Primary 2’s, but not to do the work for them.
During these activities, the teacher and an assistant supported and encour-
aged the children in what they were doing.
When they had finished their tasks, the pupils sat down on the floor again
and waited for the teacher to continue her description of the themes of the
lesson. After working with the rectangles, the pupils worked with squares,
circles and triangles. After the last activity, the children sat down on the
floor again, and the teacher asked them to evaluate their learning on the
26
Tinzmann, M.B. et. al (1990): What Is the Collaborative Classroom? NCREL: Oak
Brook,
http://www.southampton.k12.ny.us/english9/Adobe%20Files/Student%20Roles%20in
%20a%20Collaborative%20Classroom.pdf
60

basis of the questions displayed on the signs on the wall. She talked to them
about what they had learned. At the end of the class the children left the
computer suite in two lines.
Another example is that of a job interview at Vinstagårdsskolan in Sweden

which cut across subjects.
Cross-curricular job interview

Pupils are supposed to do their practical during the 8th grade. They use the
process of applying for a job as practice preparation for finding a place to do
their practical. Prior to our observation, the teachers provided pupils with
nine job ads, from which they were asked to choose two to apply for. Their
applications were also supposed to contain fictitious curriculum vitae.
We followed the progress of one pupil’s job interview as he applied for a job
at Volvo as an engineer. Two teachers were interviewing him, as would have
been the case in real life. Afterwards, he received feedback on his applica-
tion, his curriculum vitae, and how he did in the interview.
Prior to the interview, the Internet was used to find information about the
company, and a word processor was used to write the application and the
curriculum vitae.
These activities had manifold purposes. First of all, they were intended to
help prepare and train the pupils for life after school. Secondly, they were
supposed to learn how to search for information, and how to sort and use it
constructively. In addition, they were being trained to write in Swedish, and
to put together an application and a CV using a word processing program.
Finally, the pupils were receiving this training in a safe environment before
they had to perform an interview in real life.
While one pupil was being interviewed, the other pupils were working on
their applications or other topics with their fellow-pupils and the other teach-
ers.
In this project ICT plays a minor role, but is used as a tool for finding infor-
mation about different companies and for writing and preparing an applica-
tion and a CV.
5.3.3 Strengthening pupils’ responsibility for their own learning process

In the new learning paradigm, one of the purposes of learning is to increase
the responsibility that pupils take for their own learning process. This im-
plies, and can be explained by, both the shift away from a teacher-directed
towards a learner-directed focus, and away from a teacher-centred to a
learner-centred focus. It can also be explained in terms of a number of ex-
ternal structures such as the political and societal tendency to emphasize the
importance of the abilities of pupils to work independently in later life as well
as learning to learn in order to be able to keep on learning throughout their
lives.
Responsibility for their own learning process can be given to pupils at several
levels. For instance, they can learn to take responsibility for minor assign-
ments that must be completed over a very short space of time, or they can
be given responsibility for achieving larger objectives, either in the course of
the school year or during their schooling as a whole.
61

In our reading and case studies, we have seen several different examples of
how teachers have organized learning situations in which the children take
responsibility for their own learning process and in which ICT plays an im-
portant role. These examples mainly fall into the category of assignments
that are limited in time and scope, as in the example of the advertisement
project cited earlier. Several main characteristics are common to all these
learning situations and projects:
x Teachers have specific objectives for what they are doing, which in some
cases are also familiar to the pupils
x Teachers play an important role in creating well-defined frameworks for
their pupils’ activities
x Teachers have important roles as guides, advisors and stimulators
x ICT is used as a tool or medium for the realization of objectives, and is
not treated as an objective in itself
In an example from Scotland, the storyline method was used in what is

known as the Christmas Card Project.
The storyline method

The storyline method was developed in Scotland but it is now used widely,
especially in the northern countries of Europe. The method was developed as
an answer to a need for methodologies that could be used for integrated
studies, which became part of the curriculum in Scotland in 1965. The main
feature that differentiates this approach from others is that it recognises the
value of the existing knowledge of the learner. Through key questioning the
pupils are accordingly encouraged to construct their own models of what is
being studied (their hypotheses) before testing them with real evidence and
research. The key questions are used in a sequence that creates a context or
setting within the framework of a story. Together, learner and teacher create
a scenario through visualisation – the making of collages, friezes and pic-
tures employing a variety of art/craft techniques. These provide a visual
stimulus for the skill practice planned by the teacher. It seems a kind of
paradox. The teacher has planned a sequence of activities through the de-
signing of key questions. The teacher has the story but does not know the
detail of the content.
In the Christmas Card project, ICT was not used for its own sake in order to
increase the pupils’ responsibility for their own learning process, but merely
as an incidental skill (teachers and pupils both had to learn to use Photo-
Shop), and as a tool or instrument for accomplishing other tasks.
The Christmas Card Project

Several objectives were envisioned for the Christmas card project. First of
all, the entire class were supposed to work together on a common project for
a certain period of time; secondly, they and their teacher were supposed to
learn how to use the computer for artwork; and finally, they were supposed
to earn some money.
In brief, the project was initiated and completed as follows. The head tea-
cher sent the class a note in which she explained that she needed their help,
and wanted them to meet her at a specific date and time. During this meet-
ing she told the pupils that she needed them to help her produce 500
Christmas cards within a very limited timeframe. The children were to go
back to their classroom and discuss with their teacher how to address the
problem, and then meet the head teacher again to give her their sugges-
tions.
62

During this process the head teacher introduced new problems for which the
children were to find solutions. For instance, she said they were pressed for
time and had to find material they could re-use instead of producing new
material from scratch. This resulted in the use of paintings that other chil-
dren had made, working on them in PhotoShop in order to give them a touch
of winter and Christmas. Some children found rhymes and wrote them on
the pictures, and some wanted their Christmas cards to have Edinburgh
themes. The pupils worked in teams, finishing on time and also earning a lot
of money from the sale of the cards.
Another example of learning activities in which the purpose was to increase

the responsibility of pupils for their own learning process comes from Vin-
stagårdsskolan in Sweden, where pupils from Grades 7-9 were working on a
project. The teacher set up the framework for the pupils’ activities.
World history
24 pupils in groups of varying sizes were working with world history projects.
At the beginning of our observation, the pupils were all gathered in the
common area of their unit, in order to hear one of their teachers introduce
the work.
The teacher presented a work method to the pupils. The presentation had
been created using PowerPoint, and was presented on a big screen. A car-
toon crocodile was used to represent a pupil who was supposed to start work
on a project concerning the Boston Tea Party. The aim of the project was
outlined, together with a list of the activities which the pupils were to carry
out:
x Select the topic to investigate
x Draw up a mind map, either on paper or using the computer. The topic
had to be in the middle, with questions surrounding it such as “what
happened?”, “where did it happen?”, “when did it happen?”, “what hap-
pened afterwards?”, “who was involved?”, “why did it happen?”
x Find two written texts (in book format) describing the topic
x Find and list key words
x Write a brief summary outlining the two different views represented in
the two texts
x Ask questions the pupils wanted to have answered by additional infor-
mation
x Search the Internet for the additional information
x Write a longer text on the topic
x Ask new questions, and try to find the answers to them
x Revise and correct the text.
During the presentation, the teacher used concrete examples to illustrate

how the crocodile was working, and how the pupils were supposed to be
working afterwards. After the presentation, the pupils started working on
their projects in groups. As they worked, the pupils were able to seek help
from the teacher.
The objective in this learning situation was not to introduce or describe a

particular event of world history. Instead, the emphasis was on the method
which the pupils were supposed to be applying in their work after choosing
their topic. The pupils’ choice of topic was motivated by their own interests,
and was selected from among a number of topics outlined by the teacher.
In this example, the computer functioned as an information resource in

which students were able to find supplementary information on the topic
they were working on. The order in which the children were recommended to
63

work was first to find information on the topic in two books, and then to look
for additional information on the Internet. This reflects the outcome of care-
ful consideration, since it is a strategic aim that pupils should both learn how
to search the Internet for information and be able to distinguish reliable in-
formation from the less reliable. By using two books first, and thereby get-
ting an overview of the topic, the children had a basis for seeking and sort-
ing the information they obtained.
At the Swedish school there are additional mechanisms to support the pupils
in their independent work, namely mentors, log books and development dia-
logues.
All pupils should have an individual, documented development plan. The de-
velopment plan contains written documentation of the pupils’, parents’ and
teachers’ views concerning the aims, methods and evaluations affecting the
social and knowledge development of the pupil. It is continuously updated,
or at least at twice-yearly minimum intervals prior to a development dia-
logue in which the pupil, parents and teachers participate, and discuss and
decide the aims for the subsequent period. Some pupils have more than two
dialogues a year if it is considered necessary.
Each of the 5 teachers that works solely in one unit takes on the role of
mentor for circa 15 pupils of different ages. This means that they have close
contact with these pupils and follow their performance throughout their three
years in the school.
Throughout the pupils’ progression through the school, the objectives of

their current activities are always visible to them. They know, and are con-
tinuously informed about, their school’s overall educational aims. During
class they are informed about the aims of each activity. They also know the
aims and objectives pertaining to themselves, be-cause they have partici-
pated in the process of their formulation. All of the objectives and aims are
followed up by different kinds of measurement.
The purpose of using portfolios is to collect each pupil’s work together in

order to use it as the basis for an end-of-year assessment. At the moment,
all the pupils have a portfolio divided into sections, but they are not yet us-
ing it.
At Vinstagårdsskolan, the pupils learn how to plan and carry out their own
work in order to attain the goals set out in their development plans. One of
the tools for monitoring this process is the log book in which the pupils are
intended to note down their aims, methods and results. Pupils show the log
books to their parents every Monday, when the parents sign them; they
show them to their mentors on Tuesdays, and update them on Thursdays.
Pupils, parents and teachers are all very satisfied with the mentor arrange-
ment and the development dialogues. Some of the pupils in the 8th grade
said that they were not using the log book any more, because they were
now accustomed to planning, carrying out and following up their own work.
As one girl said, “It’s all in my head now!”
The above examples all involve the use of projects as the primary vehicle for
increasing the responsibility of the pupils for their own learning process. Ho-
wever, there are a number of other examples of the use of ICT for this pur-
pose, such as drill programmes in the form of learning material that has
been developed with the purpose of guiding pupils through different stages
of mathematics. This kind of learning material is often based on a behaviour-
64

ist perspective or learning approach. This is due to the fact that for a long
time the computer has been conceptualised as an excellent provider of direct
feedback and response. For instance, it can be used to structure or frame
the activities of pupils and provide them with feedback so they can work
independently. It can also be used to collect and systematically gather in-
formation on pupils’ performance which can be used by teachers to support
them in their learning process. However, this type of use of ICT does not
train pupils to take responsibility for their own learning process, as it is high-
ly controlling.
Drilling exercises
A group of pupils at the De Lindt school is doing individual assignments on
the computer (the students alternate whenever they answer ten questions
correctly). The screen shows whose turn is next. The activity generates sev-
eral movements back and forth among the computer workstations. The
group is using a content program. All the assignments are maths-related.
The pupils are obviously well acquainted with the working of the software,
and the method they are using to answer the questions does not appear to
be new to them.
I am later informed that their drill results are being evaluated by the teacher
in order to assess whether their skills level meets the required standards.
In this example, the independent work relates solely to the pupils’ turn-
taking, and is less concerned with their ability to take long-term responsibil-
ity for their own learning process.
5.3.4 Differentiating the learning process according to different learning styles and
levels of knowledge
Another aspect of the evolution towards the new learning paradigm relates
to the shift away from a teacher-centred focus towards one that is learner-
centred, and a shift away from content and the ability to reproduce facts and
knowledge towards a focus on the creation of knowledge. Underlying these
changes are a number of assumptions about children and learning, for in-
stance as stated by Dunn and Dunn, who stress the uniqueness of pupils and
their learning styles in their explanation of their learning approach:
x All children can learn, but not all children learn in the same ways27
In this section, we describe approaches that take the pupils’ perceptions and
characteristics into account, as well as their communicative and physical
behaviour. We also briefly discuss how ICT can be used to support pupils
with special needs, such as those with dyslexia.
Among the many pedagogical perspectives that are used is Howard Gard-
ner’s concept of models of intelligence, which focuses on pupils’ different
learning styles and the need to plan learning differently for different pupils.
Howard Gardner’s learning styles
Professor Howard Gardner (1943-)

In his 1983 work, ‘Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences’, the
(now Harvard) professor and cognitive psychologist Howard Gardner intro-
duced his Multiple Intelligence theory. With the intention of providing a psy-
chological mapping of the existing knowledge about the ability and potential
of human beings, Gardner developed a theory that criticises the notion that
27
www.unc.edu/depts/ncpts/publications/learnstyles.htm
65

only one form of intelligence exists, and states that people actually employ
several kinds of intelligences. Gardner considers different intelligences to be
autonomous units that nevertheless rarely operate independently.
As opposed to prior theories of intelligence, in Gardner’s theory intelligence

is not only perceived as biologically determined but also as context-
dependent, i.e. individuals are all born with all the intelligences, but their
development is influenced by the cultural values and milieu of the society in
which the individual participates.
In the 20 years of work undertaken on the concept of multiple intelligences,

Gardner has so far developed 8 different intelligence models. These are first-
ly the model of linguistic intelligence, which encompasses the ability to ex-
press oneself rhetorically and the ability to understand others; the musical,
which has to do with the ability to understand music; and the logical-
mathematical, which governs the understanding of underlying principles as a
causal system and implies the ability to reason deductively and think logi-
cally. Spatial intelligence is used for manipulating and creating mental im-
ages to solve problems, whereas bodily-kinesthetic intelligence employs
mental abilities in order to co-ordinate bodily movements. The interpersonal
and intrapersonal intelligences are the personal intelligences that govern the
understanding of the feelings and motivations of ourselves and others. Fi-
nally, naturalistic intelligence refers to the ability to recognize and classify
plants, rocks etc28. This list of intelligences is not exhaustive, and Gardner
has already considered adding a spiritual and existentialist intelligence to his
list.
Gardner defines intelligence as the ability to solve problems and create pro-
ducts that are valued in at least one culture or society. He has developed
eight criteria in order to be able to analyse it further: 1) there is potential
evidence for the isolation of intelligences in localized areas of the brain aris-
ing out of the observation of individuals who have suffered brain damage; 2)
the intelligences can be observed in isolated forms, including the existence
of savants, prodigies, autistic individuals and other exceptional populations;
3) the intelligences are characterised by identifiable core operations or sets
of operations; 4) the intelligences have distinctive developmental histories,
including a definable set of expert or ‘end-state’ performances; 5) the intelli-
gences have evolutionary histories and evolutionary plausibilities; 6) the
intelligences can be supported on the basis of experimental psychological
tasks; 7) the intelligences can be supported somewhat on the basis of psy-
chometric findings; and 8) the intelligences are susceptible to encoding in
human symbolic systems.
According to Gardner, the different human intelligences should be perceived
as equal, and should be consistently encouraged to equal extents in educa-
tional practice, as opposed to merely emphasising the linguistic and mathe-
matical intelligences, as has been the dominant approach in child educa-
tion29. He points to the fact that intelligence can be nurtured by using strate-
gic or facilitating techniques. Hence educators should recognize and teach to
a broader range of talents and skills, and the presentation of material should
be structured in a way that engages most or all of the intelligences30.
28
Laursen, Fibæk (2002) (ed.) ”Introduktion”, in Gardner, Howard (2002): De mange
intelligensers pædagogik, Copenhagen: Gyldendal Uddannelse.
29
Gardner, Howard: Intelligence in seven steps,
http://www.newhorizons.org/future/Creating_the_Future/crfut_gardner.html
30
http://ericae.net/digests/tm9601.htm
66

At Maglegårdsskolen in Denmark, Howard Gardner’s theories comprise one
of the main perspectives being used in order to support the pupils’ individual
learning processes. Here, the development of the individual child’s potential
is seen as essential for the child to be able to contribute to the communities
to which it belongs. The example below describes how this is achieved in
practice at Maglegårdsskolen.
Differentiation in practice
At first glance, you would not expect this scene to be taking place in a
school. All doors are open between the shared open space and the three
classrooms, which together comprise the home area of this unit. Some chil-
dren are moving around. Some are lying on the ground, two girls are sitting
very relaxed on a sofa, and at the centre of the open space six children are
sitting in front of desktop computers. Walking around and observing and
talking to the children, it appears that most of them are working, some of
them together and some of them individually. The children lying on the
ground are reading and doing mathematics, the two girls in the sofa are
reading, the children at the computer are working on individual projects, and
two of them are working together.
The two girls working together on the computer are the ‘journalists of the
week’. One girl is from the 1st grade, the other is from the 3rd grade. They
are using a desktop publishing program and writing an article on some of the
other children’s activities. They have taken pictures of their home area
schoolmates and interviewed them. At the end of the week, all the children
will get a copy of the newspaper, and two new kids will be appointed as the
journalists for the coming week.
Beside them, a girl is writing a creative story that she has composed herself,
and a boy is working on a project about the artist Eminem. He finds informa-
tion and pictures on the Internet and puts it all together in his own little re-
port. Another boy is working on a so-called compulsory assignment. He has
used a digital camera to take photos of objects representing ten nouns. He
has transferred the pictures to the computer and printed out a kind of book-
let. Now he must inflect all the words.
In one of the classrooms, around 10 children are sitting at desks. Two boys
are working together doing mathematics, and other children are working
alone, either also doing mathematics or spelling exercises. A teacher is pre-
sent and helping the children with their work individually.
Two other teachers are present in the home area. One is sitting with the
children working at the stationary computers, and one is walking around,
talking to the children spread all over and helping them do their work.
A similar way of working and organizing the pupils’ work occurs in many
schools, either as the sole approach or intermittently, for instance during a
project period. As the above example shows, there are many ways of using
ICT to support individual learning processes and styles. However, in our rea-
ding we have not found any indication of the existence of computer pro-
grams designed specifically to support different learning styles and/or mod-
els of intelligence. Once again, the use of such perspectives is heavily de-
pendent on the teachers and on their use of ICT for different purposes.
What does exist, however, is programs or applications that are designed for
differentiated learning with regard to such parameters as level of knowledge,
reading ability and the like. These programs are often developed for teaching
and learning in mathematics or other subjects in which a right or wrong an-
67

swer can be given to a particular question. Such programs often contain
several levels of difficulty which can be selected either by the pupils them-
selves or by the teacher. In quite a number of these programs it is possible
for those with reading problems to have the text and questions read aloud.
One of the conclusions to be drawn concerning differentiated learning ap-

proaches is that they can be based either on the organization of the class-
room and the learning situation or solely on the use of ICT. For instance,
pupils can work using the same computer program at the same time, but at
different rates and on different topics.
The most radical changes are those which involve the reorganization of the
learning situation, as described in the Maglegårdsskole example above. This
approach towards the differentiation of learning appears perfectly acceptable
to all the pupils involved, but a number of sceptical voices have been heard
among both parents and teachers.
Is the school equally suited to all pupils?

At Vinstagårdsskolan in Sweden for instance the question of whether or not
the school is equally suited to all kinds of pupils has been posed. This ques-
tion is highly relevant, and is of course hard to answer at the present time.
But both teachers and parents have no doubt that this school is at least bet-
ter for more of the children than a traditional school. The teachers’ presence
among all the pupils during the entire school day creates a safe and secure
environment for them. The fact that there are more classmates than usual in
the school ensures that all the pupils will find friends with whom they can
feel comfortable. The mentors follow the students for three years in all sub-
jects, and have the opportunity to follow up in various different ways, includ-
ing via the involvement of other teachers. The methods used are very var-
ied, and therefore stimulate more learning styles. The competencies devel-
oped are also more varied, as they include social, physical and knowledge-
based skills.
Similar discussions have taken place in some of the other schools we visited
in the course of conducting our case studies. Both Vinstagårdsskolan in Swe-
den and Maglegårdsskolen in Denmark have attracted publicity because of
their very different and unconventional approaches towards teaching and
learning. Some members of the public have been very positive towards the-
se novel approaches, while others have been highly negative.
There has been genuine doubt about the schools’ ability to develop the com-
petences required for pupils to pass national exams as well as those from
other schools, and their ability to support and teach children with special
needs has also been doubted. However, the pupils of both Maglegårdsskolen
and De Lindt have proven to be excellent achievers in national exams. De
Lindt was second best in the Netherlands in 2002; equally, Maglegårdsskolen
was second best in Denmark.
5.3.4.1 Special needs education
We have chosen to investigate how ICT is being used to improve the learn-
ing of pupils with special needs as one facet of ICT in a differentiated learn-
ing process. Pupils can present a wide variety of special needs, ranging from
physical handicaps to social or emotional difficulties demanding special con-
sideration, while others may have dyslexia.
ICT has proved to be a robust tool for helping children with special needs of
all kinds. For instance, children with dyslexia are benefiting from computer
68

applications that can support their reading skills by reading texts aloud to
them, or which help them to check their spelling. At Headcorn School near
Ashford in Kent, the teachers have observed how the wiggly red line under a
misspelled word in Word has been of immense help to children with dyslexia.
The instant feedback has helped the children considerably in improving their
spelling31.
Children with other special needs such as those with motor problems can
also benefit from using ICT, as an example taken from the CARESS project
shows.
CARESS
CARESS, ‘Creating Aesthetically Resonant EnvironmentS in Sound’, is refin-
ing a sound-producing device for both special needs and mainstream chil-
dren. The objective of CARESS has been to create technological and educational tools
capable of motivating and empowering children to develop creativity, imagination and
expression via interactive acoustic environments. The technological core of the project
has been the Soundbeam, a British invention that converts physical gestures into
sound. The technology consists of a muscle sensor, a wireless joint-angle sensor, and
Fluid Sound Control.
The new devices have been introduced into special and mainstream schools in England
and Sweden. Through a programme of action research, these interfaces have been
trialled, refined and evaluated. Working closely with children and their teachers, possi-
bilities for curriculum development were devised and trialled alongside the refinement of
the new interfaces. The devices can provide children with a strong internal motivation to
discover their bodies and creatively express themselves from the inside out, either indi-
vidually or as part of a group32.
The GTCE (General Teaching Council for England) has conducted research on
how ICT can be used to tackle a range of literacy and numeracy problems.
The results are exemplified in case studies which are included in the New
Opportunities Fund (NOF) outcomes for ICT training for serving teachers.
The following case studies can be viewed via the GTCE website33:
1. Improving reading and spelling with speech feedback in Year 2
2. Teaching the correct use of omissive apostrophes in Year 4 using
multimedia software
3. Developing understanding of decimals in Year 4 using portable ICT
equipment
4. Developing counting skills in Reception using ICT
5. Developing story-writing skills with Year 2 pupils using ICT
6. Supporting number skills in a Year 4/5 classroom.
Improving reading and spelling with speech feedback in Year 2

A Year 2 teacher used Clicker (Crick Software) with Microsoft Talking First
Word to support pupils' reading and writing skills.
Pupils learned the necessary skills at off-site computer clusters. They drafted
writing at the computer with the support of customised word grids, which
provided structure. The speech feedback function supported pupils in re-
reading their work for sense and punctuation.
31
IDG Global Solutions with Apple Computer, Inc., Can we learn digitally – technology
to enhance teaching, Apple Computer, Inc., 2002, p. 18.
32
For more information, see www.bris.ac.uk/caress and
http://www.i3net.org/ser_pub/media/pressclip/caress.html
33
www.gtce.org.uk/research/ictcasestud.asp
69

The capacity and range of ICT allowed text and images to be combined eas-
ily and presented on screen in a variety of printed formats or exported to a
word processor.
The provisionality of the text allowed the children to redraft and improve
their writing, and the teacher to print out word lists and Cloze passages, for
group activities. The speech feedback facility and the computer's ability to
'read' children's writing were effective interactive features34.
One of the comments from the De Lindt school in the Netherlands is that the
structure and motivation required for independent learning may be more
difficult for children with learning problems, or for children who simply find
school work boring and have trouble motivating themselves. They can more
easily get away with this in an individualized learning environment such as
the De Lindt school. The management has pointed out in response to this
criticism that especially those children with learning problems have benefited
from the use of ICT. The school has implemented a special testing and ob-
servation structure which makes it possible to track the performance of eve-
ry child. Children with learning or behavioural problems benefit from a spe-
cial programme and approach. Every month the team of teachers for each
relevant age group and a pedagogical specialist draw up new plans for these
children. The management also emphasizes that the individualized learning
environment at the De Lindt school is well known as being one in which chil-
dren with learning problems will receive professional help. One element in
this is the use of adaptive computer programs. They also point to the fact
that the number of children who have to be sent to a school for children with
special needs is lower than the average for the area.
5.3.5 Involving external parties in the learning situation

Another aspect of Innovative Learning Environments is the establishment of
links between schools and other innovative organisations outside the school
system, such as libraries and museums, as well as parental involvement
either at home or in other contexts. There are numerous examples of librar-
ies and museums providing services for use by schools and in which ICT is
used, primarily as a provider of information via the Internet.
British Museum
The British Museum has always worked closely with schools, and ICT has
certainly added an extra dimension to this co-operation. Nevertheless, its
direct contact has neither decreased nor increased, in the sense that the
number of visitors to the museum is more or less constant. The museum’s
website is visited by approximately 4 million people a year, 50% of which
are assumed to be UK (school) visitors (the museum bases this assessment
on the number of visitors on British holidays).
The educational department develops teacher support material which is
sponsored either by the state or by private companies (the British Museum
education department now works on a project basis, with its financing basis
having been changed from a fixed public grant to project-based financing).
For the last three years, one unit has been working for National Telecom of
Japan to develop history-oriented websites for educational purposes. This
contract has been very lucrative, and has both provided the department with
some stability and enabled it to adapt the learning material developed for
Japanese schools to the needs of the British school system.
34
Cited from http://www.gtce.org.uk/research/ictcasestud.asp#bookmark5
70

The authors of the on-line material are teachers with ICT experience who are
awarded short-term contracts corresponding to the projects being devel-
oped. They have a knowledge of the national curriculum arising from their
educational and professional backgrounds, but otherwise their products have
not been adjusted to national (state) requirements. The teachers co-operate
with technical experts in developing their projects.
Some new relationships between schools and the museum are being devel-
oped with those schools that are involved in the pilot phases. Schools are
used to test the learning material during the process of its development, and
the BM staff adjusts it on the basis of the experience gained in school classes
during the pilot testing phase.
The British Museum is experimenting with differentiated learning, storyline

telling methods etc. According to the director of the New Media Unit, the
British Museum has the best possible staff for developing on-line learning
material, and its output is available on the Internet free of charge. For an
example, see http://www.ancientegypt.co.uk/.
The Museum would welcome more information concerning the contacts and
co-operation which exist among cultural institutions in other countries, such
as museums and educational institutions. There is little information available
concerning European developments in this area, and any new information is
therefore desirable35.
Another example of co-operation between museums and schools is that of

the Danish organisation, Skoletjenesten.
Skoletjenesten
Skoletjenesten is another example of museums supplying schools with mate-
rial for use in teaching and learning. It consists of a collaboration among
municipalities and counties and a number of museums and other cultural
institutions. It is a pedagogical service institution that develops, plans and
conducts teaching and learning for schools. The collaboration between Skole-
tjenesten and the museums is formalized via a renewable three-year agree-
ment and plan of action which encompasses both aims and finance36.
The museums vary in the extent of their use of ICT. Many of them use the
Internet for describing their activities without providing other ICT-based ser-
vices.
35
David Jillings and Rowena Loverance, New Media Unit, Education Department, Brit-
ish Museum.
36
http://www.skoletjenesten.dk/
71

La Cité de Sciences et de l'Industrie
The French Museum of Science and Industry offers its visitors technological and
scientific information as well as the opportunity to experiment in its laboratories or
use the learning material that it has made available.
The museum has an education department which is dedicated to developing learn-

ing materials and arranging class visits. The museum regularly plans theme-based
four-day visits to the museum in which school classes are taught by the museum’s
teaching staff and are given the opportunity to conduct natural science experiments
in the multimedia classrooms.
Apart from its on-site activities, the museum’s website, www.cite-sciences.fr, offers
activities like the on-line laboratory where pupils from all age groups can experi-
ment with physics, biology and art, among other things.
72

The ‘Museum Online’ at http://www.museumonline.at/international/en/english.php
is another example of a project that unites cultural and educational institutions.
This website contains more than 300 web-based projects undertaken by children of all
ages. The website is backed by a network of more than 80 museums and galleries which are
collaborating in the project in order to encourage project-based education, promote international
partnerships between schools and museums, and improve communication, in-service training,
creativity and ICT skills.
Other institutions
In addition to museums there are other cultural institutions that provide digi-
tal and other learning material via the Internet. One example is that of TV
stations, which all possess seemingly inexhaustible archive sources of mate-
rial that is highly relevant for teaching and learning. Some of these actually
make part of their archives available for use in schools. One national broad-
caster with a huge archive is the BBC:
BBC Learning
“The BBC website contains over half a million pages of news, entertainment
and factual material. There is also a wealth of educational programmes avai-
lable across the BBC's TV and radio channels.
Whether you are at school revising for exams, wanting to learn from the
comfort of your own home; considering enrolling for an evening class, or
even a degree course, BBCi has the useful resources and interactive activi-
ties for you. The BBC Learning homepage is designed to help you find those
sites, TV and radio programmes which will help further your learning ambi-
tions.
You can explore our pages through the ever growing Subject Listing where
we've categorised our sites according to subject headings that should be
familiar from your local library or bookshop.
73

If you can't find what you need on the BBC site, our WebGuide offers the
pick of educational sites from across the Internet. There's the Schools Web-
Guide for pupils, their parents and teachers, or the Adult Learning WebGuide
if you're thinking about returning to learning.
The Internet offers a wealth of opportunity to communicate with other learn-

ers or experts and interact with activities that give you instant feedback.
BBC Schools and BBC Learning for Adults are currently planning online
communities which are due to be launched in November and December. Stu-
dents will be able to send questions about their studies into qualified teach-
ers, chat to other pupils across the country or swap study tips.
To find out when our communities are live, and hear about all the other ad-
ditions to our service subscribe to the BBC Learning Update.
For students across the UK studying for exams, there are hundreds of learn-
ing games, tests, quizzes and revision information which can be reached
from the Schools Homepage.
Learners can participate in our Online Courses - step by step introductions to

subjects as diverse as learning how to use the internet and building your self
confidence.
If you're looking for a course, links on the BBC Learning for Adults can help
you find the right course in your local area” 37.
Another example of the use of TV archives and material in a pedagogical

context is that of DR’s (Danish Broadcasting Corporation) DRIL (Danish
Broadcasting Corporation’s Interactive Learning material) project.
Danish Broadcasting Corporation Interactive Learning Material

DR (Danish Broadcasting Corporation) is Denmark’s oldest and largest elec-
tronic media enterprise. The corporation was founded in 1925 as a public
service organisation, and is an independent, licence-financed public institu-
tion.
DRIL produces online learning material for primary and secondary level edu-
cation. The main objectives of the project are to develop a new pedagogical
and technical concept, based on DR’s archives, for the use of digital films,
pictures and sound. It is being financed by a project (ITMF) initiated by the
Danish Ministry of Education.
The objective is to create an online learning space in which pupils can work
with audiovisual learning material where the individual pupil’s learning proc-
ess is central. The content of the learning space is organised within four
main subject areas, all of which shed light on the subject from different an-
gles. They all involve video, photos sound, graphics, texts, numbers, exer-
cises, etc.38.
Organizations and companies

ICT-based collaboration between schools and organizations and companies is
not very common. However, schools do collaborate with private companies,
37
http://www.bbc.co.uk/learning/index.shtml
38
http://www.dr.dk/dril/
74

for instance when pupils are undertaking work experience in a company, but
ICT is seldom integral to this.
Twinning
Twinning is a collaborative exercise in which multimedia and exchange tools
(e-mail, videoconferencing, joint development of websites, etc.) are used to
flesh out or establish ties and collaboration between schools39. Twinning links
in education can take various forms, such as pupil-to-pupil, teacher-to-
teacher, class-to-class and school-to-school relationships. Such relationships
can for instance involve an exchange of information or documentation, the
mounting of discovery or research projects, or become an integral part of
the educational structure. Twinning between pupils and teachers can cover
all possible topics, for instance:
x Languages
x Intercultural dialogue
x Science.
In one of our case study schools, Lavinia in Spain, ICT was used for twinning
in a project centring on the weather.
Edumet
Edumet is an ICT-based project, for which computer facilities were naturally
required40. This project is concerned with climate and meteorology, and is
run in parallel and to some extent interactively in 9 different Catalan schools.
In the learning situation observed, one of the two groups of pupils was con-
ducting measurements and statistical calculations on the computer, and pre-
sented its results in the form of written reports.
5.3.6 Supporting pupils in experimenting and exploring

One of the main perspectives connected with the new learning paradigm is
that of constructionism and the approach that pupils should be active par-
ticipants in constructing knowledge through their own learning process, both
working alone or together with peers. Experimenting and exploring are im-
portant aspects of this active construction of knowledge.
Another very important aspect of these activities is that they are motivating
and appealing for the pupils. Pupils find it boring and tiresome to sit and
listen to a teacher day in and day out. Variety and change in the learning
situation can both stimulate and motivate pupils and simultaneously support
different learning styles and types of intelligence.
ICT is plainly an excellent tool for providing environments in which pupils can
experiment and explore in many different ways and for many different pur-
poses, including:
x The use of the spell-checker in word processing programs helps many
pupils train their spelling and gain confidence, because the program can
check their spelling before they show their output to other people.
x Physics programs
x A program used for nature-based field trips which creates a framework
for the trips on which the pupils embark, and the subsequent recording
of their findings.
x Cutting a movie in order to study different aspects of self-expression at
www.dr.dk/dril.
39
Report from the Commission to the Council on using the internet to develop twin-
ning between European secondary schools.
40
The pupils work with the computers approximately twice a week.
75

One of the good examples we have found of the combining of three-
dimensional objects with ICT is LEGO’s learning material:
LEGO’s learning material

LEGO is developing a variety of materials for learning purposes. Some of the
principles behind the development have been inspired by a statement by
Howard Gardner, who says that the brain learns best, and what has been
learned lasts longest, when the whole body is actively involved in the learn-
ing process and takes an active part in the exploration and examination of
problems and challenges, and continues to ask questions that are meaning-
ful to the individual. Passive learning has a tendency to evaporate as time
passes.
The learning material is being developed in accordance with a learning prin-

ciple consisting of four elements, identification, construction, reflection and
inspiration.
Identification: One of the key concepts of active learning is that pupils learn
best if they can relate new knowledge to existing knowledge, or if they are
presented with a challenge they cannot resist.
Construction: This stage is concerned with the construction of observations

drawn from real life and the assembly of this knowledge. Pupils plan, pro-
gramme or construct solutions for different challenges.
Reflection: This stage gives pupils the opportunity to consider what they
have created. This important reflection can be undertaken in a group or
among the whole class and can extend the understanding of pupils once they
start to attach words to what they have constructed. Discussion, the ex-
change of ideas and support is important in this phase, while the teacher’s
role is to ask open questions and to ensure that the process is beneficial and
rewarding for all the pupils.
Inspiration: The last phase is that of inspiration, which builds on the pupils’
natural curiosity and willingness to learn new things and skills. This pulls
them into a virtuous circle of learning in which they are able to work with
increasingly complex problems41.
The LEGO learning products combine traditional LEGO bricks with computer
software so that children can, for instance, construct robots or other devices.
It also includes a MovieMaker product known as eLAB which is concerned
with energy and mechanics.
The schools in Reggio Emilia have had very positive experiences using LEGO
with young children42. One of the organizations contributing a great deal to
the research in this field is the Future of Learning Group at MIT, which ex-
plores how new technologies can facilitate new ways of thinking, learning,
and designing43.
5.3.7 Evaluation and assessment

Schools are also experiencing the need to evaluate and assess their pupils’
learning processes in new ways corresponding with the new learning meth-
41
Mikro Værkstedet A/S, april 2003, Ideer og forslag til aktiv undervisning indenfor de
naturvidenskabelige fag – Læring der kan bygges videre på. See also
www.LEGO.com/education.
42
www.i3net.org/ser_pub/media/pressclip/CAB
43
http://learning.media.mit.edu/
76

ods which are not reflected in the present system of national examinations in
any country in Europe.
First of all, the existing evaluation and assessment methods all primarily
focus on content and on a set of objectives concerning the pupils’ knowledge
of any given subject and their ability to reproduce it, as well as their ability
to express themselves orally or in writing. Secondly, they stress the individ-
ual learner’s abilities and intellectual powers for their own sake, while ne-
glecting their social and other abilities. Other competencies, such as the abil-
ity to identify and solve problems, present material in novel ways, collabo-
rate, be creative etc., which are encompassed by the new learning para-
digm, are not covered in the national exams.
This persistent sticking to tradition causes some problems for the Innovative
Learning Environments in several respects. First of all, pupils receive no
credit for the new competencies they have developed, even though these are
regarded as being important for the future development of our societies.
Secondly, some teachers and parents are still nervous about the new meth-
ods’ capability of ensuring that the pupils studying in schools where they are
being used will perform as well in national exams as pupils from schools
which use traditional methods of learning.
Accordingly, Maglegårdsskolen has chosen to develop and apply an internal
system to keep track of its pupils’ learning.
The measurement of the skills and competencies of the pupils firstly com-
prises all the continuing daily measurement and supervision developed
within the innovative learning environment, and is accordingly contextualised
in this new environment. It seems that no global tools for measuring the
development of the children’s competencies have so far been developed, but
the teachers appear to be aware of the need for monitoring, and are devel-
oping their own systems44.
Secondly, the school measures the attainments of the older pupils in the
manner prescribed by law. This includes the continuous assessment of the
pupils’ level of attainment, the awarding of marks, and the conducting of
annual and final examinations. The assessment system and examinations
are based on the traditional learning methods.
Maglegårdsskolen has also contracted with the university professor, Mr. Per
Fibæk Laursen of the Danish University for Educational Research, to under-
take a more general evaluation of the innovative learning environment. The
professor continuously follows the activities of the children at the school and
the development of their competencies.
The question of national exams and evaluations and the performance of pu-
pils in innovative learning environments compared to those from traditional
schools is one issue. Another aspect of evaluation and assessment relates to
the emerging methods for measuring and controlling the learning processes
of the pupils, such as portfolio assessment, which support pupils in their per-
sonal evaluations.
44
When asked how they had adjusted the measurement of the pupils to the new
learning environment, the teachers stated that this was an issue that was currently
being worked on but had not as yet produced a final output. The teachers interviewed
stated that they were either developing their own evaluation material or were using
material previously developed by another teacher.
77

There are a number of Montessori schools throughout Europe which use so-
me of the same principles for evaluating their children’s learning processes.
This is the case in the Netherlands, where four cyclical stages along the lear-
ning path are used:
1. What is it I can do?
2. What am I going to learn? What are my goals?
3. How did it go?
4. What have I learnt?45
Montessori
Maria Montessori, born in 1870, was the first woman in Italy to receive a
medical degree. She worked in the fields of psychiatry, education and an-
thropology. She believed that each child is born with a unique potential to be
revealed, rather than representing a ‘blank slate’ waiting to be written on.
Her main contributions to the work of those raising and educating children lie
in the following areas:
x Preparing the most natural and life-enhancing environment for the child
x Observing the child living freely in this environment
x Continually adapting the environment in order that the child may fulfil
his greatest potential, both physically, mentally, emotionally, and spiri-
tually.
“Scientific observation has established that education is not what the teacher
gives; education is a natural process spontaneously carried out by the hu-
man individual, and is acquired not by listening to words but by experiences
upon the environment. The task of the teacher becomes that of preparing a
series of motives of cultural activity, spread over a specially prepared envi-
ronment, and then refraining from obtrusive interference. Human teachers
can only help the great work that is being done, as servants help the master.
Doing so, they will be witnesses to the unfolding of the human soul and to
the rising of a New Man who will not be a victim of events, but will have the
clarity of vision to direct and shape the future of human society.”
- Maria Montessori, Education for a New World46
At Vinstagårdsskolan in Sweden, development plans are used by teachers,

parents and pupils to evaluate the pupils’ performance.
Development plans

45
www.montessori-amsterdam.nl
46
Cited from http://www.montessori.edu/maria.html
78

aims and objectives pertaining to themselves, be-cause they have partici-

ing it.
The De Lindt School in the Netherlands uses a computer system to keep

track of pupils’ performance.
Observation system
The other group is doing individual assignments on the computer (the stu-
dents alternate whenever they answer ten questions correctly). The screen
shows whose turn is next. The activity generates several movements back
and forth among the computer workstations. The group is using a content
program. All the assignments are maths-related. The pupils are obviously
well acquainted with the working of the software, and the method they are
using to answer the questions does not appear to be new to them. I am later
informed that their drill results are being evaluated by the teacher in order
to assess whether their skills level meets the required standards.
The observation system is implemented throughout the school. It comprises

a list covering approximately 100 questions and observation items which
every teacher has to fill out three times a year. The observation items cover:
(i) social/emotional behaviour, (ii) language, (iii) reading, (iv) maths, (v)
environmental studies, (vi) physical education, (vii) behaviour, and (viii)
arts. The teaching staff uses tests to evaluate some items. For others, the
teachers conduct observations in the classroom. Accordingly, the teachers
compile reports based on the above-mentioned observation items three ti-
mes a year. The report also includes data from discussions with parents.
When necessary, the special education teacher helps the teachers to devise
a special training programme for individual children. In addition to this ob-
servation programme, the school uses tests compiled by the Netherlands’
national testing institution, CITO. The tests provide information about how
children are doing individually, and also provides data enabling comparisons
to be drawn with other schools.
5.3.8 Changes in teachers’ and pupils’ roles

The case studies have provided us with a number of examples containing the
pupils’ and teachers’ own implied evaluations concerning how ICT can sup-
port the development of school environments in which:
x Pupils are asked to create, explore, research, discuss, and build knowl-
edge as a shared endeavour
x Teachers act as designers of the environment and as mediators, facilita-
tors and nurturers of critical thinking, cognitive challenges, joint enter-
prises, mutual engagement and shared practices.
Many of those examples have been described in the previous sections, be-
cause all the new learning paradigm’s activities contain an inherent trans-
formation of both teachers’ and pupils’ roles. Common to these findings is
that it is not ICT in itself that creates a shift in pupils’ and teachers’ roles as
much as it is new learning approaches and new pedagogical methods. Pupils
have worked, and will continue to work, alone and independently on different
activities, whether or not they use a computer for learning.
79

As the example below shows, one consequence of setting new learning ob-
jectives is the transformation of roles.
Transformation of teachers’ and pupils’ roles at Lavinia

The Lavinia school staff have focused their attention on the creation of a
constructive learning environment for the children. This includes:
x Greater focus on reflective thinking than memorization
x Working on the children’s self-esteem
x Diversity
x Open learning, involving acceptance and listening.
Every activity demands different methodologies, which requires flexibility on

the part of the teachers, but the main overall theoretical approach is con-
structivist. The teachers and management at Lavinia are deliberately but
gradually trying to change the teachers’ and pupils’ roles in a way that en-
courages the development of pupils and individuals who are able to partici-
pate more actively in the learning process. The teachers regard themselves
as learning facilitators. According to the teachers and management, this is
not always easy, since this represents a mode of teaching for which there
are no clear signposts and which uses very different guidelines to the in-
structivist approach. In this process, the use of ICT represents a seed of
change.
sented the results in the form of written reports. The other half of the class
worked independently on different projects covering various school topics.
The school work at Lavinia is largely project-based, and in this particular
case the pupils were either working in groups or were from time to time re-
ceiving process guidance or corrections in relation to the work they had done
up to that point. The pupils who were not working near the computers were
occupied in finishing other projects. The pupils were all located close to each
other, since half the class was in the computer lab and the other half was in
a classroom next to the computer lab. The teacher, who is heavily engaged
in using ICT in education and has been involved in the integration of ICT at
the Lavinia Educational Centre for a number of years, walked between the
two rooms and assisted the pupils in following the coursework, both on her
own initiative and at their request.
The role of the teacher has shifted from being the instructor of a group that
is meant to learn exactly the same thing at more or less the same rate to-
wards that of someone whose role is to support the development of the indi-
vidual child in such a way that it discovers its own learning strengths and
weaknesses and thereby learns to learn in the best way possible, implying
that the teacher must support the learning of each child in accordance with
his or her individual capabilities and with due regard to its learning style and
pace.
Accordingly, the role of the pupils has shifted from being a group of more or
less passive recipients of instruction to individual actors who are actively
seeking, experiencing and using knowledge in order to create products and
thereby to learn.
At Maglegårdsskolen in Denmark, there is a similar shift in the pupils’ and

teachers’ roles in which the children work independently and in a very self-
directed manner that involves controlling their own learning process, sup-
porting other pupils and keeping track of their own progress.
80

At this stage, learning to read occupies a high priority. Between 8 and 9
o’clock, all the children have to read. All the children do this at their own
pace, and continue to develop their reading in their own individual style. The
ability of children of the same age to read ranges between being able to read
simple primer texts containing basic phrases to reading standard children’s
literature which has not been written for educational purposes. The children
are only asked to read aloud for the teacher, who makes individual
agreements with them one week at a time about what is to be read. The
teacher makes notes on what each individual child has accomplished and the
progression of their reading capabilities.
Between 9 and 11, the children can choose what to work on from a menu of
6-8 different exercises, such as handwriting practice, writing a story on the
computer, working on a project, writing a book review, working with spelling
exercises, or working from their maths book etc.
Pieces of paper are clothes-pegged along the wall on a length of string. The
children have to write about what they are working with, and make notes on
how far they have progressed, every time they start a new activity.
The children are allowed to take a break when they feel like it. They can
leave the home area to go outside and play, subject to the teacher’s
permission.
The children are intended to be able to choose their work from a number of
options.
Before asking a teacher for help, the children are supposed to ask two other
(usually older and/or more experienced) children for help. This encourages
the children to take care of each other, and it also improves their subject
skills to have to explain the solution to a problem to other people.
At one end of the open room is a kitchen with a wide desk. On that desk
stand a number of boxes labelled with the names of the teachers. The
children put their finished work into the box of the teacher responsible for a
particular subject, and the teacher will respond with comments on it.
Not only at Maglegårdsskolen are the children consistently encouraged to

learn from and support each other. Also at Coal Tyee in Canada, the children
have roles previously occupied by adults.
Students instructing students

Coal Tyee: Some of the students encountered some technical problems when
constructing their slide show. The teacher made use of two students that
were particularly adept in the use of Microsoft PowerPoint and asked them to
assist the pair. The students instructed their fellow students, while the latter
continued to mnaipulate the keyboard. Later the teacher informed me that
this learning model, ‘peer tutoring’, was used frequently by her, thus recog-
nizing the technological skills of the students and making them work to-
gether in a learning environment.
Most of the parents, teachers and pupils are positive towards these changes
in the teachers’ and pupils’ roles, although the teachers generally find it hard
at first because they need to give up their control and total overview of the
learning situation, the activities taking place and the pupils’ progress. The
pupils too find it hard in the beginning, but also much more motivating as
they get used to controlling their own activities. The parents have been anx-
ious, primarily because of their uncertainty concerning whether teachers
81

would be able to follow up on their pupils’ progress and whether their chil-
dren would obtain good grades in the national exams. But as parents see
their children growing along with their new responsibilities, they become
increasingly convinced that they will perform better and better.
5.4 Shift in learning paradigm – main findings and characteristics

Based on our study, some of the general statements that can be made in
describing innovative learning environments in which ICT is used to support
new ways of learning are as follows:
x The innovative use of technology often only occurs within the classroom,
and not very often between classrooms, across entire schools, or be-
tween schools and other institutions and organisations.
x ICT is used mainly for collaborative and communicative activities, pro-
x Their role of the teachers is changing from that of information providers
to becoming advisors, guides and supervisors for students, as well as
providers of the frameworks for the learning process of their students.
x Pupils’ roles have changed from being passive listeners to active partici-
pants in their own learning process.
x Pupils are also collaborating more, increasing their social participation
and improving their communication and collaboration skills.
Based on our case studies and reading, it is clear that if ICT is being used to
support innovative ways of learning and is thereby creating innovative learn-
ing environments throughout a school, this process has nothing to do with
ICT as such. Much more significant is management style, attitudes among
teachers, the provision of teacher education and pedagogical approaches and
new learning styles. In all the good examples, ICT is not an objective in itself
but is merely a means of attaining certain learning objectives.
One of the conclusions from the DELILAH project is that the main pedagogi-
cal innovation is taking place in the less developed areas of education and
training. The DELILAH project showed that pedagogical innovation is most
likely to take place in relation to the curriculum, i.e. the diverse topics and
subject matters of which it consists. The project also showed that ICT-
related innovation efforts have not been very successful in bringing about
new teaching/learning methods and functions corresponding to the inherent
potential of ICT47.
This suggests that if schools wish to succeed in creating innovative learning

environments, they would first and foremost benefit from focusing on their
organization and pedagogical approach, and should consign the issue of ICT
to a secondary priority.
47
dations, p. 85.
82

6. Case studies of Innovative Learning Environments
As part of the study, we have conducted six in-depth case studies of schools
in Canada, the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Spain and Scotland. The
cases have been selected in accordance with our perception of innovative
learning environments cf. chapter 2, namely that innovation is understood as
context dependant. The Canadian case study was selected to exemplify a
innovative learning environment within a well-advanced context.
Thus, the selected case studies represent innovative learning environments

in their contexts. Different learning traditions, different policies and different
ways of managing school systems exist throughout Europe and what is con-
sidered innovative in one country may not be considered innovative in an-
other. The case studies are therefore not to be considered representative for
innovative learning environments in general, but are rather best practice
examples within different structures. This implies that no generalisations can
be made on the basis of the case studies, although interesting experiences
can be extracted.
The case studies support the expressed standpoint of the study, that many
variables - and not the ICTs alone - encourage the development of innova-
tive learning environments. Factors such as the schools’ management style,
parents’ attitude, combined with the strategic use of ICT encourage the
emergence of innovative learning environments .
In all 6 case studies, the schools have developed strategic action plans which
encompass visions and concrete objectives for schools’ work. The schools
have a strategic action plan which shows the importance of the organisa-
tional setting when innovative learning environments are developed as de-
scribed in chapter 4. Nevertheless the schools have no explicit ICT strate-
gies. The teachers have undergone training to support (or lead) the process
of integrating ICT into learning, but this is rather the result of the external
structures such as national or regional ICT strategies.
The schools make use of and to some extent develop their own didactic lear-
ning material to be used in the schools’ learning activities independently of
the available financial resources. These are necessary in order to challenge
the pupils and differentiate the learning in accordance with the individual
needs of the pupils.
Across the case studies we have also seen how the constructionist learning
approach as well as the introduction of ICT into learning challenges the phy-
sical surroundings of the schools. This is either materialised in architectural
innovations or - in the more resource weak societies - in the expressed de-
sire for new and more flexible physical boundaries. As regards the computer
facilities, in order for them to be a natural learning resource there has to be
natural access. As regards the new pedagogies, the teaching personnel re-
quires (and in some of the cases have been provided with) new physical sur-
roundings to be able to experiment with differently sized groups instead of
always performing the traditional classroom teaching.
Finally, a common denominator of the cases is that the ICTs have facilitated
networking and internationalisation of the schools. Schools either engage in
cooperation with other schools of with cultural institutions in their own coun-
tries or abroad. Till example, the ICTs make possible cooperation in Com-
puter Supported Collaborative Learning again either within or across national
boundaries.
83

6.1 Methodological remarks
The overall purpose of the “Study of Innovative Learning Environments in
School Education” is to present and discuss innovative educational theories
and practices, with a particular focus on how the use of information and
communication technologies and new architecture on the one hand, and new
pedagogical theories and practices on the other hand, have influenced each
other. In addition, a future-oriented analysis aimed at the identification of
general trends and various scenarios for school education is presented. Fi-
nally, the study has generated a set of recommendations on how to ap-
proach the problems and opportunities connected with the development of
innovative learning environments.
As part of this overall study, six in-depth case studies have been carried out.
The purpose of the case studies was to examine the interrelated effects of
physical space, the use of information and communication technologies, and
new educational theories and practices. Thus the case studies were founded
on the hypothesis that an important physical dimension exists in relation to
novel ways of learning: New modes of learning can be initiated by the intro-
duction of new physical tools, buildings or physical space, and the use of ICT
can be altered as a consequence of new pedagogical initiatives and para-
digms.
Since it is an EU-wide study, the six learning environments which have been
studied in depth were selected on the basis that they are considered to rep-
resent innovative educational theories and practices in relation to their own
national educational culture and traditions.
The six case studies have all been structured around the analytical frame-
work model which is presented below, and which has been conceived as an
element of the study as a whole.
84

Figure 6.1: Model for analysis of innovative learning environ-
ments
It is assumed that all learning environments can be analysed using this gen-
eral model.
Its starting point is that a particular innovative learning environment exists

within a given overall societal framework. Most importantly, this external
structure consists of the national school policies, the country’s general level
of technological development, and its strategies for accommodating the
knowledge society. Other general framework conditions may also play an
important part in understanding the development and characteristics of a
particular innovative learning environment. The overall structural framework
gives rise to both constraints and opportunities in relation to the use of ICT
in learning.
The model also presumes that innovative learning environments can be ana-
lysed in terms of both their educational and their organisational settings. The
organisational setting (the outer circle of the school as organisation), con-
sisting of both rules and resources, involves the economy and the funding of
the learning environment, the technological infrastructure, the management
and administration, local school strategies, and the development of educa-
tional material. The educational setting (the inner circle) comprises the
pedagogical and didactical methods in use, the roles of the teachers and
pupils, and the content and learning objectives of the instruction being deliv-
ered. The overlapping characteristics which are common to both settings are
attitudes and cultures, staff development, research, co-operation and net-
works.
To summarise: the study of the following four levels has been essential for
describing and understanding the innovative learning environments which
have comprised the case study objects of this study:
85

1. The learning situation, which is the actual interaction among the actors
in the learning environment.
2. The learning environment in which learners and teachers interact, and in
which ICTs are used in different ways to improve learning.
3. The organizational/institutional setting in which learning takes place.
4. The overall structural framework which encompasses the two above-
mentioned levels, such as curricula, funding, strategies etc.
Table 6.1 below sums up the essential questions examined at each of these
four levels of analysis.
Table 6.1: Questions to be examined
LEVEL OF ANALYSIS ANALYSIS QUESTIONS
The learning situation – How do teachers work on empowering pupils to learn? How
interaction of ac- active are teachers and pupils respectively in the learning
tors/individuals situations?
What motivates the teachers and pupils? How motivated are
they?
How do they work on developing tacit skills and knowledge?
How do they work on developing explicit knowledge?
The learning environment How is ICT used in new and innovative ways as a means of
improving learning in schools?
What are the objectives of learning, and how does ICT sup-
port these learning objectives in new ways?
What are the roles of teachers and pupils (and parents)?
The organiza- Why do some schools succeed in creating new and innovative
tional/institutional setting ways of improving learning in schools by using ICT?
What specific elements in the organisational setting are im-

portant when creating new, innovative learning environ-
ments?
The overall structural What are the specific educational/learning traditions and
framework overall structural frameworks for schools’ use of ICT in learn-
ing?
In what ways is the structural framework respectively a bar-
rier and an advantage to the development of innovative
learning environments?
6.2 Coal Tyee Elementary School, Nanaimo, British Columbia

The case study was undertaken at Coal Tyee Elementary School in Nanaimo,
British Columbia, Canada in April 2003.
The Coal Tyee Elementary case study has encompassed the following activi-
ties:
1) A thorough desk study of relevant documents, including strategies, ac-
tion plans, project plans, budgets, internal evaluations etc., plus the
global framework conditions.
2) An interview with a representative of the Board of Trustees of School
District 68.
86

3) An interview with a former Superintendent for ICT of the School Dis-
trict
4) An interview with the former District Resource Teacher for ICT
5) A focus group interview with the parents of children attending Coal
Tyee Elementary
6) An interview with the principal of the school
7) A group interview with teachers
8) Two group interviews with pupils - one involving younger children and
one involving older ones
9) Two observations of instruction, one involving younger children and
10) Observation of the general physical environment of the school, includ-
ing its architecture.
At the end of the report is a list of the people interviewed during the case
study.
In 1990, the British Columbia Ministry of Education approved the founding of

a new school in the western part of the city of Nanaimo on Vancouver Island,
British Columbia (B.C.). Coal Tyee Elementary School was eventually estab-
lished in 1996, occupying a new building.
The school is located in a neighbourhood described by the parents of the

children at the school as a working class/middle class community. The ma-
jority of the school’s students are Euro-Canadian, while 16% are aboriginal
students. Nevertheless, the majority of students (i.e. an estimated 60-70%
of all households in the school district) have computers at home.
The school covers kindergarten to Grade 7, and has 317 enrolled students.
Since its establishment in 1996, Coal Tyee Elementary has been equipped
with a computer lab as well as computers in each classroom. The budget
allocation used for the acquisition of computer equipment exceeded the Brit-
ish Columbia Ministry of Education recommendations. Additionally, the
school was the first in the school district to have a T1 cable connection to the
Internet.
Coal Tyee Elementary is a member of the Canada Schoolnet’s Network of

Innovative Schools (NIS) and received an annual $Can. 10,000 grant during
1999-2001 to develop models of the integration of information and commu-
nications technology (ICT) in the classroom. This programme is financed by
Industry Canada and sponsored by the telecommunications company Bell
Canada.
The school is also recognized by the B.C. Ministry of Education as a “leader

of innovation” for its integration of ICT in the classroom.
In addition, Coal Tyee Elementary has won several awards for multimedia
projects spearheaded by one of the teachers in the school.
The initial motive for promoting the use of ICT in the school was the recogni-
tion that this technology is, and will remain, a major component of the lives
of the students in the information society, and that it is the job of the school
to prepare the students for its challenges. Furthermore, it was recognized
that ICT is a powerful motivational tool and vehicle for learning.
The application for NIS programme funding was motivated by the desire to
be at the forefront of development and the opportunity to secure funding for
87

the development of appropriate teaching models for integrating the use of
ICT.
6.2.1 Framework conditions
The provincial administration of British Columbia is responsible for education,

with the curriculum and learning outcomes being defined by the B.C. Educa-
tion Act. The province is divided into more than 80 different school districts
that are responsible for primary and secondary education within their areas.
The school districts do not coincide with municipal boundaries, and municipal
government has no jurisdiction concerning education matters.
Coal Tyee is located in School District 68, which covers the Lady-
smith/Nanaimo area of Vancouver Island. The district has approximately
16,500 students in 37 elementary schools (kindergarten-Grade 7), 7 secon-
dary schools (Grades 8-12) and 7 alternative schools (Grades 8-12). Its an-
nual operating budget is $Can. 102 million, and employs a staff of approxi-
mately 1,400 full-time equivalents.
Figure 6.2 The entrance of Coal Tyee Elementary School
6.2.1.1 Positive framework conditions
In 1996, the B.C. Ministry of Education formulated a technology plan whose

objective was to promote the growth and integration of information technol-
ogy in British Columbia’s educational institutions.
When the plan was implemented, it provided schools with funds to acquire
information technology as well as establishing the Province-Wide Network
(the PLNEt) for all learners, teachers and administrators. The network was
established in August 2000, and currently more than 1,700 K-12 schools are
connected to the network.
In addition, the B.C. Ministry of Education has provided a guide for planning
ICT resources during the integration of ICT into teaching48.
48
See http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/technology/6-9.htm
88

In the Ladysmith/Nanaimo School District, the inclusion of ICT in education
predates these province-wide initiatives. Already in the early 1980s, IBM had
initiated a pilot project involving its I-class administrative system, with Na-
naimo being chosen as one of the pilot locations. As a result, most schools
had networks and computer labs by the mid-1980s.
This created a strongly technology-focused environment in the education

sector early on. The school networks were upgraded in the early and mid-
1990s in order to accommodate new technological advancements such as
the Internet. This commitment was illustrated by the fact that the Lady-
smith/Nanaimo School District was the first education district in North Amer-
ica to register an internet domain name.
According to the former District Resource Teacher for ICT, Mike Silverton,
this early preoccupation with networks and computers is likely to have con-
tributed to a technology-oriented environment among teachers and adminis-
trators in the school district. Throughout the mid-1990s, the School District
invested significant funds in establishing proper ICT infrastructure over its
entire area. During this implementation programme, the District administra-
tion ensured that it made standardized purchases of computers and other
hardware platforms. This brought obvious cost advantages for the School
District as a whole, and also ensured that its ICT technicians would encoun-
ter similar hardware challenges in all schools in the district.
In addition to investing in technological infrastructure, the administration

placed considerable emphasis on in-service training. In fact, 10% of the an-
nual budget was used on teacher release time for the purpose of upgrading
the ICT skills of the teachers employed in the School District49.
According to the District Resource Teacher for ICT, the focus on both educa-
tional content and support plus the strong focus on in-service training have
distinguished the School District from a number of other school districts that
did not immediately invest in upgrading the skills of their teachers and use
standardized equipment and platforms.
According to the School District’s Route 68 Technology Plan, the schools we-
re intended to have their equipment renewed every five years to ensure con-
tinuous upgrading of their infrastructure. However, due to financial cutbacks
in the School District, this was never implemented.
6.2.1.2 Negative framework conditions
Currently, the B.C. provincial government has cut back on public expenditure
in a number of different areas. These constraints are also having an impact
on the province’s education sector, including the Ladysmith/Nanaimo School
District. According to the ED TECH Plan for School District 68, as well as Mike
Munro, former Superintendent responsible for ICT, these cutbacks have es-
pecially affected the School District administration and educational support
resources, including expenditure on ICT.
In the 1990s, the School District spent around $Can. 1 million per year on
ICT. In 2001 and 2002, this figure decreased to around $Can. 700,000. In
2003, around $Can. 50,000 was spent. In fact, spending in 2001 and 2002
only reached the level it did in order to ensure that no further upgrading
would be need to be undertaken over the following 2-3 years. In other
words, expenditure on ICT has come to an abrupt halt.
49
In monetary terms, this ranged from $Can. 50,000-70,000 per year.
89

In addition, the School District administration has been downsized. In the
2002-2003 school year, there was only one superintendent, and the ICT de-
partment was closed down. However, one of the trustees of the School
Board, Jack Doan, informed us that the School District will soon be increas-
ing the number of its superintendents.
The downsizing of the school support structure also entails that the schools’
ICT infrastructure is not being renewed. Accordingly, an Education Technol-
ogy support position and a Business Technology support position were elimi-
nated. According to the teachers at Coal Tyee Elementary, the lack of educa-
tional support is already being felt and is impeding progress regarding the
use of ICT in education.
6.2.2 The organizational setting (Rules)
6.2.2.1 The school organization
The organization of teaching at Coal Tyee Elementary is fairly traditional.

Each of the different grade level classes has predominantly the same tea-
cher, who instructs in all subjects. However, other teachers may take some
specialist subjects such as library studies, music and French.
The teachers and principal alike state that every teacher has considerable
classroom autonomy, implying that they are free to organize their instruction
within the constraints established in the B.C. Education Act and the pre-
scribed province-wide learning outcomes for each subject50.
At most grade levels a traditional “one teacher, one classroom” approach

appears to prevail, but this is modified to some extent in the Grade 2 clas-
ses, where the teachers work together and the students alternate their
classroom settings.
Some teachers also engage in collaboration across grade levels through a

“buddy system” whereby the older students mentor the younger ones.
The principal defines the management roles as primarily being:

x To secure resources
x To encourage professional growth and development
x To establish an organizational framework for the development of ICT
skills
x Problem solver/mediator.
One teacher who is recognized for his high level of ICT skills has been as-
signed the responsibility of operating the school’s computer lab in the role of
ICT support teacher. Only minimal time per week is allocated to this func-
tion.
As has already been mentioned, the school belongs to the Network of Inno-
vative Schools (NIS), and during 1999-2001 received an annual grant of
$Can. 10,000.
During the first year, a model of technology integration centring on the de-
velopment of web pages supporting student research was attempted.
50
See http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/ for learning outcomes.
90

This was carried out in conjunction with a researcher from the nearby Ma-
laspina University-College, Dr. Andrew Kitchenham51, who set out to investi-
gate the influences of technology on writing achievement.
However, this project was abandoned and replaced by individual technology

growth plans for identifying and strengthening the specific areas in which the
teachers needed to develop their ICT skills.
This was achieved in close co-operation with Dr. Kitchenham, who developed
a theoretical approach to information technology which he adapted from lit-
eracy research involving the following continuum of the stages of literacy52:
x Pre-Literate
x Emerging
x Developing
x Competent
x Literate.
Consequently, a survey to assess the technological literacy and needs of the

teaching staff was carried out by Dr. Kitchenham. The results were collated
and presented to the staff members.
In June 2000, each teacher completed a personal technology growth plan (or
individual action plan) that outlined their professional ICT development ob-
jectives. The plan contained details of the content, start and end points, and
criteria of success/attainment. The intention was for the level of ICT literacy
acquired by the teacher to match the level of ambition and teaching needs
which they had anticipated. To enhance and support their learning, each
teacher was mentored by one of the more ICT-literate teachers at the school
who lent support and advice in the course of their development.
The improvements in individual professional development were measured in

relation to the continuum of technological literacy previously described.
Professional development was facilitated through:

x Facilitators
x Workshops
x Release days.
It is intended that the personal growth plans will be reviewed and updated
every year.
6.2.2.2 Discussion
The organization of the school is strongly founded on the professional inde-

pendence of each teacher. This organization stimulates a high level of inde-
pendence for each teacher, but may also be an impediment to mainstream-
ing certain pedagogical methods or teaching tools if ownership of these is
not achieved.
In his latest NIS project report, the school principal wrote:
51
Coal Tyee Elementary also functions as a “pod school” for students of the Faculty of
Education.
52
For details, see: Kitchenham, Andrew: “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Focus
Groups of Teachers Discuss Their Technology Experiences”, www.aace.org/site
91

“In the first year of our NIS membership...an attempt was
made to introduce the Coal Tyee staff to a model of tech-
nology integration centering on the development of web
pages supporting student research.... The project was not
as successful as we would have liked… The answer lay in
the issue of ownership; the teachers needed to choose
what they wanted to learn, how much they wanted to
learn, and when they wanted to learn.”
Therefore, given the high level professional autonomy of the teachers which
the organization of the school encourages, the use of personal growth plans
appears to be an advantageous way of committing the teaching staff to
“buying into” the application of ICT in the classroom and directing their lear-
ning towards outcomes that they see as relevant and feasible.
6.2.3 The educational setting (Resources)
6.2.3.1 Description
One of the Coal Tyee Educational Technology Plan (Ed Tech Plan) priorities
has been to ensure a student-to-computer ratio of 1:6. The school has suc-
ceeded in this goal53. In the school’s computer lab there are 23 computers.
In addition, 1-2 computers are located in each classroom. Additional com-
puters are reserved for the administrative staff. It is primarily the computers
situated in the lab that are used for instructional purposes, while the class-
room computers are mostly used for quick Internet research, word process-
ing and other tasks.
The school’s computer lab is located in at one end of the central segment of
the school, as depicted in the figure below.
53
This conforms to the B.C. average. See Provincial Education Technology Report
2000/2001:
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/technology/documents/provincialreportapril22.pdf
92

Figure 6.3: Topographical Map of Coal Tyee Elementary
An ICT support teacher is employed who is allocated (minimal) time to sup-

porting the other teachers and maintaining the technological infrastructure.
However, both he and the principal freely admit that this allocation is inade-
quate to compensate for the time spent on maintenance.
A variety of educational-content software exists. The former educational

technology support person refers to the availability of American educational
software as being a huge advantage (although some barriers concerning
transferability to the B.C. curriculum do exist, such as the Canadian use of
the metric system rather than feet and inches). In any case, the educa-
tional-content software programs used are not a dominant feature in the
teaching approach used in the school. Such programs are incorporated to
some extent into special needs education, e.g. in the “Success maker” spe-
cial needs initiative, and are used elsewhere than in the normal classroom.
The school’s teachers mostly state that they do not much use educational-
content programs (e.g. drill and practice) in their teaching. Instead, they use
application tools to enhance learning in the different subjects taught in the
school, such as the Kidpix program and such Microsoft Office programs as
PowerPoint and its spreadsheet and word processing programs. According to
the School District’s former Education Technology co-ordinator, this use of
ICT is typical for the majority of the schools in the district.
The school receives $Can. 1500 annually for the purchase of educational
software from the School District. However, this budget is not earmarked,
and the money will not necessarily be spent for this purpose. The NIS grant
(totalling $Can. 30,000 over three years) has to some extent helped to up-
grade or purchase new computers, as have a number of different fundrais-
93

ers. The school has not received any computers under the federal govern-
ment’s CFS programme54.
6.2.3.2 Discussion
At Coal Tyee Elementary School, and in the school district in general, the
experience has been that the use and integration of ICT in education occurs
at different speeds. Some teachers are very computer literate, while others
are reticent in using the technology.
In pioneer terminology, three different kinds of ICT users are identified

among the teachers: (i) the trailblazers, (ii) the pioneers and (iii) the set-
tlers.
a. The trailblazers are the explorers who break new ground and uncover the
new opportunities created by the medium.
b. The pioneers follow the trailblazers, and are the first to exploit the oppor-
tunities created.
c. The settlers follow the trailblazers and pioneers and ensure that the new
ground is harvested.
In other words, ICT integration occurs at different speeds. Rather than push-
ing the pace of progress and risking a loss of ownership, it has proven more
fruitful to nurture the different learners and encourage their personal devel-
opment. Such an approach recognizes that the trailblazers will take the first
innovative steps, the pioneers will contribute to expanding the usage of ICT
in the school, and the settlers help to mainstream the technology-based
practices.
The use of personal growth plans has proven to be a particularly useful tool
for upgrading the skills of all the teachers, using the skills they already have
as their starting point, and directing their learning towards the needs identi-
fied by the teachers themselves. Thus instead of regarding the differential in
the levels of ICT literacy which exist among its staff as an impediment to the
use of ICT in the learning processes, the Coal Tyee approach encourages the
growth of ICT use.
6.2.4 The learning environment
6.2.4.1 Description
The 1997 Coal Tyee Elementary School Technology Plan states:
“Our vision at Coal Tyee is to provide a positive educa-

tional environment where each learner is encouraged to
progress at his/her own rate. We envision our students
working and learning in a technology-rich setting. We want
to provide real life experiences with various tools and
equipment to further their lifetime education.” (P. 2, Tech-
nology Plan.)
…
“We believe that computers should be used as a tool not
unlike other educational tools such as pencils and books.”
(P. 2, Technology Plan.)
54
Computers for Schools (CFS) is a programme aimed at recycling used computers
from corporations and reallocating them to schools which need computer equipment.
94

The ICT-related learning outcomes are all defined in the Technology Plan and
cohere with the B.C. curriculum’s learning outcomes55.
There are no commonly agreed principles or strategies concerning the use of

ICT within this framework. However, the model for the use of ICT has one
feature which applies similarly in all classes, namely that access to com-
puters is primarily confined to the computer lab and instruction takes place
collectively. This use of resources naturally places spatial and technological
constraints on how computers can be used as a learning tool. However, most
teachers state that they prefer having the computer lab to introducing more
computers into their classrooms.
Another commonality is the use by all students of ICT applications (in a lear-
ning situation based in the computer lab) rather than the use by individual
students of content programmes (either in the classroom or in the computer
lab).
In terms of pedagogical approach, most teachers refer to the existence in

the school of a “hands-on” approach to learning that emphasizes situated
learning through experiments, field trips and the like. However, this does not
represent an overarching learning approach, and most teachers stress the
considerable “classroom autonomy” they enjoy to decide by themselves what
approach they will take.
It should be added that many of the teachers at the school have been recog-
nized for the innovations arising from their work for the B.C. Ministry of Edu-
cation in areas such as writing mathematics textbooks and their involvement
in early literacy and the accelerated reader programme. This indicates an
involved and pedagogically competent staff.
In addition, the centrality of ICT as a learning tool can be said to have been
at the core of the school’s construction. When the school was built, the prin-
cipal and staff had direct input into its physical layout and the resources to
be purchased, and the staff made a conscious decision to make the school a
leader in technology by allocating more space and funding for the computer
lab and the school’s technological infrastructure than was prescribed in the
B.C. standards. Consequently, Coal Tyee Elementary was the first school in
B.C. to be awarded a grant as an NIS school.
6.2.4.2 Discussion
Inhibitors and motivators

In the final report of the NIS project, a number of inhibitors and motivators
for the integration of ICT in education were identified in conjunction with Dr.
Andrew Kitchenham56.
55
The learning outcomes have recently been changed from being ICT-specific to be-
coming integrated within subject areas such as social science, arithmetic etc. See
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/curric/lo.html
56
See footnote no. 52 for a reference to a study which encompasses both inhibitors
and motivators.
95

These deserve to be quoted at length:
“Motivators:
Incremental progress is imperative as the teachers

reported that they felt in control of what they learned,
when they learned it, and how quickly they accom-
plished that learning---all of this learning occurred in
“baby steps”
Administrative support was an integral part of per-
sonal growth plan completion as the participants felt
that having a principal who supported---both philoso-
phically and financially---their desire to learn more
about ICT, assisted them in being more motivated to
succeed
Autonomy was a key motivator for the participants as
they felt completely in control of their action plans and
how they moved along the continuum
Community of learners was a crucial motivator for
these participants as evidenced by how many reported
that they received a feeling of success by discussing
their significant learnings and frustrations with each
other
Children was an often-cited motivator as the partici-
pants disclosed that they saw how quickly children
picked up technology skills and strategies and how of-
ten the students asked for assistance with computer
programs; these two occurrences caused the teachers
to want to “keep up” with their students
Permanence was the concept that technology is here
to stay and so should be something teachers are dili-
gent at keeping up on
Out-of-school facilitation was seen as a necessary
motivator as some participants felt the need to have
concepts re-visited in a low-risk environment by some-
one with whom they felt familiar but not necessarily
with whom they had to work
An educational toolbox referred to the idea that the
participants saw technology as another tool with which
they could optimize learning
Power within was the notion that the participants be-
lieved that an effective motivator arose as they real-
ized that they themselves possessed the power to suc-
ceed
A definite comfort zone was needed for success so
that the participants knew when they were reaching
their saturation point
The presence of a high flyer was important as there
was a definite need for someone to sow the seed of in-
terest and to be available if there was a need for assis-
tance
Mentors were critical in this study as the participants
felt that every person in the school was a mentor
96

which was a dramatic increase from one or two men-
tors in the school before the study began
Inhibitors:
Transference was seen as a clear inhibitor in that

teachers reported that they had a difficult time taking
knowledge from a workshop and remembering those
concepts days or weeks later
Learning in a vacuum was the notion that sometimes
what was learned in a workshop did not have signifi-
cance unless the participants used it at home or in the
classroom
Access referred to the limited access that teachers
had to the computer lab and resources (N.B. The re-
searcher saw this “inhibitor” as a testament to the suc-
cess of the project as some many teachers wanted to
try out their newly-acquired skills)
Inaccessibility was viewed as the potentially prob-
lematic situation of not always being able to get access
to a computer specialist (teacher or technician) when
the assistance was needed
Powerlessness was the feeling that some teachers
had when they worked with computer specialists (in
general, not specific individuals) and felt overwhelmed
by the knowledge and speed with which they had to
learn
Disempowerment was reported frequently as the
idea that one person held a great deal of the knowl-
edge and chose when to dispense that knowledge
Mystery was an inhibitor that referred to the notion
that many ICT concepts were enigmatic and required a
great deal of (valuable) time to understand
Solitude was seen as clear inhibitor when a partici-
pant felt that he or she was working alone and had no
one to whom he or she could turn for assistance
The bandwagon mentality was evident when school
or district personnel argued that teachers should use
technology because it was effective but no evidence
was provided for this espoused success
The locomotive phenomenon was a definite inhibitor
whenever a staff member believed that technology was
being pushed on him or her
Token support (from administration or the district of-
fice) was an inhibitor as the teachers believed that “lip
service” was being paid to their concerns or requests.”
The motivators and inhibitors clearly demonstrate the importance of man-

agement and organization in facilitating access to resources and creating an
organization that nurtures a community of learning while also ensuring per-
sonal responsibility for professional development and encouraging such
growth.
97

Through the NIS project, the school management realized the importance of
stimulating individual growth and interest rather than pushing forward a
concerted technology strategy in which individual ownership was limited.
6.2.5 The learning situation
6.2.5.1 Description
In the course of the case study, two different learning situations were ob-
served. The general framework of the two learning situations coincided,
since they both took place in the school’s computer lab. This is no coinci-
dence, since this is the most frequently used space when ICT is being inte-
grated into the learning process.
The computer lab and the students are shown in the photos below.
Figure 6.4 Computer Lab picture 1
98

Figure 6.5 Computer Lab picture 2
The first school class observed was Coal Tyee’s Grade 7, whose 26 students
were aged between 12 and 13, with a fairly equal division of male and fe-
male students. The subject of the lesson was social science. This is an ex-
cerpt from the observation log:
“The theme of the lesson was “Early Egypt”. The des-

ignated task for the students was to do research and
fact finding on a selected theme pertaining to early
Egypt, such as particular gods, weaponry, tombs, and
sarcophagi. This was completed prior to entering the
computer lab. The data was to be presented in a Mi-
crosoft PowerPoint presentation of their projects. The
students worked in pairs at the computers.
The teacher (female, in her 50s) moved around in the

lab assisting the students with their presentations, and
at one time instructed the class to pay attention to the
structure of their presentations. Some of the students
encountered some technical problems when construct-
ing their slide show. The teacher made use of two stu-
dents that were particularly adept in the use of Micro-
soft PowerPoint and asked them to assist the pair. The
students instructed their fellow students, while the lat-
ter continued to handle the keyboard. Later the tea-
cher informed me that this learning model, “peer tutor-
ing”, was used frequently by her, thus recognizing the
99

technological skills of the students and making them
work together in a learning environment.”
The second class observed was the school’s Grade 5 class. The students in
this grade have been particularly keen on working with computers, and have
been awarded district and provincial prizes for their work on the so-called
“Silverwing Project”. In May 2003 the class was due to travel to the multi-
media awards organized by the University of Idaho in Moscow, U.S.A., to
compete with other North American school classes with their multimedia-
based project57.
This class comprised 31 students aged 10-11. The distribution of male and
female students was fairly equal. The class teacher (male, in his 40s) has
been recognized for his trail-blazing work regarding ICT integration and tea-
ching within the school, and along with Dr. Andrew Kitchenham has devel-
oped a staff model for ICT integration in the classroom. The subject taught
on this occasion was also social science, with the theme this time being early
British Columbian settler history. This is an excerpt from the observation log:
“The teacher instructs the students in front of the

white board in the lab. He gives the students an as-
signment. They must create three animated “western”
scenes using 4-6 slides each. The animation show will
be processed using the Kidpix program. Detailed in-
structions concerning what most of the slides should
comprise are given. This kind of instruction is, it is la-
ter explained to me, called a ”mini-lesson”. The stu-
dents work together in pairs. They are obviously well
acquainted with the working of the program, and need
no further instruction in its use. The students work at
different speeds. Some create elaborate scenic land-
scapes as the backdrop for their scenes, thus enhanc-
ing the aesthetics of their animations, while others put
together more rudimentary and simple creations. The
teacher instructs and facilitates the students when
questions arise. However, this does not happen fre-
quently.”
6.2.5.2 Discussion
The use of ICT in the learning situation largely appears to be structured by

the spatial constraints of the computer lab58. In this sense, the structuring of
time and space and the organization into classes does not differ from tradi-
tional learning environments.
The differences that exist appear to be due to the level of integration of ICT
in the learning outcomes and the level of the students’ ICT literacy that re-
57
See http://www.pgrey.com/ and http://schools.sd68.bc.ca/COAL/pg/silverwing/
58
Although each classroom has 1-3 computers, these computers seem to be used for
making presentations constructed in the computer lab, random Internet searches, and
other activities. However, they do not appear to be used as a regular tool for differen-
tiated learning within the classroom (e.g. using content programs).
100

sults from the school’s ICT practice59. The learning situations described
above typify the integration of technology in the school.
Another case in point is the use of software applications such as the Micro-
soft Office programs rather than content programs, despite the easy avail-
ability of the latter. Several teachers explain that such content programs
may be effective in drilling some of the students’ skills, but are less effective
when they have to be integrated with learning outcomes, e.g. in social stud-
ies.
In fact, argue the teachers at the school, it should be borne in mind that ICT
is just one learning vehicle among others, and is not essential in all grades
and all subjects. Therefore the use of ICT should not be embraced uncriti-
cally, and an over-reliance on ICT tools must not be allowed to supplant
other proven teaching methods and tools.
Therefore most teachers generally prefer the computer lab, because there
are enough computers for all students to be working in pairs. However, they
concede that the computer lab can be impractical at times.
One teacher points to the fact that the relatively large class sizes may be
one factor in this, as it is difficult to keep students concentrating amid the
considerable degree of movement and activity that results when the stu-
dents move back and forth to and from the computers.
The parents we interviewed shared these concerns. They were generally very
satisfied with the learning situation which the school was fostering. They
emphasized the student-centred teaching practised at the school (e.g. the
lesson plan suits the students). The also emphasized the hands-on and crea-
tive learning environment in which many learning activities are conducted
outside the classroom setting.
Several of the parents pointed out that the use of ICT is just one aspect of
the school’s daily activities rather than a learning tool receiving special at-
tention. However, they admitted that its ICT projects (such as those which
have won awards) have been important for the school’s exposure in the local
community.
The parents emphasized that computer literacy is an essential skill which

their children need to master in the future, and they supported the school’s
use of technology, but insisted that the use of computers should not replace
the acquisition of basic skills and the nurturing of critical thinking.
Meanwhile, the students emphasized that the use of computers is a great

asset and motivator for learning. They particularly liked programs which in-
tegrated learning and games. However, they also preferred to work together
in pairs or in threes. They also stated that this should not entirely replace
individual learning, which was also needed.
Like their parents, they emphasized sports, field trips and outdoor experi-
ments as being strong motivators for learning. They were therefore cautious
concerning the possibility of over-reliance on computers in the educational
setting. As one student put it, “The students like it [ICT], but they do not
want it all the time, otherwise it would get boring.”
59
It should be noted, however, that parents and teachers estimate that approximately
70% of the students also have access to computers at home.
101

Thus the key to integrating technology successfully lies in striking the right
balance between the application of technology and the use made of other
vehicles for learning.
6.2.6 Performance measurement and evaluation
6.2.6.1 Description
Recently, the B.C. School Districts have been able to enter into accountabil-
ity contracts with the B.C. Ministry of Education. Accordingly, the Lady-
smith/Nanaimo School District has entered into an accountability contract
with the Ministry60 which contains objectives covering literacy, numeracy,
social responsibility and critical thinking. One of the members of the Board of
Trustees in the School District, Jack Doan, does not exclude the possibility
that the accountability contract may in future also contain objectives con-
cerning ICT development.
In addition to the general guidelines concerning learning and performance

standards, a number of reports are available from the B.C. Ministry of Edu-
cation website.
The Foundation Skills Assessment carried out province-wide testing across

British Columbia of the skills of Grade 4, 7, and 10 students in reading com-
prehension, writing and numeracy.
60
See http://www.sd68.bc.ca/News/Accountability.htm
102

These tests were based on multiple-choice and written-response items, as
well as two different writing tasks carried out in the classroom setting. At
each grade level, three tests were administered, generating a set of reports
which cover several different levels:
x Independent Schools Results Report (overall results for independent

schools);
x School Results Report (results for each school that participated in FSA
2002);
x Interpreting and Communicating British Columbia Foundation
Skills Assessment Results (information to support school and district
personnel in the interpretation, use, and communication of school, dis-
trict, and individual student results);
x British Columbia Foundation Skills Assessment 2002 Highlights
(an overview of FSA, national and international assessments);
x The District Results Report is one of several documents available for
the Foundation Skills Assessment (FSA) 2002. Other available reference
material includes:
x Provincial Results Report (provincial results and overall district re-
sults)61.
In addition, the Ministry has developed the B.C. Performance Standards as a

schools-based assessment tool for voluntary use in B.C. schools. They con-
tain the professional judgments of a significant number of B.C. educators
concerning standards and expectations in relation to a number of foundation
skills62.
In continuation of these standards, the ICT Standards Guide Response Draft

has been developed as a part of the existing curriculum and assessment ma-
terials developed by the Ministry of Education. This in turn is a continuation
of the work done in relation to the Performance Standards in reading, writ-
ing, numeracy, and social responsibility. The current work is related to con-
tent assessment standards. The tasks and critical elements involved in the
assessment process are grounded in the prescribed learning outcomes for
the BC provincial curricula63.
As stated above, the prescribed learning outcomes for ICT are integrated
into other subjects for Grades 1-7 (i.e. elementary school), while there are
separate learning outcomes for secondary schools (Grades 8-12)64.
61
See http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/assessment/fsa/
62
See http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/perf_stands/
63
See http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/technology/ict_guide/ictguide/ict_guide.pdf
64
Learning outcomes can be found at: http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/curric/lo.html
103

A general need for research concerning performance measurement has been
identified in the province. The former was identified in a 1999 study concern-
ing the conditions for integrating ICT in education65, while the latter is gradu-
ally gaining prominence in the Province.
Teachers and administrators alike described how the School district has his-
torically taken a kind of “anti-data”, “anti-test”, “anti-evaluation” stance to-
wards educational attainment, but that this conception is now gradually
changing.
Currently, no evaluations pertaining to the integration of ICT have taken

place at either school, district or provincial levels. Equally, no ICT integration
measures have been defined.
6.2.6.2 Discussion
Despite calls for further research, e.g. monitoring and evaluations, it seems
that neither has taken place once the annual tabular statements of the Min-
istry’s technology report are disregarded. Considering the significant sums
invested in the implementation of new technology in the schools, it is highly
surprising that further research into its effectiveness has not been instigated.
6.2.7 The future
6.2.7.1 Challenges ahead
The challenges for the Coal Tyee school are largely embodied in the frame-
work conditions that are considered to impede sustained development, be-
cause resources for new equipment and support are unavailable.
In fact, several teachers complained that the deteriorating ICT infrastructure

was a serious impediment to its effective use. Malfunctions, slow computers,
and inadequate access to educational support were all considered serious
obstacles for continued growth. Meanwhile, these factors were an aspect of
the reality faced by the school’s teaching staff, because their equipment was
rapidly becoming obsolete and funds were lacking to replace it.
6.2.7.2 Good practice
Several issues spring to mind regarding the school’s use of ICT.
First, the availability of educational support specializing in the use of ICT has
proved an invaluable resource for promoting the use of this technology in
education.
A second aspect is the recognition and necessity of supporting the different

levels of progress occurring among the teaching staff. The use of personal
growth plans, supported by a facilitating administration, has proved to confer
definite benefits in ensuring ownership of the application of ICT technology
among the teaching staff and in making sure that it was being used effec-
tively.
A third aspect is the benefit of a research-based approach in which chal-

lenges are identified and the knowledge gained is used effectively to make
65
B.C. Ministry of Education (1999): Conditions for Success. Teaching-Learning-
Education Technology.
104

strategic decisions about how to implement and stimulate an environment of
committed learners.
A fourth aspect is the recognition that learning outcomes in a particular sub-

ject can be supported and enhanced by computer applications such as the
Microsoft Office package. Accordingly, the successful integration of ICT does
not require specialized software content – a lot can be achieved with rela-
tively limited software.
Fifth, technological development must be sustained by continued investment

in both the ICT infrastructure and a support superstructure.
6.2.8 Sources
6.2.8.1 Published sources
British Columbia Ministry of Education:

http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/technology/
B.C. Ministry of Education (1999): Conditions for Success. Teaching-

Learning-Education Technology
Canada Network of Innovative Schools: http://www.schoolnet.ca/nis-rei/e/
Canada Schoolnet: http://www.schoolnet.ca/home/e/
Coal Tyee Elementary School: Mission Statement
Coal Tyee Elementary School: Network of Innovative Schools Final Report:

May 31, 2001
Coal Tyee Elementary School: School Plan, September 20, 2002
Coal Tyee Elementary School Technology Plan (draft), 1997
Kitchenham, Andrew: “The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly: Focus Groups of
Teachers Discuss Their Technology Experiences”, www.aace.org/site
School District 68 – Ladysmith/Nanaimo: Inservice Overview 2001-2002
School District 68 – Ladysmith/Nanaimo: Route 68: Technology Plan 1996-

97
School District 68 – Ladysmith/Nanaimo: Route 68: Technology Plan 1997-

98
105

6.2.8.2 Interviewees
Member of the Board of Trustees of School Jack Doan

District 68
ICT Superintendent for the School District Mike Munro
District Resource Teacher for ICT Mike Silverton
Principal of Coal Tyee Elementary School Bob Padgham
Teachers at Coal Tyee Elementary School
Pupils at Coal Tyee Elementary
Parents of pupils at Coal Tyee Elementary
School
6.3 De Lindt , the Stiphout area of Helmond
The case study was undertaken at the De Lindt School in the

Stiphout area of Helmond in the Netherlands in April 2003.
The De Lindt School case study encompassed the following activities:
1) A thorough desk study of relevant documents, including strate-

gies, action plans, project plans, budgets, internal evaluations
etc., plus the global framework conditions
2) An interview with a representative of the School Board
3) An interview with a municipal alderman
4) A focus group interview with parents of the children attending De
Lindt School
7) Two group interviews with pupils - one involving younger chil-
dren and one involving older ones
8) Three observations of instruction, one involving younger chil-
dren, one involving an intermediate group, and one involving
older children
9) Observation of the general physical environment of the school,
including its architecture
At the end of the report is a list of the people interviewed during the
case study.
The De Lindt elementary school is a public primary school in Stiphout, a dis-

trict of the municipality of Helmond in the southern part of the Netherlands66.
66
A distinctive feature of the Dutch education system is freedom of education (guar-
anteed under Article 23 of the Constitution). This means the freedom to found schools
(freedom of establishment), the freedom to organize the teaching in schools (freedom
of organization of teaching), and the freedom to determine the principles on which
they are founded (freedom of conviction). As a result the Netherlands has both pub-
106

It was founded in 1988, when it moved into new buildings. The school is
non-denominational, and is therefore open to all students irrespective of religion,
ideology and culture. Over the years it has grown from 16 enrolled students to
more than 300. The children are divided into 12 different groups ranging
from grade 1 (age 4) to grade 8 (age 11)67.
The school is situated in what the parents describe as a prosperous upper

middle class neighbourhood with a population of predominantly Dutch origin.
When the school was founded information technology was not a key consid-
eration, and therefore the physical structure is not adapted to the infrastruc-
tural requirements of IT installations.
Figure 6.6 View of the front of the De Lindt School
The teaching staff consists of a principal and a deputy principal. In addition,

the school employs 12 full-time and 6 part-time class teachers.
In 1998-2000 the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture and Science designated the De
Lindt School as an advanced centre for information and communication technology. The
school received funding to acquire computers and set up a network infrastructure. The
school also adapted an ICT plan that it was required to share with other interested par-
ties.
With this funding, each classroom was equipped with at least 3 computers that were
linked to a local network and permanently connected to the Internet and the Dutch
knowledge network68. To improve their ICT literacy, individual ICT development plans
were defined for each teacher in order to direct and motivate them in acquiring the skills
they required for their teaching.
licly- and privately-run schools. In fact, some 70% of 3,547,000 pupils and students
attend privately-run schools. (The number of pupils in primary education totals
1,644,000.)
67
As from 1 August 2002, in all Dutch elementary schools the school starting age was
decreased from 5 years to 4.
68
The Dutch knowledge net was established to support the integration of information
technology in education. See http://www.kennisnet.nl/portal/home/index.html.
107

Participation in this programme was sparked by the school’s awareness that
ICT is an important educational tool both currently and in the future, and
that making the pupils ICT literate was an essential challenge for the school.
Accordingly, it still draws up global annual ICT action plans for itself.
In accordance with the 1969 Compulsory Education Act, school attendance is

compulsory for all children of school age living in the Netherlands.
Every child must attend school full-time for 12 full school years, and in any
event until the end of the school year in which they turn 16. In 1971, the
Compulsory Education Act was extended to include an additional period of
part-time compulsory education for those young people who have not com-
pleted their period of full-time compulsory schooling. Under-18s must attend
school at least two days a week until the end of the school year in which
they turn 17.
The municipal authorities are responsible for implementing the Compulsory

Education Act. The municipal administration ensures that all children below
school-leaving age who are registered as resident in the area are enrolled as
pupils at an educational establishment. After 8 years of primary school, the
pupils go on to secondary education.
Most secondary schools are combined schools offering several types of sec-
ondary education so that pupils can transfer easily from one type to another
(spanning vocational, trade-oriented and academically-focused tuition).
The Dutch education system combines a centralized national education policy

with the decentralized administration and management of schools. Central
government controls education via legislation and regulation, with due re-
gard for the provisions of the Constitution. In this way it exercises control
over both publicly- and privately-run institutions. The involvement of the
provincial authorities mainly takes the form of statutory supervisory and
judicial duties in relation to public and private schools alike. As the local au-
thority for all schools in the area, the municipal authorities have certain
statutory powers and responsibilities covering both public and private
schools.
All schools, both public and private, are governed by a legally recognized
competent authority (i.e. school board), which is the body responsible for
implementing legislation and regulations in schools. The municipal authority
is the competent authority or school board for publicly-run schools. Since
1997, the municipal authorities have been able to choose the form of the
competent authority.
A number of different measures, projects and initiatives covering ICT in edu-

cation have been introduced into recent Dutch policy. The most recent fra-
mework for e-learning is the broad three-year policy on ICT in education
(‘Onderwijs On line, 1999-2002’) which covers compulsory, vocational and
adult education, as well as teacher education.
The overall objective of the policy intervention was that teachers, school
heads, management boards and others working in or for schools should ac-
108

quire the ICT expertise and skills needed to integrate ICT effectively into the
contemporary school situation. This policy sets out four objectives69:
x Professional development. Teachers, school heads, school boards and

others working in or for schools will acquire the ICT knowledge and skills
they need in the years ahead to enable them to integrate ICT effectively
into the new educational practices.
x Methods and educational software. By 2002, software is supposed to be
available for all the government-specified learning objectives in which
ICT plays a role. By the same date, all schools are supposed to possess
up-to-date knowledge of the potential and availability of educational
software, and the market should be able to offer adequate software to
support innovative teaching practices.
x Management of ICT infrastructure. Schools are able to take responsibility
for their own ICT infrastructure so that it is capable, both technically and
in terms of content, of helping to achieve the objectives defined by the
school, and so that it can be modified to reflect changes in those objec-
tives as well as technological advances.
x Kennisnet (Knowledge Net). All schools have access to high-quality ser-
vices via the Kennisnet, so that attention can be concentrated on the
educational use of ICT, and so that the schools are relieved from the
burden of technical management as much as possible70.
The intention behind the ‘Education on line’ policy was for the government to
define the general aims, to create the framework conditions, and to dissemi-
nate the output and results of the initiative. Schools have been free to use
the associated funding as they have seen fit. They could, for example, use it
to cover the cost of in-service ICT training for teachers, for new educational
software, for hardware, and/or to pay the cost of employing ICT administra-
tors or co-ordinators. However, they have been advised to incorporate the
introduction of ICT into the school’s overall policy objectives. The Education
Inspectorate has been monitoring the cost effectiveness of the spending,
focusing in particular on whether the core aims in relation to ICT are being
achieved, and on how ICT is contributing to the quality of the education be-
ing provided.
The government has set out the financing available for integrating ICT into
education. In the period leading up to 2002, one-off funding of 304 million
EURO was provided, followed by a further 150 million EURO in the period up
to 2010. With the addition of other earmarked funding, a total spend of 1.05
billion EURO was envisaged during 1998 to 2002, with another 550 million
EURO being allocated from 2003.
Accordingly, the national government’s contribution to this objective has

been threefold:
x It has laid down specifications for new professional expertise, and the
skills and measures needed to promote familiarity with them. This has
involved both the general aspects and the knowledge and skills required
by specific groups, such as school heads.
x It has promoted the provision of training courses, and has provided fra-
meworks for evaluating the skills acquired by teaching staff and for
awarding qualifications.
x It has provided financing to facilitate the upgrading of skills.
69
See Ministry of Education, Culture and Research policy documents and reports:
http://www.minocw.nl/ict/.
70
As of 1 January 2004, all schools will also be able to choose other providers
than the Kennisnet
109

One framework condition anticipated by the school management has gradu-

ally been making itself felt, namely the shortage of funding for the renewal
of the previously-installed ICT infrastructure. The management has recog-
nized that the regular updating of equipment is an essential factor in main-
taining continued progress. However, it was not anticipated that De Lindt
School would receive additional funding for renewing its infrastructure, and
the school was unable to meet this requirement from its own operating
budget.
Meanwhile, the municipality of Helmond has received funding from the na-
tional government under the Kennisweg programme, which focuses on creat-
ing a series of digital services under such headings as eGovernment and
eDemocracy. This programme will be partially funded by public and corpo-
rate contributions. However, the education sector, which is not one of the
primary financial responsibilities of the municipal government, has not been
included in the programme. If the school is able to find the financial means
to continue its use of ICT, this deficiency may prove to be a barrier for future
users of the Kennisweg services.
6.3.2 The organisational setting (Rules)
6.3.2.1 The school organisation
The school building comprises 12 classrooms plus a central hall with a stage
and a physical exercise room for toddlers. Depending on the size of the stu-
dent intake, some groups are accommodated in a part of the central hall or
in an ancillary building.
At the De Lindt school, children of different ages are taught in single groups.
The school refers to these learning groups as "heterogeneous groups".
x Toddlers' section: groups 1 and 2 (3 groups in all)
x Junior section: groups 3 and 4 (3 groups in all)
x Intermediate section: groups 5 and 6 (3 groups in all)
x Senior section: groups 7 and 8 (3 groups in all).
The size of the groups varies, but there is an average of 25 children in each group, with
younger groups tending to be somewhat smaller.
The school is divided into four sections containing 2 to 3 heterogeneous groups each.
The children are part of each heterogeneous group for 2 years. These group structures
require an appropriate form of organization which differentiates the learning approach
used in accordance with the competence level of the individual students. The De Lindt
school has practised this organizational format ever since it was founded, and the
school management states that the children from group 8 have been achieving above-
average marks in the grade 8 performance results.
The teachers of the different groups in each section work closely together on devising
the syllabus, planning future activities, and ensuring that the same overall pedagogical
approach is consistently followed in that section. One teacher is mainly responsible for
the instruction in a given group, though they may alternate with each other. Each sec-
tion has one teacher who is designated to be responsible for that section’s ICT equip-
ment.
The school management places considerable emphasis on the school as a

“learning organization” by emphasizing constant debate and assessment
concerning how the learning approach at the school can be improved. The
110

teachers and management agree that the management style is “bottom-up”,
and that the teaching staff has a significant influence on the pedagogical
direction of the school. They emphasize the fact that they must all agree and
adhere to a number of common pedagogical principles governing and struc-
turing their tuition.
The principal also describes the main management roles as being to promote
the following:
x Human resource management
x Planning
x Resources for the development of the school (e.g. in ICT)
x Innovation and vision for the future of the school.
The school principal stresses the importance of the teachers’ involvement in

their work, and he actively seeks to employ teachers with an interest in the
pedagogical approach and emphasis on ICT that is underway in the school.
6.3.2.2 Discussion
One particular challenge for the organization of the school is the existence of
different levels of ICT literacy and different approaches to the use of ICT in
education. To improve this situation, the management decided that individ-
ual ICT action plans for each teacher needed to be developed and imple-
mented. The teachers state that these action plans have proved to be an
excellent incentive for directed learning and the acquisition of the ICT skills
they have required.
These different factors have triggered heated discussions among the teach-
ing staff concerning the usefulness of ICT as an educational tool. The
strength of this debate has been the unanimous support for, and ownership
of, the ICT strategy which the school has chosen.
6.3.3.1 Description
The physical fabric of the school was designed around the pedagogical prin-
ciples which the principal wanted to promote71. Accordingly, the school was
organised into different physical sections corresponding to the locations of
the classrooms for the different age groups.
From the main entrance, and at the very centre of the school, is a hall with a
particularly high ceiling. The hall contains a central stage where the pupils
can gather for communal events. The gathering together of the pupils is a
key element in the school’s pedagogical approach, and is therefore sup-
ported by the school’s structure.
Another dominant physical feature is the physical transparency of the class-

rooms. All the doors are semi-transparent, and both interior and exterior
windows enable anyone outside to monitor what is going on in the class-
room.
The De Lindt school has opted not to construct a central computer lab. In-
stead, it has integrated its computers into the classrooms, with an average
of three per room. It was a conscious decision to make the computers a visi-
71
Mr. Wim Goossens has been the principal since the construction of the school.
111

ble part of the classroom landscape. The introduction of three computers
into the classrooms makes them seem somewhat cramped.
Organizationally, each section has a teacher who is designated to be responsible for

that section’s ICT equipment.
The teaching staff have jointly defined the standards for the content of the
software they consider to be pedagogically appropriate for the school. As a
minimum, the software should:
x Differentiate between different skill levels
x Contain drill and practice functions
x Track student performance
x Promote problem solving
x Be related to the syllabus
x Be affordable.
The small size of the Dutch population also places natural constraints on the
potential market for Dutch-oriented content software, as well as for software
that coheres with the learning outcomes prescribed by the Dutch curriculum.
The schools mostly use Dutch-oriented content software plus some British-
oriented content software. The latter has limitations, because it does not
correspond to the learning outcomes being sought in the Dutch context72.
In the older classes, software applications such as the Microsoft Office pack-
age are also being used, as is the Kennisnet email system with which the
students communicate in English with students in other countries.
There is a realization that the school’s computer hardware is rapidly becom-

ing obsolete, and that new funds must be found if its equipment is to meet
current standards.
6.3.3.2 Discussion
An assessment of the available resources points to the existence of several

framework conditions which are hindering the school’s further development.
Firstly, the space available in the school is physically limited. Increasing the
number of computers (even using smaller laptops, flat screens etc.) will sig-
nificantly decrease the space available for physical activity etc.
Secondly, the availability of content programs is limited, as the small Dutch

market for content software provides little incentive for companies to de-
velop new programs. The Dutch Ministry of Education is acutely aware of this
limitation and is subsidizing more than 500 content development and profes-
sional development network projects plus approximately 1000 implementa-
tion projects in order to stimulate the use of ICT in the classroom73. Never-
theless, the rapid rate of both software and hardware innovation is bound to
make such projects reactive. Therefore, to rely on content programmes as
the central pillar in ICT integration may prove particularly costly and difficult
for countries like the Netherlands which have small populations.
72
The Dutch Ministry of Education is acutely aware of this limitation, and is subsidizing
more than 500 content development and professional development network projects
(www.ictonderwijs.nl/subsidie/, see “projects”) and approximately 1000 implementa-
tion projects (e.g. www.grassroots.nl ) in order to stimulate the use of ICT in the
classroom.
73
www.ictonderwijs.nl/subsidie/ (see “projects”) (e.g. www.grassroots.nl )
112

A third problem affecting ICT integration is the existence of a pace of tech-
nological development that rapidly makes hardware obsolete. Within five
years, a significant financial investment in hardware will have become out-
dated and require to be renewed.
Finally, the school’s implementation of its ICT strategy has been successful,
as it has acknowledged and embraced the different perspectives and levels
of ICT literacy and has provided the teachers with incentives to develop from
their individual starting points. The use of ICT action plans that set individual
learning targets has proved to be particularly adept as a vehicle for learning.
6.3.4.1 Description
The De Lindt School does not adhere to a particular educational system or pedagogical
approach. It states that it has:
“…taken from various educational systems what is best for

the children attending De Lindt. Besides contemporary teach-
ing methods with pupils working actively in groups, we use
proven traditional methods. We are an ordinary primary
school where children are taught all the knowledge, skills and
attitudes they need to prepare them for secondary education
and to develop into independent, broad-minded individuals.
Arithmetic, language skills, reading and writing are of crucial
importance in our school. But we also pay much attention to
social and creative development; learning to deal with values
and standards; learning to deal with one's emotions; peace
education, etc.”74.
Specifically, the principal states that the school seeks to foster a learning
environment that:
x Makes the pupils feel happy and secure
x Challenges them both academically and socially
x Teaches them to become independent learners
x Is organized to enable the pupils to work by themselves, learn at their
own speed, learn from one another, and use their own interests as a ve-
hicle for learning.
In order to achieve these overall goals, the management and the teaching
staff insist on using a coherent teaching system in order to ensure that the
pupils will be able to meet uniform standards that have been set for the en-
tire school. This also implies that when moving from one age group to the
next, the students will already know the routines and rules practised in the
classroom, creating a minimum of integration problems.
Such coherence is ensured through:

x Similar organization of the daily routines
x Similar approaches to learning through individual and group work
x Similar designation of tasks.
For example, the school day commences and ends with the group gathering
in a circle. The reason for this is explained as follows:
74
See De Lindt’s Eschola school portrait: http://home-
1.tiscali.nl/~lindt/engelseschoolgids.html
113

The children are regularly asked, e.g. at the beginning and
the end of each school day, to sit in a circle. Thus gathered
together, they are directly in touch with each other. They are
encouraged to tell about their adventures and experiences.
Conversations and discussions with an educational purpose
are part of the process. Agreements and bargains are ex-
changed and explanations given. Stories are told, the chil-
dren read aloud or deliver a speech on a set subject, they
make music, etc. During these sessions the children learn
how to express themselves, but they also learn how to listen
to the other children or to their teacher. The circle meetings
are an important tool for promoting mutual understanding.
Within this social environment, the school seeks to instil an interest in inde-
pendent learning, with the teachers acting as guides and tutors rather than
instructors.
In this connection, the teachers stress that De Lindt is not a computer-based

school. Instead, it uses ICT as one of several integrated teaching tools.
Likewise, ICT literacy is not a learning objective in itself, it is something that
will be acquired as a natural extension of the way the student learns in the
social environment.
6.3.4.2 Discussion
The point that the school does not rely on ICT as the sole learning tool is
important. The teachers argue that ICT is only relevant in some learning
situations, and should therefore be applied selectively.
In this regard, it should be mentioned that an increase in the use of com-

puters with the purpose of expanding the educational use of ICT would re-
quire further purchases to increase the computer/student ratio, which would
increase both the short term and long term investment needed in both hard-
ware and software.
On a different note, the students emphasized that the use of computer-

based learning is interesting and stimulating because it offers an alternative
to traditional teaching methods. They also emphasized that some programs
were boring. One might suspect that the lure of computers as a stimulating
alternative might wear out with too much computer time.
The parents also agree with the notion that the school should not be pursu-
ing a learning strategy based on an increased reliance on computers. In their
view, ICT should be only one learning tool among several available at the
school, and they stress that the school’s high standards are created by the
learning environment as a whole. They do, however, acknowledge that com-
puters may be useful for generating good PR for the school.
The parents interviewed also emphasize that Stiphout is a prosperous area

populated by resourceful families containing mainly resourceful children. This
aspect of the students’ socio-economic background is also important for an
understanding of why the learning environment functions as it does. How-
ever, the management points out that the school’s grade 8 results in the
national curriculum’s CITO tests are comparatively much better than those
for other Netherlands schools with a similar socio-economic background.
114

The structure and motivation required for independent learning may be more
difficult for children with learning problems, or for children who simply find
school work boring and have trouble motivating themselves. They can cope
more easily in an individualized learning environment such as the De Lindt
school.
The management has pointed out in response to criticism that especially

those children with learning problems have benefited from the use of ICT.
The school has implemented a special testing and observation structure
which makes it possible to track the performance of every child. Children
with learning or behavioural problems benefit from a special programme and
approach. Every month the team of teachers for each relevant age group
and a pedagogical specialist draw up new plans for these children.
The management also emphasizes that the individualized learning environ-

ment at the De Lindt school is well known as being one in which children
with learning problems will receive professional help. One element in this is
the use of adaptive computer programs. The also point to the fact that the
number of children who have to be sent to a school for children with special
needs is lower than the average for the area.
6.3.5.1 Description
In the course of the case study, observations were conducted in three differ-
ent classrooms in the lower, middle and upper sections of the school. The
use of computers was similar in all classrooms: (i) The computers were lo-
cated in the classroom; (ii) the computers were being used in parallel with
the teacher-student instruction; and (iii) students alternated in working at
the computer workstations.
The pictures below illustrate the location and use of the computers while
other children were working on different topics.
115

Figure 6.7
Figure 6.8
The following text describes the learning environment in the middle section
of the school. On the day our observation took place, Group 3-4 consisted of
19 pupils (8 girls and 11 boys) and one male teacher:
The group 3-4 students are divided into two groups.
One group is gathered at the centre table. They appear to be

the class’s older students (grade 4). The other group mem-
116

bers are sitting at various tables located around the perime-
ter of the classroom. The pencils and booklets indicate that
other students usually sit beside them at these tables.
This centre group is performing arithmetic, with the teacher

instructing from in front of the blackboard, and the students
raise their hands in order to answer his questions. Some-
times the students are called to the blackboard to give their
answers. The topic is metric spatial units.
The other group is doing individual assignments on the com-

puter (the students alternate whenever they answer ten
questions correctly). The screen shows whose turn is next.
The activity generates several movements back and forth
from the computer workstations. The group is using a con-
tent programme. All the assignments are maths-related. The
pupils are obviously well acquainted with the working of the
software, and the method they are using to answer the ques-
tions does not appear to be new to them.
I am later informed that their drill results are being evalu-

ated by the teacher in order to assess whether their skills
level meets the required standards.
Figure 6.9 illustrates the movements in the class during the lesson. The
numbered circles represent the students, and the numbers depict the se-
quence in which they moved to and from the computer workstations.
The figure shows that during one lesson, 12 of the 19 students in the group
were working on computers for between 3-8 minutes.
As was mentioned at the beginning of the chapter, the use of the computer
described above was similar in all the classes observed.
117

Figure 6.9 Movements observed in the classroom during the
lesson
Windows Windows
6
TABLE
5 TABLE
10
13
3
TABLE
4 2 Blackboard
TABLE
9
7 12
8 1
TABLE
11
TABLE
TABLE
KITCHEN
Workstations
Windows
TABLE
CHAIR
6.3.5.2 Discussion
The structuring of the learning situation enables distinctions to be made be-

tween the individual learning needs and outcomes of the different grades in
the age group.
A further distinction is made at the individual level. The grade 4 students

engage in one kind of learning situation which involves close dialogue with
the teacher. The grade 3 students are involved in individual learning activi-
ties at the computers and desks.
The structure of the learning situation has several advantages – for instance,
the students learn to take responsibility for their own learning through using
the computer for problem solving, or through reading.
In other words, the children learn to engage in social activities in the class-
room setting which enhances their role as independent learners. The obser-
vation exercise made it evident that the majority of the children were well
adapted to assuming a role as independent students. When interviewed, the
children themselves emphasized the challenges and advantages of pursuing
their “own” interests.
118

However, the structure of the learning situation, with such prominent em-
phasis on individualized learning, also entails potential disadvantages.
Firstly, the physical movement in the classroom may cause some students to
lose concentration on their own activities. Several students were observed
watching what others were doing rather than concentrating on ‘doing their
own thing’.
This concern was not shared by the staff and management of the school,
who considered that the level of concentration was appropriate. They argue
that the test results and observations demonstrate good results. When they
suspect that the concentration of a particular student could be a problem,
they either move the child to another location in the classroom or assign it to
special concentration training.
Secondly, the movement may also cause considerable interruption and noise
in the room which also interferes with the attention of the students. There-
fore, the success of the learning approach may be dependent on the stu-
dents being able to observe the rules of acceptable behaviour in the class-
room. In turn, the teachers feel they have met this challenge by teaching
their pupils to work silently.
Thirdly, some parents have voiced a concern that the approach to learning
made it difficult to compare and assess the skills and learning needs of the
individual students, and therefore to identify when special needs education
and a corresponding intervention was necessary.
In response, the management and staff point out that their testing and ob-
servation systems are used to assess the students on a regular basis75. The
teachers seek to assess the skills and learning needs of the pupils and adapt
their programme or individual approach to them. A teacher with specialised
pedagogical training helps the other teachers to adopt the best approach.
Finally, some parents argued that the focus on individualized learning made
it easier for those children who were not ‘school minded’ or who were out-
right lazy to evade control and avoid being confronted with their failure to
participate, and ultimately with their failure to learn.
While some of these anxieties could reflect any learning environment con-
sisting of more than a few individuals, the concern about individual motiva-
tions for learning is valid.
The learning approach practised in the school makes understanding each

student’s motivation and ‘vehicles for learning’ essential. In this sense, the
teacher’s traditional role as instructor is gradually redefined to be that of
coach and motivator for the individual student. This redefinition of the tea-
75
The observation system is implemented throughout the school. It comprises a list
covering approximately 100 questions and observation items which every teacher has
to fill out three times a year. The observation items cover: (i) social/emotional behav-
iour, (ii) language, (iii) reading, (iv) maths, (v) environmental studies, (vi) physical
education, (vii) behaviour, and (viii) arts. The teaching staff uses tests to evaluate
some items. For others, the teachers conduct observations in the classroom. Accord-
ingly, the teachers compile reports based on the above-mentioned observation items
three times a year. The report also includes data from discussions with parents. When
necessary, the special education teacher helps the teachers to devise a special training
programme for individual children. In addition to this observation programme, the
school uses tests compiled by the Netherlands’ national testing institution, CITO. The
tests provide information about how children are doing individually, and also provides
data enabling comparisons to be drawn with other schools.
119

cher’s job description needs to be clear and specific in order to ensure that
the students actually receive the support they need, and to ensure that their
progress is being continuously monitored.
6.3.6.1 Description
As mentioned above, the tracking and measurement of individual perform-

ance was a prerequisite for using the software at the De Lindt Elementary
School. The results are used by the teachers to assess the learning needs of
the individual students. In this sense, the software supports the overall stra-
tegy of the school’s learning environment, which places an emphasis on the
individual learning of each student.
In addition to the testing performed using the software, formalized testing of

the pupils is carried out by examination prior to their transfer to secondary
school. Tests are carried out in all subjects. The school also uses an observa-
tion system to assess students regularly76.
In relation to the evaluation and assessment of the school’s use of ICT, the
Dutch Ministry of Education (the “Inspectie van het onderwijs”) visits the
country’s schools and assesses their use of ICT. Its assessments are written
up in “school portraits” that are disseminated to interested stakeholders.
6.3.6.2 Discussion
The explicit performance measurement criterion enables the software to

support the school’s individualized learning strategies. However, for the fo-
cused use of performance measurement, the software requires individuals to
log on in order to be able to track their performance.
The teachers and parents report that the students are doing better than the
national average in their examination results. This may indicate that the
school has been successful in creating a learning environment that suits the
social characteristics of the student population in the area.
6.3.7 The future
The interviews with teachers and the principal at the school have revealed
four major future challenges. There can be grouped under the following hea-
dings:
x Securing funding for a new generation of equipment;
x Spatial challenges to the acquisition of more computers;
x Availability of suitable content programs;
x Increasing the computer literacy of the staff.
The first three are structural framework conditions that are difficult for the
school to change. The latter is continuously being worked on at the school.
x Securing funding for a new generation of equipment. One major chal-

lenge perceived by the management and staff is the ability to secure
funds to renew equipment that is rapidly becoming outdated. The con-
76
See footnote 75 for a description of the observation system.
120

siderable investment in computers and network can be met from the
school’s operational budget, but the system administration needed to
operate the network is unaffordable from existing means. This implies
that funding must be raised from elsewhere for the renewal of the exist-
ing network so that continued progress in the use of ICT in the learning
environment is ensured.
x Spatial challenges to the acquisition of more computers. The school was

not built with the accommodation of a large number of computers in
mind. It will be difficult to increase the computer/student ratio without
having a severe impact on the available space in the school. The man-
agement and staff have considered investing in laptop rather than desk-
top computers as one way to resolve the problem.
x Availability of suitable content programs. Another problem encountered

by the teachers is the lack of suitable content programmes. It is the ex-
perience of the teachers that only limited a supply of relevant Dutch con-
tent programmes exists, and they tend to use British software to the ex-
tent that it coheres with Dutch curricular learning outcomes. Despite go-
vernment efforts to remedy the situation, the unmet need for adequate
software is affecting the teaching staff.
x Increasing the computer literacy of the staff. The computer literacy of

the teaching staff is still variable, which means that the opportunities
identified for using ICT and the actual use of computers in the classroom
are both still somewhat teacher-dependent. Further efforts will be made
to continue professional development which focuses on using ICT as an
educational tool.
Given the organization of the Dutch educational system, it is highly likely

that any further investment in ICT will have to be sourced from national
rather than municipal funding.
The De Lindt Elementary School distinguishes itself through its integration of

a shared educational vision and approach which encompasses all the classes
in the school. Although the school does not adhere to any single educational
philosophy, a number of common features are discernible in the teaching
methods.
However, the successful integration of any pedagogical concept across all the
classes is dependent on the active support and motivation of all the teach-
ers. This has been accomplished through a bottom-up approach in which the
management has actively involved the teaching staff in devising the concept
and in defining the extent to which it should affect the structure of the les-
sons and the weekly syllabus.
Also, the application of a similar structure and organisation of time creates

continuity for all the students, so that they remain familiar with the concept
and structure of the tuition when they move from one age grouping to an-
other. This gives them a sense of security and comfort which is appreciated
by parents and teachers alike.
Finally, the De Lindt Elementary School’s management and staff emphasize

the importance of defining an overall ICT strategy and constructing individ-
ual development plans for each teacher to enable them to support the over-
all strategy. The benefit of the individual development plan is that each indi-
121

vidual takes ownership of it and feels motivated to reach the objectives it
defines. Also, the plans take as their starting point the ICT needs and liter-
acy of the individual staff members, rather than defining a collective level of
literacy and skills to be acquired that does not actually correspond to the use
of ICT envisaged in the classroom.
6.3.8 Sources
6.3.8.1 Published sources
De Lindt Elementary School’s Eschola school portrait:

http://home-1.tiscali.nl/~lindt/engelseschoolgids.html
Ministry of Education, Culture and Research (Inspectie van het On-

derwijs (2000))
“ICT schoolportretten. Vier basisscolen en een PABO in beeld”, The Hague.
Ministry of Education, Culture and Research

The Dutch challenge in perspective. The Dutch challenge set side by side.
http://www.ictonderwijs.nl/eindrapportage/dutch_challenge.pdf
Ministry of Education, Culture and Research (2001)

Giving or taking control. A political agenda for the information society. A
report to the Dutch cabinet on governance in the information age.
http://www.infodrome.nl/english/rapport.html

A four-way balance. Survey of current practice with a view to the effective
and efficient use of ICT in education.
http://www.ictonderwijs.nl/documenten/vier_in_balans_engels.doc

ICT Education Monitor 2000-2001
http://www.ictonderwijs.nl/documenten/ict_monitor_engels_2002.pdf

ICT in education in the Netherlands. Current situation and agenda for the future.
http://www.ictonderwijs.nl/documenten/ict_in_Education_november2000.pd
f
6.3.8.2 Interviewees
Representative of the Board of Elementary Schools in Irvin Barnard

Helmond
Alderman of the Municipality of Helmond Cees Bethlehem
Civil Servant Municipality of Helmond Frank Engels
Principal of De Lindt Elementary School Wim Goossens
Teachers at De Lindt Elementary School
Pupils at De Lindt Elementary School
Parents at De Lindt Elementary School
122

6.4 Gylemuir Primary School, the Municipality of Edinburgh
The case study was undertaken at Gylemuir Primary School in the municipal-
ity of Edinburgh in Scotland in May 2003.
The Gylemuir Primary School case study has comprised the following activi-
ties:
1) A thorough desk study of relevant documents, including strategies,
work plans, internal evaluations etc., plus the overall structural fra-
mework conditions
2) An interview with the head teacher of the school
3) A interview with the assistant head about the use of ICT and examples
of projects
4) An interview with a school administrator working in the City of Edin-
burgh Council’s schools administration department
5) An interview with the City of Edinburgh Council’s Executive Member for
Education
6) A focus group interview with parents of children attending Gylemuir
primary school
7) A focus group interview with the school’s ICT co-ordinators
9) Two group interviews with pupils
10) Two observations of learning situations in two different classes
11) Observation of the general physical environment of the school, includ-
ing its architecture
Gylemuir Primary School has a roll of 540 pupils plus a further 120 children
in nursery classes. It serves an area in the west of the City of Edinburgh
between the new Gyle Business Park and Corstorphine village. The school
opened in 1968, and in 2000 a new early education department was opened.
The new department houses 2 nursery classes and 6 classrooms for children
in Primary 1 and 2. Besides this there is a wing for Primary 3 and 4 with 6
classrooms, science lab, computer suite and dance/drama hall, and a wing
with 8 classrooms for Primary 5, 6 and 7, dining room, TV area, library,
gymnasium and medical room. Outside, the school has different playgrounds
for the different age groups.
123

The school has a head teacher, a deputy head and two assistant head teach-
ers. Besides these senior staff, there are nineteen full-time class teachers, a
school secretary, and a school auxiliary. There is also a full-time learning
support teacher and peripatetic specialist teachers for subjects such as cello
instruction, physical education and music. The school also has a number of
assistants who carry out different tasks such as helping the secretary and
assisting the classroom teachers.
The district served by the school is a typical middle-class area mainly inhab-
ited by native Scots. 5% of the pupils at the school have a foreign back-
ground, and 10 pupils are assisted by an interpreter.
This section describes the framework conditions for Gylemuir Primary’s ac-
tivities, including both national initiatives and regional and local policies and
programmes, and accordingly also comprises a brief introduction to the
overall framework governing the work of schools in Edinburgh in particular
and in Scotland in general. It describes both the factors promoting Gyle-
muir’s work and those impeding it.
6.4.1.1 State and city roles
Education is full-time and compulsory in Scotland for all children between

the ages of 5 and 16. In Scotland, the transition from primary to secondary
education normally occurs at age 1277.
The Scottish Executive Education Department (SEED) is responsible for ad-

ministering Scottish policy concerning pre-school and school education, chil-
dren and young people, as well as tourism, culture and sport. SEED covers
five main areas of responsibility, each managed by a member of the De-
partmental Management Board. One of these is the Schools Group, which is
responsible for policy covering the national priorities for education, teachers
and schools, New Community Schools, social justice, school ethos and pupil
welfare, health education, special educational needs, support and inclusion,
new educational developments and qualifications, assessment and the cur-
riculum. One of the agencies linked to the Scottish Executive Education De-
partment is Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education (HMIE), whose mission
is to promote improvement in the standards, quality and attainment
achieved by the Scottish education system.
The Department's main partners are Scotland's 32 unitary local authorities.

One of these is the Education Department of Edinburgh. The City of Edin-
burgh Council Education Service manages and co-ordinates the delivery of
the Council’s educational provision as directed by the Education Committee
and statutory obligations.
6.4.1.2 National Grid for Learning Scotland & Edinburgh Grid for Learning
The National Grid for Learning Scotland website contains a collection of in-
formation and digital resources developed specifically to support Scottish
education. Due to the educational, cultural and political differences between
Scotland and the rest of the UK, the NGfL Scotland team was appointed in
September 1999 by the Scottish Executive Education Department to drive
forward the initiative in Scotland.
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The National Grid for Learning Scotland contains, inter alia, a number of grid
resources for both practitioners and learners. For instance, pupils of different
age groups can access appropriate edutainment programmes for a number
of subjects that are directly linked to the curriculum, and teachers have the
opportunity of using different resources for teaching as well. Additionally, it
is possible to arrange for someone from the NGfL to come out and teach
pupils the use of such things as a tool for creating their own homepage, or
how to participate in the Grid Club.
6.4.1.3 Education Act & Curriculum
The Education Act and the National Priorities/Guidelines define the overall
objectives for schoolwork in Scotland. The school curriculum comprises all
the learning and other activities that each school provides for its pupils. This
includes the National Priorities/Guidelines, religious education, collective
worship, sex education and careers education. The school curriculum has two
aims:
x To provide opportunities for all pupils to learn and achieve
x To promote pupils' spiritual, moral social and cultural development and
to prepare them for the opportunities, responsibilities and experiences of
life.
For all pupils, the National Priorities/Guidelines guarantee an entitlement to

a number of areas of learning and the development of the knowledge, un-
derstanding, skills and attitudes necessary for their self-fulfilment and devel-
opment as active and responsible citizens, irrespective of social background,
culture, race, gender, disability or differences in ability. It also makes the
expectations concerning learning and attainment explicit to both pupils, par-
ents, teachers, governors, employers and the public, and establishes na-
tional standards for the performance of all pupils in the subjects it covers. In
addition, the National Priorities/Guidelines contains an overarching statutory
inclusion statement. The current version of the National Priorities/Guidelines
took effect in August 2000.
The National Priorities/Guidelines also sets out two themes that must be
taught across the curriculum. These are:
x Use of language (reading, writing, speaking, listening)
x The use of information and communication technology (except for non-
core foundation subjects at Key Stage 1 and PE).
Information and communications technology (ICT) has been compulsory for

all pupils aged 5 to 16 since the inception of the National Priori-
ties/Guidelines. Gylemuir Primary has incorporated the use of ICT into all
subjects.
Practical science work is integrated into the selected themes. Pupils are in-
volved in experimenting, devising fair tests, interpreting data and organizing
information.
Each subject’s educational objectives are described on the school’s website.

Emphasis is placed on teaching and learning in accordance with the national
objectives, supplying parents with information on the progress of their chil-
dren, the treatment of each child as a unique individual, the development of
creativity, stimulating the children’s senses, and the use of different ways of
learning.
There are minor disagreements among teachers and management at Gyle-

muir concerning how the National Priorities/Guidelines are promoting or hin-
125

dering new approaches to the planning and implementation of teaching and
learning activities. The teachers say that they are severely tied by the cur-
riculum, because it states how many minutes teachers must teach each sub-
ject every week. The school management thinks that it is possible to reor-
ganize the educational delivery within the framework of the curriculum.
However, the teachers do agree that the clear definition of the topics appli-
cable to each subject is an advantage.
Learning and Teaching Scotland has what is known as ‘days out’, when tea-
chers can inspect the new learning materials sold by the organization.
6.4.1.4 Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education
One of the agencies linked to the Scottish Executive Education Department is

Her Majesty's Inspectorate of Education (HMIE), which began operating as
an Executive Agency of the Scottish Executive on 1 April 2001. HMIE is di-
rectly accountable to the Scottish Ministers for the standard of its work. Her
Majesty's Senior Chief Inspector leads HM Inspectorate, and has direct ac-
cess to Ministers.
HMIE operates independently and impartially, and its mission is to promote

the improvement of the standards, quality and level of attainment of the
Scottish education system. Its independent inspections, reviews and public
reporting concerning educational establishments, community learning and
the education functions of local authorities contribute strongly to the con-
tinuous improvement of the quality of Scottish education. HMIE also informs
parents and the Scottish Ministers, as well as schools, colleges and other
providers of education, about standards and quality in education. This is do-
ne by collating, analyzing and publishing the evidence obtained in the course
of its evaluations.
Gylemuir Primary was inspected by HMIE in 2000, and the inspection was
followed up in 2002. Some of the key strengths of Gylemuir are:
x The overall high-quality provision for children’s development and learn-
ing in the nursery;
x The very positive ethos, which embraced parents and the local commu-
nity;
x The consistently good and often very high quality of teaching;
x The excellent implementation of the school development plan, which
focused strongly on measures to improve attainment;
x A strong emphasis on self-evaluation, and the very good monitoring by
senior staff of learning and teaching in both the nursery and the school;
x The commitment of staff, both teaching and non-teaching, and the high
level of staff morale; and
x The excellent leadership shown by the head teacher, and the strong sen-
se of teamwork among the staff78.
Of course, a positive evaluation like this has a strong impact, and encour-
ages both management and staff to both maintain and improve the quality
of their work.
6.4.1.5 The regional and local levels
The City of Edinburgh has been in the forefront of ICT implementation for a
long time. It was one of the first cities in Scotland to establish networks, and
the first to provide its citizens with e-mail addresses. It was also one of the
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126

first cities to realize the necessity of establishing networks for schools, and
also to give each teacher and pupil an e-mail address. In 1997, the Council
made a big leap of faith, selling a piece of land and spending the proceeds
on broadband access for every school in the city. By it had accomplished its
goals. In addition to the money raised by the land sale, the National Grid for
Learning has yielded circa £1.5 million per year for 3-4 years, which has
been used to buy computers. At the time of our visit, there was an average
of 5 pupils per computer in Edinburgh’s schools. The schools themselves
control 90% of the budget.
Every year additional centrally-distributed funding for the schools becomes

available. However, at the local level it is never known how much this will
amount to or when it will be distributed, which makes it hard to plan ahead.
Previously, the IT Support Unit (ITSU) was in charge of IT services, but so-
me of these have now been outsourced to British Telecom Integra (BTI).
After the outsourcing of some of ITSU’s tasks to British Telecom Integra, the
schools must pay for the services being provided. For instance, the schools
pay a certain amount to BTI every year for such items as network services.
When buying Apple Macintosh computers, schools can sign AppleCare con-
tracts. The outsourcing of services has not been without problems. For in-
stance, because of the involvement of BTI it has been hard to implement
changes related to wireless networking (to address security problems) and
video conferencing at the local political level.
ITSU had previously played a constructive role in the resolution of technical

problems. Prior to the outsourcing, the teachers at Gylemuir Primary consid-
ered that ITSU’s service had been very good.
The City of Edinburgh has also drawn up a plan for the use of ICT that en-
compasses specific goals and objectives for each step and level, and includes
the use of digital cameras and e-mail. The main objectives for the use of ICT
in schools are to give children basic skills in using ICT, which has almost
been achieved by now. ICT is regarded as a medium for enhancing learning,
and in the long run it should contribute to a pedagogical change towards
more differentiated learning situations.
6.4.1.6 Masterclass
Every council was asked by the Government to nominate 25 teachers to par-

ticipate in a Masterclass. The purpose of the Masterclass is to lead the future
development of ICT use in schools. In Edinburgh, the Executive Member for
Education calls the Masterclass his evangelists (being a church minister him-
self). The Masterclass has inter alia travelled to other places to obtain inspi-
ration, and is co-operating with ITSU on laying the groundwork for future
developments. A representative from Gylemuir is a participant in the group.
6.4.2 The organisational setting
When you enter the school, your eyes involuntarily alight on a slideshow on
the wall directly opposite the entrance, and your ears are filled with quiet
music. The slides on the wall show display children’s activities at the school,
as well as those pupils who have been honoured for their special achieve-
ments in that week. When the new wing of the school was finished, the mu-
nicipality offered the headmaster an artwork in the form of a tapestry with
which to decorate the school entrance. She declined, and decided to buy a
projector instead so that she could show the school as being a place of live,
exciting activities.
127

The sense that creativity has high priority at Gylemuir comes across
strongly. Around the entrance and in the corridors and classrooms, there are
amazing exhibitions of children’s artwork. In the Primary 1 and 2 section
there are small gardens tended by the children, as well as water tanks and
sandpits for them to experiment and play with.
The school was built in 1968, and was extended by a new wing that opened
around Easter 2000. The original school building is long, so prior to the work
starting on the new wing the head teacher expressed the desire for it to be
constructed at the centre of the existing building, with the aim of uniting the
school’s activities.
6.4.2.1 The school organization
The school has a head teacher, a deputy head and two assistant head teach-
ers. Besides these senior staff, there are nineteen full-time class teachers, a
school secretary, and a school auxiliary. There is also a full-time learning
support teacher and peripatetic specialist teachers for subjects such as cello
instruction, physical education and music. The school also has a number of
assistants who carry out different tasks such as helping the secretary and
assisting the classroom teachers.
The teachers mainly work individually in their teaching. However, they do

co-operate in quite a few activities. The class teachers teach a single year
group, which means that the pupils move on to a new class teacher every
year.
6.4.2.2 School culture
The head teacher has been at the school for four years, and was previously
the head of another school. According to parents, teachers and pupils, her
arrival changed the school culture radically. The parents have described it
thus: Previously they felt that they were not at all welcome on the school
premises, and hardly dared to open its doors. Now they feel not only that
they are welcome, but that they are also vital partners of the staff at the
school.
The head teacher herself says that when she took up her job at the school, a
very closed attitude existed among both staff and parents, and there was
very bad discipline. This meant that teachers were shouting at the children,
and that children were constantly being sent to her office because of bad
behaviour. The head teacher has worked hard to change the culture. Accord-
ing to her, it took two or three years to bring about a positive and peaceful
classroom atmosphere, which has also had consequences for the staff. Nine
staff members have left the school since she started, although none have
been fired.
Some of the school’s basic principles arise from the head teacher’s desire to
make a real difference to the children attending the school. Prior to her ap-
pointment, reading, writing, mathematics and sport comprised the main fo-
cus of the teaching. Those subjects are still highly prioritized, but emphasis
is also laid on developing the creativity, openness and tolerance of both em-
ployees and children. For instance, she has invited delegations from South
America or India to come and visit the school when they are in Edinburgh.
She has also asked some of the teachers to participate in school presenta-
tions and meet these delegations, and asked the pupils to introduce the
school to them.
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The overall organizational and pedagogical principles of the school are
strongly inspired by the educational approach taken in the Italian towns of
Pistoia and Reggio Emilia, which the head teacher has visited. Some of their
principles have been applied at Gylemuir, such as the idea of documenting
what the children have been doing during the day. As will be described later,
multimedia presentations and films are being used in Gylemuir’s documenta-
tion efforts.
6.4.2.3 School uniform
The policy of pupils wearing school uniforms has been agreed by the P.T.A.
and School Board, and is actively encouraged by the staff. The uniform con-
sists of white shirts, a school tie, grey or tartan skirts for girls, grey trousers
for boys, grey jerseys, cardigans, white polo shirts and grey sweatshirts. The
school encourages the wearing of the sweatshirt, which is printed with the
school logo. Primary 7 pupils wear a blue sweatshirt to reflect their special
responsibilities. The school uniform decision is based on the presumption
that the uniform helps to create a team spirit among the pupils and discour-
ages sartorial competition.
6.4.2.4 School behaviour
Gylemuir has a school handbook which is displayed on the Internet with the
primary purpose of informing parents about the work of the school. Some of
the main behavioural objectives are described in the handbook:
Pupils and staff agreed on the following expectations of behaviour at Gy-
lemuir:
1) We are polite and honest.
2) We are kind and considerate.
3) We are ready to learn.
4) We think about safety.
5) We are responsible.
School and classroom rules reflect these expectations.
Gylemuir School operates a positive approach to discipline.
School and class rules are kept to a minimum with the intention of pro-
moting a positive and safe learning/playing environment. P1 - 7 pupils,
with guidance from the class teacher, formulate their own class rules. P4
- 7 pupils also make additions to and sign our school charter.
Thoughtfulness for others, and responsible attitudes to work and behav-

iour, will be recognised by praise and encouragement. Individual pupils
may also be rewarded with house points, stickers or merit certificates.
Individual pupils may be supported through behavioural sheets or con-

tracts in which mutually acceptable targets are set.
P4 - P7 pupil panel members, elected by their peers, meet with the Head
teacher on a regular basis to discuss relevant issues. If a child is un-
happy about an aspect of school life, they are encouraged to tell their
pupil representatives.
Primary 7 pupils have special responsibilities, e.g. class partners during

wet intervals; Book Club; hospitality, toilet committees, library monitors.
129

In return they have privileges, e.g. supervised hall time rewards, seat at
Assembly79.
6.4.2.5 ICT co-ordinators
Under the school’s ICT strategy, it must be easy for the teachers to use ICT
both practically and technically. To ensure this, the school has appointed
four ICT co-ordinators from among its staff. Each one has different responsi-
bilities, which include:
1. Relationship of ICT to the curriculum
2. Investigation of resources
3. Developing resources
4. Establishment of a Learning Resource Centre
5. Website
6. Use of PhotoShop
7. Use of iMovie
8. Running an after-school club.
The co-ordinators not only support the other teachers of the school on re-
quest, but also initiate activities among them.
6.4.2.6 Teacher education
ELITE is a training course in which teachers learn new ICT skills, and is fun-
ded by the New Options Fund (NOF). All the teachers in the school have
been encouraged to participate in ELITE, and at the time of our visit to the
school all of them had actually done so. Among the incentives for them to
participate is that they are paid for taking part. At the outset of the course,
some of the teachers were beginners, while some were already highly profi-
cient. The teachers say that the more confident they become in using com-
puters, the better they are able to use them in a cross-curricular manner.
The general opinion of the teachers is that the ELITE course was excellent
and that it has brought all of them up to speed in ICT. Part of the course
involves a specialist visiting the school to assist and support the teachers in
their activities.
There are still differences in the teachers’ skill levels, but most of them are
using their ICT skills, and the management’s general view is that everyone is
on an individual journey, sometimes involving rapid progress and sometimes
requiring certain areas to be revisited.
Besides the more formal courses, there is a lot of learning and competence
development taking place among the teachers of the school. For instance,
they hold workshops for each other on specific subjects, present interesting
information to one other, or simply ask each other for help when they need
it. Sometimes teachers are bought free within the budget. The teachers are
required to make use of what they have learned during their courses.
In addition, the ICT co-ordinators attend conferences and seminars. A high

priority is assigned to expending time and money in obtaining inspiration
outside the school setting. It is considered desirable for more than one tea-
cher to participate, because this is important for enabling some of the ideas
to be implemented in the school routines later on.
79
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130

Yet another way of developing teachers’ competencies is to co-operate with
other schools, for instance in the Comenius project, or through participating
in a science week with other local schools.
How do the school management and ICT co-ordinators encourage the other
teachers to take an interest in using ICT or multimedia? One of the things
they emphasize as being important is the fact that good examples often in-
spire others to use ICT. For instance, some of the teachers made a farewell
movie for one of their colleagues who was leaving the school. When the
other teachers saw it, they became interested in producing movies them-
selves.
Another factor is the existence of a very open attitude from management in

response to teachers with new ideas to present. It is usually possible for
them to try out their ideas, and good ideas often snowball and spread to the
other teachers.
6.4.2.7 Activities other than teaching
In addition to the learning and teaching activities, a number of other activi-

ties take place in the school outside normal school hours. For instance, the
school is currently running extra-curricular activities such as football, short
tennis, basketball, a gymnastics coaching club for all ages, a computer club,
a dance club and a swimming club. Most of the clubs are free, while some of
them charge nominal fees. The teachers run these clubs in their spare time.
There is also an after-school club run by the parents which provides care
facilities for children after school hours.
Once a month on a Friday afternoon, the pupils undertake specific tasks in a

variety of areas.
For instance, P5 orders fruit as part of the SnackerTack initiative, and it is

also the pupils’ job to show the school to visitors.
6.4.2.8 The reason for the school’s success
The daily schoolwork is organized rather traditionally, in the sense that the
teachers teach unaccompanied in the framework of a single class/subject
format. Despite this very traditional way of organizing its work, the school is
permeated by an ethos of creativity, sharing and the exchange of ideas. The
opinion of all the teachers and parents is that this is primarily a result of the
head teacher’s efforts.
Both the parents and the teachers point to a single crucial reason for the
changes which have taken place, namely the involvement of the head tea-
cher, her enthusiasm, and her ability to change the school culture. The par-
ents are very positive towards the changes that have happened as a result of
her arrival. They agree that the staff are very dynamic, there is a friendly
and open atmosphere, discipline is good, and good policies exist concerning
bullying. Some of the factors highlighted by the parents are as follows:
x The ethos of the school
x The visibility of the school’s policies
x Parental involvement, for instance parental assistance to the school in
the appointment of teachers
x Assistants are involved and well-trained
x Ability to adapt to and initiate changes at all levels – for instance, teach-
ers have started to request things
131

x Mutual peer-to-peer attitude of teachers and parents.
The school spirit is an enthusiastic one. One manifestation of this is the fact
that Gylemuir Primary School has received no special funding. What it has
achieved it has done on its own, for instance either through participating in
competitions or by spending money in untraditional ways. There is a strong
determination among the staff to participate in competitions and secure mo-
ney for new projects, although it is also hard work to find and apply for mo-
ney.
In 2001, the school received the Standard Life Edinburgh Education Award.
The educational setting

Each of the classes in Gylemuir Primary School has its own room containing
2-3 computers which are available to be used during classes. One of these is
connected to the Internet. In addition to the classrooms, there is a science
lab, a computer suite, a dance/drama hall, a dining room, a TV area, a li-
brary, a gymnasium and a medical room.
ICT is used extensively for the activities taking place in the common areas.
For instance, there is a projector and music equipment in the dance/drama
hall, which means that the hall can be used as a cinema and for showing
parents the results of the pupils’ work, such as films and digital presenta-
tions.
The school has a computer suite which is lined with 20 Apple Macintosh com-
puters along three of the walls. On the fourth wall is a large screen on which
teachers can demonstrate a variety of computer-based activities. The classes
take turns at using the computer suite once a week. The walls here are de-
corated with the pupils’ work, just like in the rest of the school.
The head teacher has had to fight to secure the computer suite. The reason
she had to struggle is that the primary strategy consisted of locating all the
computers in the classrooms so that the pupils could use them in class.
Computer suites are regarded as rather an old-fashioned concept, but the
head insisted on it because she wanted to enable all the pupils in a single
class to work on the computers simultaneously.
The learning environment

The learning environment is defined by a set of pedagogical rules and objec-
tives that are described in the school handbook. The head teacher at the
school stresses the importance of initiating activities at several levels simul-
taneously in order to change the school culture. She sees organization, the
work environment and the pedagogical approach as being closely related and
interwoven. The pedagogical principles at Gylemuir Primary reflect this view.
6.4.2.9 Aims of Gylemuir Primary
Gylemuir Primary aims to:

x Provide a safe, caring and happy environment for all
x Develop, resource and implement a broad, balanced curriculum using
"Curriculum Framework for children 3 to 5" and 5 – 14 guidelines in ac-
cordance with the City of Edinburgh recommendations
x Increase the pupils’ individual levels of attainment by setting appropriate
targets
x Encourage the children to be motivated, independent learners and to
achieve their full potential in all aspects of their education and life skills
132

x Promote partnership with parents to encourage involvement in their
child’s learning and the life of the school, and to establish links with the
wider community, making use of local resources
x Provide equal opportunities for all pupils, maintaining a positive ethos by
promoting positive self discipline and self esteem, recognizing individual
needs, and celebrating cultural diversity
x Encourage an open, supportive climate where all staff are able to work
effectively as a team, making the best possible use of appropriate ac-
commodation, resources and space
x Improve the skills and professionalism of all staff using the expertise
within the team as well as a structured programme of development
x Provide high quality leadership in order to promote effective teamwork
and encourage good quality professional discussion and continued school
improvement80
The curriculum is presently being delivered in line with National Guidelines 5-

14, covering English, mathematics, environmental studies, expressive arts
and religious and moral education. The principal objectives of this pro-
gramme are:
a) To achieve on a national basis clearer definition of the structure, objec-
tives and balance of the curriculum;
b) To assist in the development of coherent and systematic assessment
policies and practices in school; and
c) To achieve better communication with parents and better reporting on
pupil progress.
Practical science work is integrated into the selected themes. Pupils are in-
volved in experimenting, devising objective tests, interpreting data and or-
ganizing information.
6.4.2.10 Co-operation with other institutions
In the course of their studies, the children make outside visits and take ad-
vantage of outside agencies, for example the police road safety team, dental
hygienists, museums and the public library, the zoo, the Ranger Service and
Lothian's Outdoor Education staff. Much use is made of the school's library
service and radio and television broadcasts. The school’s wildlife gardens,
including a pond, marshland and sensory garden, are capitalised on for un-
derstanding living things in a variety of habitats.
6.4.2.11 Emphasis upon creativity and physical education
Music, painting, drawing, modelling and fabric craft form a very important
part of the curriculum. The emphasis is on participation in all the arts for
pleasure, leisure and the development of natural talent and the acquisition of
new techniques. The arts are also a vehicle for developing an alternative
means of expressing and extending a pupil's personality and thinking.
In music, the children are encouraged to make use of both tuned and un-
tuned instruments. Gifted children are offered cello tuition. All the children
will at some time or another have the opportunity of following some of the
BBC’s music broadcasts.
There are three aspects of Physical Education - Inventive Movement, dance

and games. The children explore a wide range of movement with or without
the use of apparatus, and exercise their ingenuity within the limits of their
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133

own ability. Dance includes traditional folk and country dancing, as well as
creative and expressive dance. In games, basic skills such as ball control are
acquired. Team games, e.g. volleyball and indoor hockey, encourage co-
operative effort.
6.4.2.12 Teaching methods used
Learning in the school is based as far as possible on the principle of individ-

ual development, and involves activities using a wide range of experiences
and variety of materials. Each child is assessed to determine his or her level
of work. Both group and individual methods form the basis of the teaching,
in order that the curriculum can be tailored as far as possible to fit the needs
of each child. Exposition by the teacher in the form of class lessons and tea-
cher explanation of ideas and skills complement direct teaching for groups.
Discussion, where pupils plan work and share ideas, is an important part of
the learning process. Great importance is placed on involving the children in
practical work and in enquiry-based learning, in which the pupils engage in
problem-solving and investigations. As the children mature, they are en-
couraged to become more independent in their learning, and to develop ef-
fective study skills.
In Primary 7, some co-operative teaching is undertaken in relation to

mathematics and modern languages.
6.4.2.13 Special needs education
Specialist help is provided in the form of the school’s Support For Learning
teacher, who constructs programmes of work to suit the pupils' specific lear-
ning needs in consultation with the class teachers and senior staff. She sup-
ports children in the classroom situation, but also withdraws them for indi-
vidual tuition when appropriate. Provision may also be made for very able
children through consultation with the senior staff. The City of Edinburgh
also provides additional support through its Child Guidance Service and its
educational psychologists, who consult with and advise parents and teach-
ers. In particular, there is provision for pupils with specific handicaps and for
those for whom English is a second language.
The local education authority has a policy of integration. This promotes the
placement into primary and secondary schools of pupils with significant spe-
cial needs, with the possibility of additional support for the school to enable
such placements.
6.4.2.14 ICT
During the last three years, the use of ICT at Gylemuir Primary has really
taken off. One of the reasons has been the Edinburgh initiative of allocating
extra funding for ICT. The parents say that computers are not over-
emphasised, but they have the impression that they strengthen the creativ-
ity of the children. None of the children see the use of computers as being
anything exceptional. For them it is a natural activity, and all the children
are comfortable using it. Children have a ‘choosing time’ in which they can
use the computers if they want to.
The school has no special ICT strategy. ICT is supposed to be integrated into
all the subjects, as laid out in the National Priorities/Guidelines. In order to
support the teachers, for each subject Gylemuir and three other schools ha-
ve constructed guides on the use of ICT. This contains objectives for the use
of ICT in all subjects, and makes use of a computer program and a planning
134

sheet. Another useful tool concerning the use of ICT in teaching and learning
has been devised by ITSU, and consists of resource boxes which take the
user through all the steps.
The school has decided to use Apple Macintosh computers because they are
more child-friendly. Another technical advance in enabling young children to
use the school facilities is that the school library uses a fingerprint recogni-
tion system for lending books. This means that even the youngest pupils can
borrow books on their own.
One of the computers in each class is connected to the Internet. In class, the
computers are mainly used for finishing activities begun in the computer
suite, for printing, for searching the Internet, for rewriting, and for creative
writing. Teachers say that the computer suite is where the pupils learn how
to use the computers so that they can use them in class later. The setting-up
of the computer suite has created many opportunities.
As well as computers, the school uses a lot of other digital equipment for
learning, such as cameras and microscopes.
There are several sources of digital learning material to choose from. First of
all, the NGfL provides different edutainment programmes that are closely
linked to the National Priorities/Guidelines. It is also possible to obtain free
trial versions of different learning materials which can be purchased later.
When we visited Gylemuir Primary School, we observed two learning situa-

tions (i.e. concrete learning activities) being planned and carried out. We
also caught glimpses of other activities that were occurring while we were
there, and we heard a lot about other activities that had been carried out in
the past.
Our visit to Gylemuir Primary School gave us an impression of the variety of

methods being used for learning in the school. We followed two sessions in
the computer suite. The activities are described in the following sections.
x Shapes
x The creation of a homepage.
We were also told about several projects carried out using the storyline
method. One of these is described as well:
x Christmas Card project (based on the storyline method).
6.4.3.1 The computer suite
Gylemuir Primary School has a computer suite which is lined with 20 Apple
Macintosh computers along three of the walls. On the fourth wall is a large
screen on which teachers can demonstrate a variety of computer-based ac-
tivities. The classes take turns at using the computer suite once a week. The
walls here are decorated with the pupils’ work, just like in the rest of the
school.
As well as the pupils’ work displayed on the walls, there are small placards
containing the text depicted below. The placards are used as guidelines for
the pupils, who also use them for reviewing their learning at the end of each
lesson.
135

Learning how to learn
TALK to your partner about WHAT they are doing on the computer and HOW they
are doing it.
Give your partner HINTS and TIPS about how to complete the task.
Explain and share your ideas with your partner.
Review your learning.

1. What were the aims of your lesson?
2. What did you learn?
3. What has gone well?
4. What would you do differently next time?
6.4.3.2 Shapes
At Gylemuir Primary School, the pupils in Primary 6 each have a Primary 2

partner pupil, and the pupils in Primary 5 each have a partner in Primary 1.
The partnerships last for two years, and once a week the partner pupils go to
the computer suite to work on different topics.
When we were at Gylemuir, the Primary 2 pupils were going to learn about
shapes with the help of their partners from Primary 6. Half the pupils from
each of the classes were present in the computer suite. The remainder were
carrying out other activities somewhere else.
The pupils walked into the computer suite in two lines, sat quietly down on
the floor in front of the large screen on the wall, and waited for the teacher
to start the lesson. First, the teacher introduced the purpose and the activi-
ties of the lesson. She showed the children how to draw and colour rectan-
gles using a drawing program on the computer. She talked to her pupils
about the characteristics of a rectangle, and asked them if they knew them.
Then she told them to go to a computer, where the Primary 2 pupils were
supposed to draw and colour three rectangles each. The Primary 6 pupils
were to help and guide the Primary 2’s, but not to do the work for them.
During these activities, the teacher and an assistant supported and encour-
aged the children in what they were doing.
When they had finished their tasks, the pupils sat down on the floor again
and waited for the teacher to continue her description of the themes of the
lesson. After working with the rectangles, the pupils worked with squares,
circles and triangles. After the last activity, the children sat down on the
floor again, and the teacher asked them to evaluate their learning on the
basis of the questions displayed on the signs on the wall. She talked to them
about what they had learned. At the end of the class the children left the
computer suite in two lines.
6.4.3.3 The creation of a homepage
26 pupils from Primary 6 had previously been working on making their own
homepages. The National Grid for Learning (NGfL) Scotland has developed
an application on its grid website (see the description of NGfL on page 124)
with which pupils can create their own homepages using simple tools in a
safe environment. It is called the GridClub, and is an official Scottish Execu-
136

tive Education Department (SEED) education site for 7 to 11 year-old chil-
dren.
Gridclub.com is open to everyone, and offers a wide range of activities, puz-

zles and games designed to make learning fun. It can be used at home as
well as at school to help with homework and school projects. Teachers have
designed all of the games and educational resources with the 5-14 National
Guidelines in mind. They cover the 5-14 National Guidelines at Levels B, C, D
and E, and also encourage hobbies and special interests outside school.
GridClub upholds the Scotland Personal Safety on the Internet guidelines to

ensure that access to unsuitable materials through linked sites is prevented.
In addition, the GridClub clubs are run in a protected area called Think.com.
Importantly, adult mediators manage the clubs. Mediators are professional
educators who are dedicated to ensuring children's safety and upholding the
club rules81. In order to maintain security, the children are told that their
password is top secret and that they should not give it out to anyone, not
even their brothers or sisters.
Before our visit, a teacher from the NGfL had visited the school and showed
the children how to use the GridClub. One of the main purposes of that visit
was to show and teach the children how to make their own personal home-
pages, in which they were to introduce themselves to others. The intention is
that the pupils will use chat rooms on the grid to communicate and co-
operate with pupils from other schools during what is known as science
week. By presenting themselves on the grid before science week, they will
be able to form their own impressions about those whom they will be work-
ing with.
During our visit, the pupils continued with the development of their home-
pages. They presented themselves by writing about their families, their
school and their interests. None of the pupils worked alone, and were con-
stantly discussing why and how to put information on their homepages, and
viewing and commenting on each other’s pages. Now and then some of them
played a GridClub game. One of the boys had been absent on the day the
other members of the class had started making their homepages. He was
instructed by one of the other boys on how to start making his own page.
At the end of class, the children formed two lines and exited the computer
suite.
6.4.3.4 Christmas Card project using the storyline method
When we visited Gylemuir, we were told about a project that had been un-
dertaken during the autumn of 2002, namely the Christmas Card project, in
which the pupils produced and then sold self-made Christmas cards. The
head teacher had initiated this project, for which the storyline method was
used82.
The storyline method was developed in Scotland but is now used widely,
especially in northern Europe. The method was a response to the need for
methodologies that were suitable for use in integrated studies, which be-
81
http://www.gridclub.com/grown_ups/s_about_home.shtml
82
For a presentation of the storyline method, see http://www.storyline.org/,
http://www.storyline-scotland.freeserve.co.uk/ and
http://www.acskive.dk/storyline/european.htm
137

came part of the Scottish curriculum in 1965. The main feature that differen-
tiates this approach from others is that it recognises the value of the
learner’s existing knowledge. Accordingly, through key questioning, the pu-
pils are encouraged to construct their own models of what is being studied
(their hypotheses), before testing them against real evidence and research.
The key questions are used in a sequence that creates a context or setting
within the framework of a story. Together, learner and teacher create a sce-
nario through visualisation – the making of collages, friezes and pictures,
employing a variety of art/craft techniques. These provide a visual stimulus
for the skill practice planned by the teacher. It resembles a sort of paradox.
The teacher has planned a sequence of activities through the designing of
key questions. The teacher knows the story, but does not know its detailed
content.
Several objectives were set up for the Christmas card project. Firstly, the
entire class were to work together on a common project over a given period;
secondly, they and their teacher were to learn how to use the computer for
creating artwork (by learning how to use PhotoShop); and finally, they were
to earn some money.
In brief, the project was initiated and completed as follows. The head tea-
cher sent the class a note in which she explained that she needed their help,
and wanted them to meet her at a specific date and time. During the meet-
ing she told the pupils that she needed them to help her produce 500
Christmas cards within a very limited timeframe. The children were to go
back to their classroom and discuss with their teacher how to address the
problem, and then meet the head teacher again to give her their sugges-
tions.
During this process the head teacher introduced new problems for which the
children were to find solutions. For instance, she said they were pressed for
time and had to find material they could re-use instead of producing new
material from scratch. This resulted in the use of paintings that other chil-
dren had made, working on them in PhotoShop in order to give them a touch
of winter and Christmas. Some children found rhymes and wrote them on
the pictures, and some wanted their Christmas cards to have Edinburgh
themes. The pupils worked in teams, finishing on time and also earning a lot
of money from the sale of the cards.
Gylemuir furnishes other examples of using storyline as a method for learn-

ing in a manner that combines skills, creativity, use of the computer etc. For
instance, the youngest children have created a teddy bear’s biography, while
others have constructed a garden centre.
6.4.3.5 Examples of other projects
There are a number of other good examples of projects at Gylemuir that

deserve to be described in greater depth:
x Digidance, where the children made designs and danced at the King’s
Theatre in Edinburgh.
x The wind sculpture project, in which children built wind sculptures for the
playground.
x The Comenius project
x A future project is Life Channel II, in which the children will conduct ex-
periments with two other schools. This project will also involve the use of
videoconferencing.
138

6.4.3.6 Children’s views concerning the learning situation
At Gylemuir, the children’s wellbeing, politeness among the children and

teachers, and mutual respect, motivation, etc. are viewed as important pre-
conditions for learning. As already mentioned, the school activities are satu-
rated with creativity and inspiration, and the children are very attentive and
disciplined.
When we visited the school we observed the children’s use of computers in

the computer suite, where they learn how to use the different programs. In
their classrooms, they use computers for different purposes in a way that is
integrated with all subjects. We did not see examples of these activities, but
were told about them by teachers, pupils and parents.
The children are very positive about the school in general. They emphasize
some of the aspects related to learning as well as other activities as compris-
ing advantages of their school compared with the other schools they know
about. For instance, they like the fact that it is a big school where there are
both girls and boys, that there is a good library, good sport teams and good
playgrounds. The older children partner the younger children once a week,
and view this as a very important task for which they take great responsibil-
ity.
As for learning, they emphasize the importance of the teachers being really
nice, and that there are many computers. They consider that the most fun
classes are those in which they use computers, in addition to PE and the
classes in which they use the school’s facilities. They find handwriting and
watching TV boring. One of the other elements of learning that the children
stressed as being very important is the variety of methods used in the learn-
ing situation. One of the children said: Learning is more enjoyable when it is
fun and you also remember what you’ve learned much better if it was fun to
do it.
According to the children, the learning situation is generally organized in

such a way that the teacher is in control and teaches them in a traditional
manner. The children say that looking up information on the internet is more
fun than listening to the teacher, but at the same time they consider all the
teachers and the rest of the staff to be very nice, and they enjoy learning.
The children’s mathematics education is differentiated so as to match their
individual level of progress. They view this as being very positive, and say
that it benefits everyone. After every lesson, the pupils and their teachers
evaluate the learning process.
Now and then the children do project work during which they do such things
as visit museums, set up a dance show or work with science. Besides the
work they do with their younger or older partners, from time to time the
pupils work with classes other than their own. The fine artistic works which
decorate the school have mainly been produced as homework.
Several forms of measurement and evaluation are undertaken at the school.

The most important are naturally those which evaluate the pupils’ perform-
ance. The remainder relate to the teachers’ work.
On the school website, Gylemuir Primary describes its approach to delivering

and measuring its curriculum in line with National Guidelines 5-14, covering
139

English, mathematics, environmental studies, expressive arts and religious
and moral education. The principal objectives of this programme are:
a) To achieve on a national basis clearer definition of the structure, objec-
tives and balance of the curriculum;
b) To assist in the development of coherent and systematic assessment
policies and practices in school; and
c) To achieve better communication with parents and better reporting on
pupil progress.
As part of the overall assessment arrangements, all pupils are tested in cer-
tain key aspects of language and mathematics using the National Tests. The
parents are informed of the results during parent/teacher consultations
and/or in the written annual report.
Pupils' progress is continually being assessed by the class teacher using a

combination of observation and the evaluation of the pupils' written and
practical work. National tests form a part of this assessment. Progress is
recorded for internal school purposes. These records accompany the pupil
from class to class. Written reports are issued to parents annually indicating
the pupil's progress during the school session, and pointing out any particu-
lar strengths or weaknesses. Copies of these are filed in the child's record
folder, which is passed on to the secondary school at the time of transfer.
Two opportunities are given for parents to visit the school during each ses-
sion to discuss their child's progress with the class teacher.
6.4.5 The future
Gylemuir Primary School is a pioneer in the use of ICT, and this is regarded
as both an advantage and a disadvantage for the school itself. The staff
must constantly struggle (in the positive sense of this term) to continue the
positive development. One of the disadvantages is that when the school ap-
plies for equipment from the local authority, for instance, it is usually re-
jected because it is far in advance of other schools. One of the advantages is
that it is far ahead, which means it has the energy, strength and experience
to find new and innovative ways to continue its very positive development.
The City of Edinburgh plays an important part in providing infrastructure in

the form of the computer network. The vision of the Executive Member for
Education is to establish wireless networks in the schools, and to provide
every pupil with a laptop computer in order to establish and maintain full
flexibility. One of the main challenges for supporting such a vision is to es-
tablish wireless networks in homes as well as in schools in order to support
pupils, parents and teachers in their work. As the politician sees it, it is very
important to get this technology and infrastructure established, because it is
regarded as the foundation upon which the future education service will be
built.
Next year, the individual learning plans, which the Scottish Executive Educa-
tion Department has just brought in, will be implemented. Living up to these
centrally-defined objectives will pose some challenges for the school.
6.4.6 Sources
Standard Inspection of Gylemuir Primary School and Nursery Class, City of

Edinburgh Council. See:
http://www.hmie.gov.uk/documents/inspection/gylemuir_ps01.pdf
The school’s website. See: http://www.gylemuir.edin.sch.uk/
140

The school’s work plan. See:
http://www.gylemuir.edin.sch.uk/pages/OurSchool/handbook.html
Education information concerning Edinburgh. See:

http://www.edinburgh.gov.uk
National Grid for Learning Scotland. See:

http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/ngflscotland/
6.5 Maglegårdsskolen, Municipality of Gentofte
The above photo shows the entrance at Maglegårdsskolen.
The case study was undertaken at Maglegårdsskolen (i.e. ‘the Maglegård

school’) in the municipality of Gentofte in Denmark in April 2003.
The Maglegårdsskole case study has comprised the following activities:
1. A thorough desk study of relevant documents, including strategies, ac-

global framework conditions
2. An interview with the president of Gentofte municipality’s school board
3. An interview with a school administrator working in the schools admini-
stration department of the Gentofte municipality
4. An interview with parents of the children attending the Maglegårdsskole
(focus group)
5. An interview with the vice-president of the school
6. A group interview with the school’s teachers
7. Two group interviews with pupils - one involving younger children, and
8. Two observations of instruction, one involving younger children, and
9. Observation of the general physical environment of the school, including
its architecture.
141

At the end of the case study is a list of the people interviewed in the course
of the case study.
The school studied for this report is called Maglegårdsskolen, which is a 94-
year-old public primary school located in the municipality of Gentofte, in
Denmark.
Maglegårdsskolen is located in one of the most prosperous areas of Den-

mark. Only a few of its pupils have social problems, and only very few are of
non-Danish ethnic origin.
Both in order to adjust to new pedagogical practices and to enable it to ac-

commodate more children, the school was rebuilt in 2001-2002.
Currently 636 children attend the school, but the number of pupils will rise to
750 between now and 2005. The school has 46 teachers and 4 preschool
teachers 83.
The management of the school is undertaken by a principal (head teacher)

and a deputy head.
It also employs two secretaries and two caretakers.
Since 1995, the Maglegårdsskole has worked on the development of new

educational practices, in particular concerning teacher teamwork and new
ways of learning. In 1999, the school was selected to be one of the first so-
called SKUB-schools, which means that it became a pilot school as part of
the municipality’s general school development and rebuilding project which
is taking place during 1998-2006. This has made it possible to intensify the
change processes in the school.
The development processes which have taken place have changed percep-
tions concerning children and their learning, and have resulted in a new role
for the teachers, a new organisational set-up, and modifications in the
school’s architecture.
The impetus for this process has primarily come from a committed manage-
ment and teaching staff. Influenced by new theories of learning and intelli-
gence, in particular by Howard Gardner’s theory of eight intelligences, and in
response to the demands posed by the 1993 national legislation concerning
primary public schools, which introduced the concept of the differentiation of
instruction according to children’s individual needs, the teachers set up study
circles and workshops and started to experiment with new forms of learning
from 1995 onwards.
When the municipality of Gentofte, in which the school lies, was faced in
1998 with an anticipated 50% growth in the number of children over the
coming decade84 , it was decided at the political level not only to make more
room to accommodate them, but to use the opportunity to initiate a peda-
gogical development process – in other words, to rethink the mode of learn-
ing and the purpose of the school in the context of future societal demands.
Otherwise stated, it was decided that the municipality should develop “the
perfect school of tomorrow”.
83
All public Danish schools have a one-year preschool which a child can attend on a
voluntary basis when it is 5 or 6. More than 95% of the children take advantage of
this opportunity for bridging kindergarten and school activities.
84
From 5000 to 7500 schoolchildren.
142

The municipality has committed 90 million Euros over the 1998-2006 period
to the physical and pedagogical transformation of a total of 12 schools, one
of which will be brand new. Instead of managing the change processes
within the framework of the municipality’s traditional school administration85,
a project organisation has been established. The SKUB project organization
acts as the facilitator and initiator of the school development processes, but
the specific pedagogical change processes take place in the individual
schools via a close co-operation involving the management, staff and par-
ents at the school. All schools go through a process of first creating a pro-
gramme of values for the school, and initiating the practical physical and
pedagogical changes afterwards.
This chapter concerns the framework conditions at the national level which
have influenced the development processes at the Maglegårdsskole.
In recent years there has been a shift in Danish educational policies at the
global level. This has largely meant a substitution of the concept of educa-
tion (the teacher as educator) with that of learning (the teacher teaches the
pupils how to learn). There has been a parallel move towards a greater focus
on competencies (i.e. what an individual has actually learned, and his ability
to apply it), away from a narrow focus on qualifications (i.e. the formal edu-
cation an individual has received).
Compared to the more traditional teaching pattern in which all pupils are
supposed to learn at the same rate, the national primary school legislation of
1993 lays emphasis on the importance of the differentiation of teaching to
match pupils’ individual speeds and learning styles.
In order to meet the changes in competence requirements resulting from the

emerging knowledge society on the one hand, and the predicted future scar-
city of labour on the other, the current thrust of Danish policy generally at-
taches a strong emphasis to lifelong learning and the development of a more
inclusive and flexible labour market as tools with which to qualify the Danish
workforce and make it more flexible and resilient.
In this respect, IT is seen as an instrument which will both enhance the con-
tent of and access to ongoing supplementary training, as it will offer new
ways of learning outside the traditional educational institutions and will the-
reby contribute to developing both a flexible workforce and a flexible labour
market.
85
Denmark has three levels of public authorities, namely the central state, 14 counties
and 273 municipalities. The responsibility for the public primary schools, which are
attended by 88% of children, is shared by the state and the municipalities. The state
(in the form of the Ministry of Education) is responsible for producing general recom-
mendations regarding the preparation of school curricula, while the municipalities have
responsibility for the operational facilities, the practical pedagogical development, and
the recruitment and remuneration of teachers. The schools are usually autonomous
regarding the fixing of start and end times for the school day, the distribution of sub-
jects over the week, the school’s running costs, and the usage of learning materials
and methods.
143

The current ICT and schools strategy was launched by the Danish Ministry of
Education in 2001. It is entitled “Denmark’s strategy for education, learning
and information technology”, and consists of two parts, Part One (“Moving
on”) and Part Two (“Better education for all”). The current strategy is the
successor to the overall action plan, “ICT in the education system 1998-
2003”, which was initiated in 1998.
Generally speaking, the strategies state that a decisive element in the inte-
gration of information technology in schools will be that of enabling children
to sort, select and manipulate the large volume of information which IT ma-
kes available, and to use it creatively and in a superior manner.
IT should be used to promote greater inclusiveness and flexibility in relation

to individual learning patterns and speeds.
It also states that IT, and the Internet in particular, should be used to in-
crease co-operation both among schools and between schools and parents,
and that it should be used to promote international co-operation and the
development of networks.
Finally, it states that because of the learning opportunities and the volume of
information made available by IT, the role of the teacher must to a certain
extent evolve towards that of an instructor and interlocutor.
More specifically, the Danish Ministry of Education launched the PC driver’s

licence in 1997 which 33% of all teachers had obtained in 2001
(ICT@europe.edu). Now the goal is that most teachers must obtain the so-
called school IT permit, which is a pedagogical driver’s licence obtained via a
certified supplementary training course to enable teachers to use computers
in education, and encompassing change in both the content and the process
of educational delivery.
The pilot project for this ran from 1997 to 2001, in two phases. The purpose
of the first phase was to develop, produce and test educational material, and
to accumulate knowledge about the integration of IT and electronic media for
use in primary schools. The purpose of the second phase was to qualify the
staff members in the state and primary schools. They were offered a free PC
to use at home, and in return they committed themselves to obtaining either
the pedagogical or the basic PC driver’s licence.
In general, the political focus has been evolving away from access and infra-
structure issues towards how the use of ICT can improve the quality and
content of instruction. Accordingly, the attention hitherto given to learning
about IT is being shifted towards learning with IT.
During 2001-2004, the Ministry of Education is conducting its initiative enti-

tled “IT, media and primary school” (ITMF), with the aim of enforcing the
development and the pedagogical use of IT in primary schools. The focus is
not on the technical use of IT, but on the integration of IT into normal teach-
ing86.
86
The latest centrally produced practical primary school initiative is the “virtual pri-
mary school”. This concept is of a school capable of offering classes which are inde-
pendent of time and location. The target groups are children whose parents work
overseas plus hospitalized and handicapped children. However, it is of limited rele-
vance in the current context.
144

Looking at these impact of these national tendencies on the primary school,
there is no doubt that general trends in school policies have promoted the
development of the innovative learning environments in the Gentofte mu-
nicipality. The actual development at the Maglegårdsskole, which will be de-
scribed further below, fits very well with the general ideas concerning the
direction in which the school should be moving. However, it seems that the
school is far ahead in integrating ICT in a manner which for most Danish
schools is only just beginning, and it is also a front-runner in relation to na-
tional concepts and strategies concerning the transformation of new educa-
tional theories into actual learning practices.
The Maglegårdsskole has received around 270,000 Euros from the national
“IT, media and primary school” initiative to set up a project focusing on sup-
porting the pupils’ use of ICT in the daily learning processes, with a particu-
lar emphasis on how digital cameras and video cameras can be used for sto-
rytelling purposes. It also has the sub-purpose of opening the teachers’ eyes
to the many educational possibilities of the new media. The management,
teachers and the municipal political and administrative actors consider the
ITMF resources decisive for the thorough integration of ICT at the Magle-
gårdsskole, as they have solely been used for buying hardware, which has
made it possible to make ICT available to the pupils to a much higher degree
than before. This means that obtaining access to a digital camera, for in-
stance, is possible almost anytime it is needed.
There seem to be no framework conditions at the national or regional level

that have hindered or impeded the change processes at the Maglegårdssko-
le.
However, the requirement for it to conform with the national school leaving
examination regulations does partially hinder the full implementation of the
innovative learning environment. Since the pupils of the Maglegårdsskolen
have to pass the same school leaving examination as all other pupils in
Denmark87, the school must spend some time during the final year in prepar-
ing the pupils to fit the standard modes of evaluating qualifications and com-
petencies. On the other hand, it is possible to apply for a special dispensa-
tion from the Danish Ministry of Education and conduct alternative examina-
tions that are more coherent with the project-oriented work that the pupils
carry out on a daily basis. So to some degree there is a positive develop-
ment towards adjusting the measurement system in favour of innovative
environments.
Anyway, on average the 2002 Maglegårdsskole school leavers were the sec-
ond-best pupils in Denmark, as measured by the marks they achieved during
the traditional final examinations. But since the new learning methods have
only been applied in full for two years, it is difficult to use this result to judge
whether the traditional examinations will be to the disadvantage of the chil-
dren at Maglegårdsskolen.
This chapter describes the school organisation in terms of its workplace cha-
racteristics, i.e. the role of the management, how work is organized (team-
work vs. individual effort), and what kinds of meetings are held and how
often. It also covers the issues of who is responsible for the development
87
This also applies to private schools.
145

and maintenance of the innovative learning environment and pedagogical
methods, and who is in charge of the ICT facilities.
It also discusses which aspects of the school organisation are respectively

promoting and impeding the development of the new learning environment.
During the past 2-3 years, Maglegårdsskolen has changed both its organisa-
tional structure and culture, which means that the organisational roles of
both management and teachers have been radically changed.
Traditional classroom-based teaching has been altered to so-called team

managed home area learning.
The school is now organised into nine self-managing entities known as home
areas. Each home area consists of three ”classes” from three different learn-
ing levels, that is a home area consisting of a 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade class, a
4th, 5th and 6th grade class, and a 7th, 8th and 9th grade class.
Accordingly, a home area hosts around 75 children across 3 age groups. 5-7
teachers form a team which shares the responsibility for planning and facili-
tating all the learning for a single home area. A teacher can only belong to
one team.
In this way, the organisational role of each teacher has changed from that of
an individual agent planning and performing his or her individual teaching in
different classes, which in principle might encompass every level from 1st to
10th grade according to a schedule set by the management, to that of a par-
ticipant in a team which has to plan, co-ordinate and administer and facili-
tate the learning of a home area. In a way, each home area can therefore be
regarded as a small self-contained school.
The role of the management has been redefined to focus on setting the
agenda for the continuing development of the pedagogical practices, to per-
form management tasks based on the values set for the school develop-
ment, to manage the change processes, to maintain the pedagogical focus,
and to be responsible for maintaining a general overview.
The development of the teachers’ competencies has been a central element

in the Maglegårdsskole change processes. All the teachers have completed a
five-week course covering the new pedagogical ideas and values underpin-
ning the school’s innovative learning environment. The fact that all the
teachers have followed exactly the same course which ran either concur-
rently or back-to-back with the other teachers’ courses is seen both by man-
agement and the teachers interviewed as an important step towards creating
a collective “we culture” instead of the more solipsistic “me culture” that
used to characterize the school. The successful creation of a “we culture” is
seen as a precondition for the team-based structure, and also as the reason
that it works successfully.
The “we culture” is maintained and developed via the management planning
of meetings involving all the teachers. These mostly take the form of work-
shops in which new ideas and practices are discussed and knowledge is sha-
red. There are some 16-18 meetings of this kind per year.
According to the teachers interviewed, another important reason that the

team-based structure works well is that teachers are generally much more
146

satisfied and happy with their work than previously. They feel they need to
take more responsibility for the planning, administration and co-ordination of
the content of their instruction with other teachers, and that the job feels
more demanding, but it seems that they are all enjoying their new roles88.
The starting point in relation to the integration of ICT competencies into the
learning processes was that most teachers were normal users of ICT. Most of
them (though not all) have obtained the IT driver’s licences described above.
The further development of the teachers’ competencies with regard to the

use of ICT has primarily taken place in internal workshops. One example is a
workshop on how to use digital cameras and digital video cameras. The idea
was to do practical work using the technology, but to focus on the pedagogi-
cal issues. Professional users managed the workshop, and both teachers and
pupils participated. The workshop was held just before the experience gained
was to be applied. The workshop was considered very successful, since it
succeeded in providing the teachers with both practical inspiration and self-
confidence regarding the use of digital photographic media for learning pur-
poses.
6.5.2.2 Strengths and weaknesses of the school organisation
The management of the school is responsible for the overall pedagogic de-
velopment at Maglegårdsskolen. Nevertheless, the team-based structure
means that pedagogical development and discussions have to a large extent
been decentralised to the teaching teams. Whereas the teachers used to
have many administrative or other meetings which, according to the teach-
ers, were frequently largely futile, now they meet on a regular basis with a
small but static number of colleagues, and have fruitful pedagogical discus-
sions. The meetings have to some extent taken on the format of a study
circle. This means that although the pedagogical responsibility theoretically
belongs to the management, the latter is mainly responsible for deciding and
maintaining the overall pedagogical environment, whereas the teaching staff
discuss the pedagogical opportunities and difficulties in relation to the actual
teaching situations. This new role of the teachers seems to have created an
enormous enthusiasm among them which appears to be a primary driver in
the development of the new learning environment.
The teachers have supported and defended these developments in the

school against the external criticism from parents who did not understand
them, and against other critical forces like the media and educational ex-
perts who do not believe in the school’s pedagogical approach.
However, some teachers chose to leave the school and find employment
elsewhere because they were not willing or able to adapt to the drastic
changes induced, which caused some minor disruption. On the other hand,
the innovative learning environment has attracted many job applications
from teachers wishing to join this innovatory workplace. One of the new
teachers in the school claims that all organisations are development-oriented
except for the compulsory school, which is sceptical towards change. There-
fore he supports and welcomes the changes introduced by the creation of
88
However, a few teachers have left the school because they were unhappy with the
new structure and culture. The average age of the teachers is 42. There is a big cohort
of teachers aged between 27 and 35, and another aged between 42 and 55. There are
only two teachers who fall chronologically between these groupings.
147

the innovative learning environment, in which roles and assignments are
adapted to the changes occurring in the surrounding society.
Therefore an important strength of the new school organisation appears to

be that it is attracting teachers who are more than averagely interested in
new pedagogical theories and practices, which in itself becomes a driver for
the further development of the school.
The organisation of the ICT integration effort is highly developed at Magle-

gårdsskolen. Among the teaching staff, individuals have been appointed to
be responsible for ensuring the integration of ICT in Danish, languages,
mathematics and the natural sciences. An additional two individuals have
been given the technical responsibilities, and constitute the support team
which assists teachers or pupils when they are having technical problems
with the equipment. This gives the teachers a sense of security, not least
because of the flexibility demonstrated by those bearing the technical re-
sponsibilities.
This chapter describes the educational setting, i.e. the available learning
material and technology, finances and architecture.
It also discusses which aspects of the educational setting are respectively

promoting or impeding the development of the innovative learning environ-
ment.
6.5.3.1 Description
The shift from traditional classroom instruction towards learning in small

project-based teams has been supported by a change in the physical frame-
work of the school. The school has been rebuilt in such a way that each self-
managing unit occupies a physical home area consisting of 3 classrooms and
a central shared space. This is an open area with corners and nooks for
group and/or project work.
Before the school was rebuilt, the classrooms were 48 square metres; during
the rebuilding, they were reduced to 35 square metres. The reason is that
with the new pedagogical approach, not much time is devoted to traditional
classroom teaching. Instead, the surplus space has been incorporated into
the central shared room, along with space previously comprising the corri-
dors linking the classrooms.
All the static IT equipment has been consolidated in the central room. Addi-
tionally, the home areas have at their disposal a wireless network and port-
able computers, digital cameras and digital video cameras.
148

The traditional timetable structure has been removed. This means that the
only time the bell rings, it is to signal the lunch break.
The physical framework at Maglegårdsskolen makes it simple and easy to

work with ICT. The flexibility of the common open space seems to facilitate
the use of ICT. The stationary computers appear to comprise a gathering
place, whereas the portable equipment supports the general project peda-
gogy applicable to those activities which are supposed to be independent of
a fixed physical location.
The open space also seems to be functioning as a social room where the
teachers also take their breaks.
Figure 6.10: The school before and now
149

6.5.3.2 Strengths and weaknesses of the educational setting
According to both the teachers and the SKUB secretariat, the physical struc-
ture and the organisation of learning in home areas are integral aspects of
the new pedagogy being practised at Maglegårdsskolen. It is the coherence
of the organisation of the physical space and time with the new pedagogical
ideas concerning project-based learning which takes account of the individ-
ual learning style and pace that creates the innovative culture of the school.
And it is the innovative culture that to a large extent appears to be the
driver for the high degree of ICT integration.
However, there may be some downsides to the school’s new physical envi-
ronments. One main criticism is that the physical reorganisation allows more
pupils to be gathered into less space. The municipality of Gentofte has been
criticised for taking the opportunity of the SKUB school development project
to save money by permitting more children in the “classes” and allocating
fewer square metres per child. However, this issue was not raised by either
the children or the teachers interviewed. On the other hand, both pupils and
teachers claim that the main downside to the reorganisation is the fact that
pre-existing social networks have been disrupted, and that they miss their
previous social life.
Another criticism raised is that the teaching which takes place across a big
group of children and partly in the open space, as described above, is disad-
vantageous to children who need to feel secure, as well as to very quiet chil-
dren who might disappear in the crowd. It is not within the scope of this
study, nor is it possible to judge from the observations carried out, to de-
termine whether this criticism represents a real threat to the learning and
well-being of some of the children, although it does seem possible.
The chapter describes the pedagogical principles and values guiding the in-
novative learning environment.
The advantages and disadvantages of the new pedagogical principles and

values are also discussed, including the problems occurring during their im-
plementation, the criticisms made of the school, and the source of the criti-
cism. The viewpoints of the interviewees are naturally also included.
6.5.4.1 Description
According to the school’s mission statement89, its work is supposed to be

guided by the following values and pedagogical principles:
x Children are different and learn in different ways. Their learning is close-
ly related to their emotional life. A feeling of self-respect and hence the
belief that they can be successful is a precondition for optimal learning.
x The school should be a multifarious pedagogical and professional envi-
ronment that stimulates and strengthens the self-respect of the children
and their inclination to learn, experience and seek out knowledge.
x The learning environment should be challenging and inspiring, and
should create the basis for values that support the development of the
community and the individual development of the children.
89
Every year the school prepares a mission statement which reviews the work of the
school during the past year, the school’s basic values and principles, and its aims and
strategies for the year(s) to come.
150

x The everyday life of the school should be influenced by different activi-
ties that contain intellectual, artistic, practical and physical elements.
x The everyday pedagogical activities should take place at a highly profes-
sional level, enabling the pupils to become confident regarding the con-
cepts, content and methods of different subjects and interdisciplinary ac-
tivities.
From the interviews, there seems to be a common understanding that es-

sentially this means that the guiding principles practised must be as follows:
x To focus on the needs of the individual child
x To make room for differences, and hence to become a more inclusive
school
x To respect and work with individual learning styles and different intelli-
gences
x To focus on the acquisition of qualifications and their transformation into
competencies.
In order to live up to the guiding values and principles listed above, the roles
of both teachers and pupils have been changed from the traditional class-
room learning that was practised before.
The role of the teacher has shifted from that of the instructor of a group
which is supposed to learn exactly the same things at more or less the same
pace, towards that of someone whose role is to support the development of
the individual child in such a way that it discovers its own learning strengths
and weaknesses, and accordingly learns to learn in the best way possible. In
practice this means that the teacher must facilitate each child in learning
according to his or her individual capabilities, taking account of his or her
own learning style and pace.
Accordingly, the role of the pupils has shifted from being a group of more or
less passive recipients of instruction to that of individual actors who are ac-
tively seeking out, experiencing and using knowledge to create output, and
learning from the process of doing so.
6.5.4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the pedagogical approach
The basic pedagogical approach at Maglegårdsskolen is focused on the indi-

vidual, and is based upon an acceptance that different types of intelligence
exist.
Working with a new learning practice in a different physical environment

from the traditional one, and one where co-operation and solidarity is valued
and prioritised, has been one of the primary drivers in the process of inte-
grating ICT in the learning process. It has encouraged the pupils to use in-
formation technologies and different media in their storytelling activities.
According to the teachers, at Maglegårdsskolen the primary pedagogical ap-

proach in the innovative learning environment is, in other words, fully com-
patible with the possibilities of using digital cameras and other advanced
equipment for the purpose of storytelling. In fact, ICT has to a large extent
been integrated into the daily schoolwork of the pupils.
An important factor in this development is the fact that the ICT equipment is
available to all the pupils, and that they do not need to make advance reser-
vations in order to ensure it is available. That would make the everyday in-
tegration of ICT complicated, as it would give insufficient opportunity for
improvisation. Another aspect is the fact that the computers are not only
151

used for schoolwork but are also an element in the school’s social life, since
the pupils use the computers for games and e-mail etc. However, there is
one rule, which is that those pupils who need the computers for schoolwork
take precedence over those using the equipment for fun and games.
This chapter describes the actual learning situation, i.e. what characterizes a
typical learning situation in this school compared to other “ordinary” schools
as explained by interviewees. It includes descriptions of two learning situa-
tions observed. With each, the focus is on the respective roles of the pupils
and teachers, and how ICT has been integrated into the learning situation.
In addition, the advantages and disadvantages of the kinds of learning situa-
tions described are highlighted via the perceptions of the pupils, the teachers
and the parents interviewed.
6.5.5.1 Description of two learning situations
During the visit at the school two types of instruction were observed: A) In-
struction in a 1st, 2nd and 3rd grade home area, where all the children were
present and were learning Danish and mathematics; and B) Instruction in a
7th, 8th and 9th grade home area, where only the 7th grade was present and
was learning English.
Learning situation A:
At first glance you would not expect this scene to be taking place in a school.
All doors are open between the shared open space and the three classrooms,
which together comprise the home area of this unit. Some children are mov-
ing around. Some are lying on the ground, two girls are sitting very relaxed
in a sofa, and at the centre of the open space six children are sitting in front
of desktop computers. Walking around and observing and talking to the chil-
dren, it appears that most of them are working, some of them together and
some of them individually. The children lying on the ground are reading and
doing mathematics, the two girls in the sofa are reading, the children at the
computer are working on individual projects, and two of them are working
together. The two girls working together on the computer are the “journal-
ists of the week”. One girl is from the 1st grade, the other is from the 3rd
grade. They are using a desktop publishing program and writing an article on
some of the other children’s activities. They have taken pictures of their ho-
me area schoolmates and interviewed them. At the end of the week, all the
children will get a copy of the newspaper, and two new kids will be appointed
as the journalists for the coming week. Beside them a girl is writing a crea-
tive story that she has composed herself, and a boy is working on a project
about the artist Eminem. He finds information and pictures on the Internet
and puts it together in his own little report. Another boy is working on a so-
called compulsory assignment. He has used a digital camera to take photos
of objects representing ten nouns. He has transferred the pictures to the
computer and printed out a kind of booklet. Now he has to inflect all the
words. In one of the classrooms, around 10 children are sitting at desks.
Two boys are working together doing mathematics, and other children are
working alone, also doing mathematics or spelling exercises. A teacher is
present and helping the children with their work individually.
Two other teachers are present in the home area. One is sitting with the
children working at the stationary computers, and one is walking around,
talking to the children spread all over and helping them do their work.
General principles guiding the learning situation:
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Every morning there is a morning assembly for all the children belonging to
the unit. The purpose is to bring the children together in order to give them
information, and also to create a more general shared sense of belonging
through singing and other joint activities.
At this stage, learning to read occupies a high priority. Between 8 and 9, all
the children must learn to read. All the children do this at their own pace,
and continue to develop their reading in their own individual style. The abil-
ity of children of the same age to read ranges between being able to read
simple primer texts containing basic phrases to reading standard children’s
literature which has not been written for educational purposes. The children
are only asked to read aloud for the teacher, who makes individual agree-
ments with them about what is to be read, one week at a time. The teacher
makes notes on what each individual child has accomplished and the pro-
gression of their reading capabilities.
Between the ages of 9 and 11, the children can choose what to work on from
a menu of 6-8 different exercises, such as handwriting practice, writing a
story on the computer, working on a project, writing a book review, working
with spelling exercises, and working from their maths book etc.
Pieces of paper are clothes-pegged along the wall on a length of string. The
children have to write about what they are working with, and make notes on
how far they have progressed, every time they start a new activity.
The children are allowed to take a break when they feel like it. They can lea-
ve the home area to go outside and play, subject to the teacher’s permis-
sion.
The children are intended to be able to choose their work from a number of
options.
Before asking a teacher for help, the children are supposed to ask two other
(usually older and/or more experienced) children for help. This encourages
153

the children to take care of each other, and it also improves their subject
skills to have to explain the solution to a problem to other people.
At one end of the open room is a kitchen with a wide desk. On that desk
stand a number of boxes labelled with the names of the teachers. The chil-
dren put their finished work into the box of the teacher responsible for a
particular subject, and the teacher will respond with comments on it.
Learning situation B:
During the instruction observed, only the 7th grade children belonging to the
home area of a 7th, 8th and 9th grade unit was present in the home area (the
other two classes were in special subject rooms). The 7th graders were learn-
ing English. Again, at first glance it was not easy to detect that instruction
was actually taking place. The home area consists of a common open room,
three classrooms, and a media room with a PowerPoint projector in the mid-
dle and some rows of chairs for the audience. Also in this room and available
to the children in an unlocked drawer were some digital cameras and a port-
able computer.
In the common open room, three boys were on the Internet, reading texts
about some computer games characters. In one of the classrooms, all the
girls were gathered around the same big table. At one end, a group of girls
was playing Scrabble in English, discussing very loudly in Danish and English
whether the words presented had been spelled correctly. Three girls sat at
the other end of the table. Two of them were reading books in English, and
the third one was writing a project in English about Joan of Arc.
At another big table, two boys were working together on producing a comic
in English. The teacher walked among the different pupils, acting as a coun-
sellor and asking them what they were doing. The Scrabble players were told
only to speak in English, and the teacher interrupted some of the discussions
on the spelling of words with explanations concerning the origin of a word
and why it was spelled the way it was. The boys producing the comic were
told to speed up their drawing and get to the part where they had to write
the text, which they first wrote in Danish and translated afterwards.
154

Outside in the open common room, the boys were told to read aloud to each
other and correct each other’s mistakes. At the end of the lesson they were
told to produce a poster on their favourite characters for the following les-
son. While asking the boys to produce a poster, the teacher had a small dis-
cussion with them on what a good poster would contain, and how it might be
composed.
Principles guiding the instruction:
All conversation must be in English. The teacher approaches the children in

English, and they must answer and ask questions in English. The pupils are
also supposed to speak English among themselves.
The teacher acts as a counsellor, spending most of his time walking around
helping the pupils working in groups or individually.
The pupils should do something they enjoy doing. The children can choose
their work from a number of options.
Everybody must learn at their own pace. The pupils are corrected to different
standards, in accordance with their capabilities.
6.5.5.2 Advantages and disadvantages of the learning situation
It is not yet possible to evaluate the long-term effects of the new learning
situations which characterise the new learning environment at Maglegårds-
skolen. Many questions have been raised in the media by parents and peda-
gogical experts. Some of them were posed in the course of the school case
study.
It has been suggested that the learning methods and principles are most
suitable for those children who are the most resourceful or resilient, which
raises the question of what happens to those lacking in initiative or energy.
According to the teachers interviewed, the new learning methods and princi-
ples are suitable both for the strong pupils and for those with fewer personal
resources. The stronger children have greater freedom to take the initiative,
and are not restricted by the slower-paced pupils. Those pupils with learning
difficulties, or those who simply lack energy or initiative, are not constantly
oppressed by the pressure of being compared to their age peers. The pro-
gress of both groups is also supported by the co-operation between pupils at
different levels in project work etc. The pupils are able to co-operate with a
wider range of other pupils that cuts across age boundaries. Some children
have stronger abilities in some assignments than others, and the new organ-
isational model allows them to seek equals at all levels.
Also, according to the teachers, it benefits both weak and strong and youn-
ger and older children that that they are divided into groups of older and
younger pupils, making it possible for the pupils to give and receive assis-
tance before turning to a teacher. The youngest pupils interviewed neverthe-
less stated that they were not using the pupils from other levels very much.
It has also been questioned whether it is possible for the teachers to follow
the progress of individual pupils sufficiently.
According to the teachers, the new learning environment does not make it
more difficult to follow the progress of the individual pupil. On the contrary,
the autonomy of the children who are now working more independently than
155

in a traditional school gives the teachers more time to supervise the children
generally, and to assist those needing more intensive help.
The project manager of the SKUB secretariat interviewed even claims that
the new learning environment is very suitable for revealing the weak pupils,
but that there is a fear that the stronger children will be neglected.
Parents especially seem to worry whether when given the option to choose
what to do, the children will try to avoid the subjects and exercises they find
difficult and/or boring.
The response of the two groups of children interviewed is that some children
will and do try to avoid subjects and exercises which do not have their inter-
est or which they find difficult, and according to one pupil this is not being
detected by the teachers. The young pupils claim that it is possible to take
the easy way, and that this is possible because there is no longer the same
control system as before, whereas the older pupils give the impression of
being very satisfied with the freedom to decide for themselves. The parents
expressed diverse opinions. One claimed that the little ones were not taking
the easy way out, whereas another said she was disappointed that her son
was not being challenged more.
When the pupils were asked what their ideal school would be like, they sta-
ted that it would be similar to the one they were attending, but with greater
teacher presence.
However, according to the teachers it is also necessary to take account of

the perception by some people that the pupils are left alone in the innovative
learning environments. The children remain under the supervision of the
teachers, and although they may choose different subjects and exercises
they are still obliged to carry out all the assignments. The difference lies not
so much in what the pupils are studying, but rather in the order in which
they choose to carry out the exercises. The teachers interviewed emphasised
that the overall responsibility for the learning process does not belong to the
individual pupil, although he does have a share in it.
This chapter describes and discusses how individual performance is meas-

ured, and whether and how the general learning environment and its meth-
ods is being evaluated.
6.5.6.1 Description of monitoring activities
The measurement of the skills and competencies of the pupils firstly com-
prises all the continuing daily measurement and supervision developed
within the innovative learning environment, and is accordingly contextualised
in this new environment. It seems that no global tools for measuring the
development of the children’s competencies have so far been developed, but
the teachers appear to be aware of the need for monitoring, and are devel-
oping their own systems90.
90
When asked how they have been adapting pupil assessment to the new learning
environment, the teachers stated that this was an issue currently being worked on,
although it had not yet produced results. The teachers interviewed stated that they
were either developing their own evaluation material or using material already pro-
duced by another teacher.
156

Secondly, the school measures the attainments of the older pupils in the
manner prescribed by law. This includes the continuous assessment of the
pupils’ level of attainment, the awarding of marks, and the conducting of
annual and final examinations. The assessment system and examinations
are based on the traditional learning methods.
6.5.6.2 Discussion of monitoring activities carried out
The teachers interviewed stressed the importance of developing a measure-

ment and evaluation system not simply for their own use in their daily work,
but also in order to be able to inform the parents about their children’s pro-
gress. Constant communication and information about the children is consid-
ered extremely important in the current situation. Naturally, most parents
have a different, more traditional interpretation of school education than the
practices carried out at Maglegårdsskolen. To make them understand and
believe in the new practices requires a substantial dialogue.
According to the parents interviewed, a gulf has developed between the

school and a substantial group of parents, due to the lack of proper informa-
tion about the development process at the school. The parents interviewed
estimated that approximately 35-40% of parents are to some extent critical
towards the innovative learning environment.
This stresses the importance of the development of a proper measurement

system. The deputy head of Maglegårdsskolen has stated that a feeling of
insecurity lies behind the majority of the criticism towards the school, in the
sense that people are asking themselves if the children are actually learning
anything in the innovative learning environment.
Viewed from the outside, it appears important that Maglegårdsskolen (and

the SKUB project in general) must be able both to monitor the the school’s
development according to traditional measures, and to develop tools for
measuring the development of the children within the terms of the school’s
(and the project’s) new pedagogical approach.
On the one hand, the school needs to closely monitor the results of the new
pedagogical approach being followed at the school, primarily to determine
whether the new pedagogies are effective, but also in order to keep the par-
ents on track regarding their children’s development.
On the other hand, for as long as the pedagogical approach at Maglegårds-

skolen differs so much from the general picture of schools in Denmark, it will
need to live up to and even prove itself in terms of the traditional assess-
ment requirements that all schools must comply with91.
6.5.7 The future
This chapter first describes the principal challenges faced by the new learn-
ing environment. Secondly, it outlines what can be learned from the case
study in terms of good practice.
91
Last year this was not a problem, as Maglegårdsskolen was ranked second among
all the schools of Denmark in terms of its school leavers’ average final examination
marks.
157

6.5.7.1 Future challenges
Future educational initiatives at the national level might interfere with the
praxis carried out at Maglegårdsskolen. For instance, in the spring of 2003,
there was a national-level discussion concerning the possibility of prohibiting
the instruction of big groups drawn from the traditional classes, because it
was feared that municipalities would use such an opportunity to reduce their
educational expenditure. But until now no severe problems have occurred.
To establish performance and evaluation measures is considered a very im-

portant challenge for the following reasons:
- To ensure that that the school will maintain its self-development.
- To ensure that the school keeps developing coherently, and not as nine
individual schools.
- To ensure a smooth transition to post-compulsory general and vocational

upper secondary education. Some of the parents interviewed expressed an-
xiety as to whether their children, though front-runners at the primary
school level, would lose out on entering the more traditional teaching envi-
ronment that characterises most of the remainder of the educational system.
- To make parents fully believe that the new learning approaches are suc-
cessful.
- To keep up morale in order to stand up to criticism and pressure from par-

ents and the media.
- To produce visible results.
The management, the teachers and the SKUB project organisation all con-
sider the change processes at Maglegårdsskolen to be a success. When
asked what other schools could learn from their experiences, they high-
lighted the following points:
x School development should start at the structural/organisational and
pedagogical level. The changes occurring at Maglegårdsskolen and the
integration of ICT would not have been so successful if the school had
not been working very purposefully and in a goal-oriented manner, start-
ing out with a value-oriented discussion involving all the stakeholders,
namely teachers, parents, pupils and the municipality. It is important to
specify the roles of the different participants in the development process.
x It is helpful to begin the process in more than one school. The schools
will be able to share experiences and learn from each others’ successes
and failures. It has particularly been the Gentofte Municipality’s school
development aims that have provided the primary driving force behind
the continued structural and organisational development at Maglegårds-
skolen.
x Organising the teachers of the school into self-managing teams makes
the teacher’s job more attractive and challenging.
x Resources are needed for the competence development of the teachers.
x The students should be allowed to actively participate in their own com-
petence development. The rules stipulate that they should ask each
other before asking a teacher. This will strengthen the co-operation
among the students, and relieve the pressure on the teacher.
158

x It is important not to leave much time between competence develop-
ment and the use of the skills attained, thereby ensuring that the devel-
opment of competences is goal- and practice-oriented.
x The structure and organisation of Maglegårdsskolen has been decisive
for the practical integration of ICT. Home areas, the dissolution of the
uniform lesson format, and the close co-operation between teachers in
the home areas have had great significance for the extent of the integra-
tion of IT and multimedia. The integration of ICT would have been much
more restricted if the educational method had not been changed.
x Getting accustomed to using the high-tech equipment takes time, and
the advice is not to rush things, and to start at the beginning, with lim-
ited use of the equipment. The students do not all need to work together
at the same time. Too much hardware equals loss of overview.
x The physical framework of Maglegårdsskolen makes it relatively simple
to work with IT and multimedia, because the flexibility of the framework
improves the overview. The PCs in the middle of the big common room
become a social meeting-place, and the portable equipment helps sup-
port the educational approach in which activities are no longer depend-
ent on physical location. The big common room is also a familiar space –
the teachers take their breaks here, which gives a dimension of joint
ownership and safety.
x The existence of one particular front-runner has been a significant driv-
ing force behind the change of ICT practice at Maglegårdsskolen. This
front-runner has inspired the other staff to be willing to try new technol-
ogy and has set the technological agenda, thus inspiring the develop-
ment of the other teachers’ competences.
List of people interviewed:
Steen Mogensen, the president of Gentofte municipality’s school board
Hanna Bohn Vinkel, project manager of the SKUB project
Peter Vinkel, vice president of Maglegårdsskolen
Annemette Hansen, teacher

Stine Schou, teacher
Kim Menne, teacher
Lone Lauridsen, teacher
Annette Nielsen, teacher
Gitte Tjellesen, teacher
Lars Johnsen, teacher
Mads Lynge Clausson-Kaas, teacher
Jeppe Kobberøe, teacher
Eva Frydensberg Holm, teacher
Jeannette Koustrup Duus, parent

Susanne Gormsen, parent
Jørgen Kaufmann, parent
Erik Rasmussen, parent
Henriette Engelbrecht, parent
Charlotte Herbert, parent
Marie Louise Fenger, parent
Louise Jarvad, parent
Line Kongsted, parent
Kathrine Myrtue, pupil from the 7th grade
159

Anna Rolin, pupil from the 7th grade
Nilas Steinmetz, pupil from the 7th grade
Emil Duus Flyger, pupil from the 7th grade
Gro Koldberg Lundsvig, pupil from the 7th grade
Caroline Bjerglund Andersen, pupil from the 7th grade
Asta Knudsen, pupil from the 3rd grade

Simon Brink, pupil from the 3rd grade
Olivia Meyer, pupil from the 3rd grade
Philip Stilling, pupil from the 3rd grade
Marie-Louise Hoffmann, pupil from the 3rd grade
Nynne Kunde, pupil from the 3rd grade
Carl Mosbech, pupil from the 3rd grade
Nikolaj F Erhardtsen, pupil from the 3rd grade
Simon Conradt-Eberlin pupil from the 3rd grade
Links:
Website of the Danish Ministry of Education, http://www.uvm.dk/
Website of the municipality of Gentofte, www.gentofte.dk
Website of the school development project, www.skub.dk
Website of the Maglegårdsskole, www.maglegaard.gentofte-skoler.dk
Documents:
The Danish Ministry of Education: “The Danish Strategy for Education, Learn-
ing and IT”.
e-Watch - European Electronic Education-Watch: “Education in e-Europe,

Public Policies for ICT in Schools”
European Commission, DG Information Society: “eEurope benchmarking
2001”
European Commission, Eurydice, Eurostat: “Key Data on Education in Europe

2002”
160

6.6 Lavinia, City District of Les Corts, Barcelona
This case study was undertaken at Lavinia Educational Centre in Barcelona,

Spain, in May 2003.
The Lavinia Educational Centre case study has encompassed the following
activities:

global framework conditions
2) An interview with the politically appointed deputy director of the educa-
tional department of the autonomous community of Catalonia, the DG of
information technologies.
3) An interview with a school and information society administrator at the
Catalan department of education, XTEC
4) A focus group interview with the parents of children attending Lavinia
Educational Centre
5) An interview with the school principal
6) Two group interviews of teachers
7) An interview with the school’s ICT co-ordinator
8) A group interview of pupils
9) Three observations of instruction, two involving younger children and
10) Observation of the general physical environment of the school, in-
cluding its architecture
At the end of the report is a list of the people interviewed in the course of
the case study.
Figure 6.11 Entrance of Lavinia
161

The Lavinia Educational Centre was founded in 1968 as a teachers’ co-
operative. It was a private school whose main purpose was to create a learn-
ing institution that differentiated itself from the traditional religious schools
which predominated at that time. In 1988, Lavinia was integrated into the
Collective of Schools for Catalan Public Education (CEPEPC), and became a
public school. Since then, the school has been subsidised by the Department
of Education of the Autonomous Region of Catalonia.
The school is located in the northwestern part of Barcelona, in the city dis-
trict of Les Corts. The Les Corts school district mostly comprises middle-
class, well-educated inhabitants. Although there are generally few private
schools in Catalonia, Les Corts is dominated by such schools (75% of schools
in the area are private). Lavinia is one of 7 public schools in the area. The
teachers at Lavinia describe the families of the pupils that attend the school
as being educated and higher middle-class families belonging to both Span-
ish and Catalan linguistic groups92.
Lavinia is a small primary educational centre, and provides preschool and

primary school education to children aged between 3 and 1293. 223 children
attend the school, and are taught by a teaching staff of 14 who teach all
levels and subjects. There is a close relationship between the teachers and
the individual classes. External personnel assist the teaching staff to cover
shortages, for example for creative subjects, since these are areas where the
school’s own personnel needs assistance.
The school is regarded as a pioneer in integrating ICT in teaching and pro-

moting pedagogical innovation. Lavinia began its first information and com-
munication technology (ICT) project in 1986, and since then it has made an
effort to integrate ICT into everyday education both as an instructional tool
and as an item of equipment like a pencil or a schoolbook. Today, Lavinia
has a computer laboratory, and a computer has been installed in one of the
classrooms in order to assist a multi-handicapped student.
The school develops its own learning material, and has earned several
awards for some multimedia learning programmes which it shares with other
schools in Catalonia and internationally.
In Spain, the responsibility for education in schools is shared by the state

and the decentralised governments of the Autonomous Regions94. The re-
gional government has extra responsibility for education in some regions
such as Catalonia, since it is a so-called historic region whose governmental
and administrative structures have developed faster than in most others due
to regional political pressures and the importance of the Catalan language.
92
There are two official languages in Catalonia: the state language, Castilian (i.e.
Spanish), and the minority language, Catalan.
93
In Spain, preschool education is offered to children aged between 3-5. Attendance is
not compulsory, but most parents elect to send their children to preschools at age 3.
94
Spain has three levels of public authority, namely the Spanish state, the Autono-
mous Regions, and the municipalities. Education is decentralised from the state level
to the regional level. Catalonia must therefore respect national legislation. Accord-
ingly, 65% of the curriculum is compulsory and is decided by the state authorities, and
the remaining 35% is decided by the regional governments. In historic regions pos-
sessing their own languages, such as Catalonia, 55% of the curriculum is compulsory.
The autonomous region specifies the curriculum in terms of the subjects and the num-
ber of hours spent on each of them.
162

The local administration has hardly any influence on primary school educa-
tion, but does provide logistical support for schools.
There are many framework conditions promoting the development of the

change processes at the Lavinia school, including the influence of both na-
tional and regional school policies.
Both the Spanish state and the Catalan Government have developed infor-
mation society strategies which emphasise the importance of ICT in school
education. The Spanish strategy views the educational system as a useful
tool for promoting the integration of today’s pupils into the future informa-
tion society. Educational activities concentrate on the access of all pupils
through the provision of equipment and teacher education, and the devel-
opment of educational material.
As previously mentioned, public school education in the Catalan region falls

under the responsibility of the Catalan Autonomous Government. In 1986,
the Catalan Ministry of Education established a unit to co-ordinate ICT in its
schools. Since 1998, Catalonia has also had an explicit information society
strategy for integrating and promoting the use of ICT in school education. In
conclusion, political forces are driving the change processes to a significant
extent.
The Catalan strategy is coherent with the state strategies for promoting the
integration of all citizens into the information society. The integration of ICT
into school education is considered a social necessity by the Catalan De-
partment of Education. The regional school administration has a strategic
aim to provide ICT teacher education, content development for the integra-
tion of ICT into the curriculum, and infrastructure and technical support for
the 2000 Catalan schools95. For this reason, the regional administration is
offering technical assistance and teacher education to the schools of the re-
gion. So far, 65% of the 80,000 school teachers in Catalonia have benefited
from continuing education in ICT.
According to the Department of Education’s representatives, teacher educa-

tion is not only an important tool for introducing ICT to the schools, but also
for encouraging the integration of ICT into the schools’ curricula, methodol-
ogy and pedagogy. The ideas concerning teaching and the approach to
learning must change, otherwise it is pointless to be developing new learning
material.
Lately, the courses have focused on changing the teacher profile concept to
encourage:
1. Active learning
2. Student responsibility for the learning process
3. Development of social and team working skills
4. The integration of student diversity as an asset
5. Self-paced student learning and more student-specific learning processes
which are adapted to the needs of the individual pupil.
95
In Catalonia, there are approximately 2000 public schools, 500 semi-private schools
and only a few private schools. Nevertheless, in Les Corts, private schools predomi-
nate.
163

The Catalan schools are free to innovate individually both in their pedagogi-
cal development and their governing methodology. Meanwhile, technical
support is provided by the regional government, which is also attempting to
stimulate educational innovation through the continuing education of teach-
ers in information society skills. Actions have also been initiated to encour-
age methodological innovation, curriculum development and multimedia
educational materials.
The infrastructure required for integrating ICT in learning is also being pro-
vided by the regional government. This consists of the provision of computer
equipment, software, Internet access and other services. It also includes the
XTEC programme, which has been running since 1988 and currently provides
Internet access to 70,000 teachers in Catalonia, ICT equipment maintenance
support to schools, support for ICT co-ordinators in the form of seminars,
and external consultants.
According to the administrative and political representatives, the Department

of Education’s ability to provide schools with these services is dependent on
its staff. The majority of those working with ICT in school education are for-
mer teachers. They therefore understand the requirements and the mode of
thinking of the interventions’ target groups, as well as the situations that the
teachers have to face daily.
Some conditions do appear to be hindering the development of the innova-

tive learning environment at Lavinia. Some are external to the school:
i. National educational legislation
ii. The staff of the regional administration
iii. Limited degree of knowledge sharing
iv. The training of teachers
Some conditions are internal to the school, primarily:

v. The school infrastructure / architecture
vi. The limited financial resources available
The existing political disagreements between the Spanish state and the re-
gional level are reflected in the educational policies. Not surprisingly, there-
fore, the proposed reform of the State Law of Quality Education (LOCE) has
aroused criticism in Catalonia.
According to the regional government and school staff representatives, this

legislative reform will have severe consequences for learning conditions. The
law embodies conservative values such as the importance of religion and
teaching on the basis of a centralised curriculum, and leaves little scope for
innovative activities. It is feared that the new Law of Quality Education will
make it difficult to continue the current process of innovation, and will re-
store the previous pupil-teacher roles. In addition, the law will centralise the
education system by
x reducing the number of Catalan language classes, and
x increasing the time spent on topics such as national history and politics
(rather than regional topics).
Finally, the criticisms state that the moderate evolution towards a construc-
tivist learning approach will be set back considerably by the new law, which
will instead reinforce the didactic learning approach. The constructivist ap-
proach was introduced in the 1980s in the Spanish educational reform, but a
proper paradigmatic change never occurred, most probably due to the diffi-
164

culty of bringing about behavioural changes among the teaching staff. Nev-
ertheless, some movement away from instructivism has been observed
lately, but according to our interviewees the new legislation will undermine
this type of development.
Instead, a more flexible state law is desirable, together with a broader cur-
riculum and more reflection on the part of the actors involved. On the posi-
tive side, according to the staff at Lavinia, the threat of a new education law
that leaves little room for innovation and flexibility seems to be sending peo-
ple a wake-up call, and is raising awareness of the need for innovation in
compulsory education.
The regional government representatives also consider that the state level is
not showing due respect for Catalonia’s encouragement of the integration of
the Catalan language via the school projects and multimedia school materi-
als that are being developed with the support of the regional government.
On the other hand, the regional representatives interviewed for this study
admitted that the teacher education has not so far had the desired effect, in
the sense that ICT has not been properly integrated into the school environ-
ment in the way that had been hoped. Instead, the interviewees acknowl-
edged the need for the administrative representatives to make themselves
known in the schools and to introduce entire school communities to the vari-
ous forms of ICT. The regional government had anticipated that the teachers
who had received continuing education in ICT would return to their normal
workplaces and engage in knowledge sharing. This turned out not to be the
case. Accordingly, the regional government now recognises the need to in-
volve the entire school in the visits paid to them, during which combined
learning sessions must be conducted. The director of educational and meth-
odological innovation at the Open University of Catalonia added to this criti-
cism in a telephone interview by stating that the training of Spanish school
teachers has been misdirected, in the sense that while it is teaching them
how to use ICT it fails to teach them how to use it innovatively in their
teaching. What is required is better training in innovation in pedagogical
practice, in addition to learning how to use the technology.
From the point of view of the Lavinia teachers, however, the regional ad-
ministration’s staff have been away from the school environment for too
long, and are no longer fully familiar with the needs of the schools. This
therefore strongly suggests that the co-operation between the administration
and the individual leaves something to be desired in such areas as the un-
derstanding of current learning needs and conditions.
This chapter describes the school organisation in terms of its workplace cha-
racteristics, i.e. the role of the management, how work is organized (team-
work vs. individual effort), and what kinds of meetings are held and how
often. It also covers the issues of who is responsible for the development
and maintenance of the new learning environment and pedagogical methods,
and who is in charge of the ICT facilities.
From private to public school

Ever since the Lavinia educational centre joined the public school system run
by Catalonia’s regional government, its organisational structure has re-
mained practically unchanged. From the outset, the school also differed from
165

the majority of primary schools in having been founded as a co-operative by
teachers and parents, rather than being a typical school with a lesser degree
of involvement of the teaching staff and parents in deciding its objectives.
Work organisation
At Lavinia, traditional classroom-based teaching remains the basis of teach-
ing. The physical environment hampers any radical organisational changes in
the learning situation, but the work is nevertheless gradually becoming more
project-oriented, and the classes are divided into smaller groups for particu-
lar learning activities.
In Spain, school is compulsory from ages 6 to 16. The compulsory school

system is divided into primary and secondary schools, and as has been men-
tioned earlier, in addition to preschool, Lavinia teaches at the primary school
level. The primary school is organised into three cycles, each consisting of
two grades for pupils aged 6-8, 8-10 and 10-12.
Lavinia’s teachers are usually organised in accordance with these three cy-
cles. Two teachers work together in each cycle, and each teacher is respon-
sible for one class. Usually the teachers working within the same cycle plan
the school year together and teach all subjects, each in their own class. In
addition to his or her individual class responsibilities, each teacher is respon-
sible for one particular topic or subject, and most teachers also participate in
transversal projects that either cut across the school cycles or involve sev-
eral schools.
ICT, for example, is integrated in the teaching at Lavinia by a teacher who

has been the school’s driving force in this area for three years. She works
closely with, and is supported by, another teacher, who has been appointed
to be the person responsible for the technical aspects of the school’s ICT
implementation. He assists the teaching staff, who are still somewhat defi-
cient in technical skills even though all of them have received basic continu-
ing education in ICT.
The purpose behind the projects involving the transversal co-operation of

two or more cycles is to enable the pupils to acquire some knowledge and
understanding about the next cycle, and to carry out large-scale projects.
The preparatory work is carried out in so-called commissions which are es-
tablished on a voluntary basis. Nevertheless, much of the teaching is still
based on individual planning, particularly in day-to-day planning and teach-
ing. This mode of organising the work at Lavinia arises from the school’s
democratic management culture.
In line with the ideas on which the school was founded, the school manage-
ment adheres to basic democratic principles, which are reflected in the pro-
cedures for electing the school principal.
The school is led by the school principal assisted by two teachers who have
been elected to serve as deputy heads, in addition to retaining their function
as educators. Their main responsibility is to prepare the syllabus before it is
presented to the teaching staff.
The teaching staff appoints the school principal for a 4-year period, and this
decision must be approved by the school board, which has representation
from the teachers, parents, local government and the school management.
The current school principal was a teacher at the school until she applied for
the post of principal. The teachers, on the other hand, are appointed by the
regional administration.
166

In addition to the teaching staff, the school employs an administrative wor-
ker, a secretary for the parents’ association, a caretaker and a cook.
The democratic character of the school is also illustrated in the daily organi-
sation of the teaching, with each teacher having both responsibility and a
large degree of autonomy in the decision-making process concerning the
planning of activities and the introduction of new learning methods etc.
Anna, one of the teachers, explained that she was very inspired by the
methods of Johnson and Johnson (1989), and uses them in the learning si-
tuation. On her own initiative she underwent training in North America which
induced her to use this method in her teaching. Anna uses a group learning
technique within a co-operative learning framework. It takes place in small
groups, which comprise the primary classroom learning structure. It is based
on the principle of simultaneously giving the pupils free choice while still
maintaining teacher control. Groups of 1-4 pupils come together, and each
individual assumes a role of 1) communicator, 2) secretary, 3) facilitator, 4)
spokesperson, or 5) the person responsible for the group’s materials.
The purpose of the technique is to teach three skills to the pupils, i.e.:
1. Assuming personal responsibility for working to achieve collective goals
2. Face-to-face interaction
3. Effective group process skills96
The 1989 Johnson and Johnson-inspired model of co-operative working, al-

though introduced and applied by Anna, has not been systematically inte-
grated into the teaching at Lavinia. While knowledge-sharing exists, it mainly
occurs as the result of individual initiative. This is where the management
structure is more traditional in giving autonomy to each teacher.
These examples illustrate that the school has to a certain extent maintained
a classic management structure, although the existence of the transversal
projects planned by the ‘commissions’ and the collaborations taking place
across the age cycles are both indications of a different mode of work or-
ganisation in which ideas and methods are developed through discussion and
co-operation among the teachers. New ideas and methods of teaching are
introduced to the school, but are not necessarily shared and are not always
based on the teachers being involved in a consensus-based process. The
responsibility for the daily teaching is decentralised to the teachers individu-
ally. On the other hand, besides having overall pedagogical responsibility,
the management, consisting of the school principal and the two deputy
heads, is primarily concerned with the tasks of administration and co-
ordination. It is responsible for developing the curriculum presented to the
teaching staff for approval.
The management intends to preserve the pedagogical restructuring repre-

sented by the co-ordination of tasks and their allocation among the teachers.
The keywords are learning for the sake of learning.
Meetings are held among the teachers and/or the management on a regular
basis. Some teachers meet every Wednesday as necessary, for instance if
there is a particular project or subject that needs to be discussed, and all the
96
Tinzmann, M.B. et. al (1990): What Is the Collaborative Classroom? NCREL: Oak
Brook,
http://www.southampton.k12.ny.us/english9/Adobe%20Files/Student%20Roles%20in
%20a%20Collaborative%20Classroom.pdf
167

teachers meet at least once a month. In addition, meetings involving the
school council and representatives of the parents’ association (AMPA97) are
held frequently98.
Pedagogical innovation
The teachers and the school management take responsibility either individu-
ally or in smaller groups for developing and maintaining the new learning
environment and pedagogical methods.
New school initiatives in IT and other fields are usually undertaken by a sin-
gle pioneering teacher, or by several teachers working as a group. This proc-
ess is therefore largely dependent on individual teacher initiatives rather
than management decision-making, although the school management has
the clear objective of maintaining the evolution which is currently taking pla-
ce. Nevertheless, according to the 2002-2003 annual plan, last year the tea-
chers collectively proposed to promote pedagogical innovation and to create
and develop transversal axes with the purpose of promoting globally-
applicable work. This illustrates the school’s predominantly bottom-up ap-
proach.
The integration of information technologies in the school has for three years
been co-ordinated by one particular teacher who considers it important to
encourage new didactic processes. All teachers have received training in ICT,
but there is still a need for greater knowledge about when to use these tech-
nologies. In other words, there is a deficiency in the pedagogical knowledge
among the teaching staff in this area.
There are also external stimuli which encourage pedagogical innovation. A

group of representatives from different Catalan educational centres and from
the Barcelona resource centre undertake continued co-operation, initiate
projects, and hold meetings to discuss and develop the pedagogical structure
of the centres involved. The school is actively co-operating with other school
representatives in developing innovative learning material and multimedia
projects for the pupils, which is used for multilateral projects involving
schools in both Latin America and Catalonia.
6.6.2.2 Discussion
This section discusses which aspects of the educational setting are respec-
tively promoting or impeding the development of the new learning environ-
ment.
The teaching staff at Lavinia were very positive towards the management
structures at the school, and expressed general satisfaction with the prevail-
ing organisational culture. Some of the teachers were unable to explain ex-
actly why they felt so much at ease in the school, but all were agreed that it
is an interesting and pleasant place to work.
Due to the Spanish system of acquiring credentials, which rewards continuity

and the long-lasting tenure of positions, the teaching staff has remained
practically the same throughout the school’s existence. In general in Catalo-
nia and Spain the teaching staff’s overall attitude in primary and secondary
education appears to represent a general issue for concern and an obstacle
97
21 parents have set up AMPA, the Lavinia Parents’ Association.
98
The school council consists of 15 individuals representing the school management,
the parents (delegated by AMPA), teachers, city council representatives, and a council-
lor representing the regional government.
168

to change, with the teachers being generally conservative and reluctant to
modify their practices. This is related to the system governing the acquisition
of credentials, and the resulting low rate of mobility in the education system
can be regarded as a problematic inhibitor of change. This is expressed
among others by the representative from the Open University of Catalonia
interviewed for the study.
At Lavinia, some new teachers have been appointed, but this is a rare occur-
rence. According to teachers, school management and parents alike, this is a
positive factor in the sense that there is a stability among the teaching staff
which is valued by the pupils’ parents, but it may also to some extent hinder
the introduction of new theoretical approaches and enthusiasm, and may
thus tend to cause the school to stagnate in terms of the development of its
pedagogy and educational methodology.
6.6.3.1 Description
This chapter describes the educational setting, i.e. the available learning
material and technology, finances and architecture.
The school generally appears to have very few resources. The buildings are
old and decrepit, and the sanitation facilities are extremely poor. Neverthe-
less, the children and their families are very satisfied with the school, due to
its teaching staff and management. For the same reason, every school year
it attracts many pupil applications.
The school is regarded as a pioneer in terms of how it has managed to im-

plement ICT in its educational activities. ICT was introduced to the school in
1986 as part of a three-year project. In 1990, the Bongoh telecommunica-
tions project was begun. The project consists of a simulation game which
currently involves two schools in Catalonia and three in Argentina.
The school’s ICT equipment consists of a computer lab containing 8 com-

puters. In addition, the parents’ association, AMPA, has sponsored another
computer. As a result, the parents are able to stay in regular contact with
the school. A further computer has been sponsored under an EU project.
The multimedia and learning material used in the school is usually supplied
either by the regional government or has been developed by the school wor-
king alone or in co-operation with other schools, resource centres and the
like. The school has participated in the development of several multimedia
programmes.
At present, the school has 5 different projects covering the different cycles.
The projects involve all the children in both the preschool and the primary
school.
169

Figure 6.12: Lavinia’s Five Multimedia projects
Source: http://www.xtec.es/ceiplavinia/projectes.htm
The school has also entered into an agreement with the Condis supermarket
chain whereby like all its other customers, the parents and personnel of the
school receive purchase points whenever they shop in one of its supermar-
kets. The points acquired by all the parents are collected up and used to
provide equipment for the school, either free of charge or at a discount. So
far, this has enabled the school to obtain a printer.
The teachers belong to a regional working group which holds meetings regu-
larly. Among its other activities, it plans the development of innovative
learning programmes which are intended to benefit a number of the region’s
schools.
The school is characterised by an abundance of its children’s work in the

form of portraits, paintings and the output of their projects and other activi-
ties, all of which is displayed in the school halls, classrooms and on the In-
ternet, where the children exchange their own portraits with those of chil-
dren from other schools.
6.6.3.2 Discussion
This section discusses which aspects of the educational setting are respec-
tively promoting or impeding the development of the new learning environ-
ment.
Whereas in other advanced societies the development of innovative learning

environments has been promoted by financial investment in the renewal of
170

physical infrastructure and the purchase of ICT equipment, the shortage of
finances at Lavinia represents an obstacle to the development of the learning
environment.
However, the school’s personnel and the parents’ association have found
alternative sources of essential technological equipment, but not to the ex-
tent that the pupils have unrestricted access to ICT. The regional govern-
ment supports and encourages the process which is underway by providing
hardware, teaching materials etc., but it should be borne in mind that com-
pared to central or northern European countries, Spain is relatively underde-
veloped in terms of its schools provision of ICT and the restructuring of its
pedagogical approach. It should also be mentioned, however, that following
the Lisbon summit, the Spanish Government introduced a national informa-
tion society action plan, and that compared to the other regions of Spain,
Catalonia is one of the technologically most advanced.
Due to the above-mentioned factors, the architecture of Lavinia remains

unaltered, and the setting of the traditional school environment remains do-
minant, although the personnel intends to create innovation within the exist-
ing structures.
Maybe the absence of such obvious changes is the reason that most parents
do not perceive Lavinia as being a new learning environment. This is the
case even though they are aware that their children belong to a school that
is different and has given them valuable skills via their use of computers and
participation in interesting projects, and have acquired skills which differ
from those learned by children in traditional schools. It appears as though
the change processes are occurring largely unobserved and unnoticed.
6.6.4.1 Description
This chapter describes the pedagogical principles and values guiding the new
learning environment.
According to the political representative of the Regional Government of Cata-

lonia’s Department of Education, who was interviewed for the present case
study, the keywords in Catalan pedagogy are, or should be, collaboration,
active learning, intercultural motivation and the reinforcement of the Catalan
language and culture. The use of ICT is considered to be an interdisciplinary
activity, and it is one of the regional government’s objectives that it should
be integrated as such into the learning process.
The Lavinia school staff have focused their attention on the creation of a
constructive learning environment for the children. This includes:
x Greater focus on reflective thinking than on memorization
x Working on the children’s self-esteem
x Diversity
x Open learning, involving acceptance and listening.
Every activity demands different methodologies, which requires flexibility on

the part of the teachers, but the main overall theoretical approach is con-
structivist. The teachers and management at Lavinia are deliberately but
gradually trying to change the teachers’ and pupils’ roles in a way that en-
courages the development of pupils and individuals who are able to partici-
pate more actively in the learning process. The teachers regard themselves
as learning facilitators. According to the teachers and management, this is
171

not always easy, since this represents a mode of teaching for which there
are no clear signposts and which uses very different guidelines to the in-
structivist approach. In this process, the use of ICT represents a seed of
change.
At Lavinia, the pupils are taught about emotions and values. They are as-
sisted in consolidating their critical thinking skills, and are thereby also en-
couraged to make their own decisions and to question the demands set by
the teachers. The starting-point is always the richness of diversity and the
right to express it, but also stresses the children’s need to learn social skills
and to be able to co-operate in groups. Working in groups creates the
framework conditions for the children to exercise their individual capacities,
and the ICT projects also ensure that each individual is able to attain his own
level of accomplishment, as opposed to being restrained or pressured by the
abilities of the remaining pupils. This is considered important in assisting the
pupils to become autonomous in the learning process. The multimedia pro-
jects also make it possible, speaking figuratively, for the pupils and teachers
to escape their normal surroundings during their co-operation in a virtual
environment.
The high level of involvement of the pupils’ parents in the daily life of the
school is helpful, as they provide physical, moral and financial support. In
addition, the school maintains continuous contact with the parents, either
directly or by phone and e-mail.
Figure 6.13 Guidance in the process..
For their part, the parents list the following as being important aspects of
their relationship with the school:
x The high degree of information
x The positive attitude of the teachers
x The focus on developing the children’s personalities
x The daily contact with the school
x The fact that the majority of the school work is carried out at school
172

x The fact that the school operates an unorthodox timetable (as compared
with most other Spanish schools)99
6.6.4.2 Discussion
In this section the advantages and disadvantages of the new pedagogical

principles and values are discussed, including any problems occurring during
their implementation, the criticisms made of the school, and the source of
the criticism. The viewpoints of the interviewees are naturally also included.
There has not been any general criticism of the school. However, a few par-
ents have chosen to remove their children from it. During the interviews, the
parents and teachers explained that this was mainly due to the fact that
some people thought too much emphasis was being given in the Lavinia
Educational Centre to alternative approaches to learning. These parents have
chosen instead to enrol their children in schools with a more traditional ap-
proach, usually in private schools that tend to maintain the classic educa-
tional roles in which the teacher is the active party and the pupil adopts a
more passive role. This kind of criticism of the Lavinia approach is the excep-
tion rather than the rule.
6.6.5.1 Description
This chapter describes the actual learning situation, i.e. what characterizes a
typical learning situation in this school compared to other “ordinary” schools
as explained by interviewees. It includes descriptions of two of the learning
situations observed. In each, the focus is on the respective roles of the pu-
pils and teachers and how ICT has been integrated into the learning situa-
tion. In addition, the characteristics of a typical learning situation in this
school compared to those of other “ordinary” schools are described.
The first learning situation observed involved primary school pupils, while
the second involved preschoolers. Common to both was that the children
were working on the multimedia projects that are characteristic of the
schools.
The observations made for this study involved 3rd-cycle pupils (mostly 11-
year-olds) in a class which was divided into two groups. One group was wor-
king on the “Edumet” IT-based project, for which they naturally required
computer facilities100. This project is concerned with climate and meteorol-
ogy, and is run in parallel and to some extent interactively with 9 different
Catalan schools.
sented the results in the form of written reports. The other half of the class
99
In Spain, compulsory school usually consists of morning and afternoon classes with
a 1-2 hour break at midday. Whenever possible, the pupils return home during the
break in order to have lunch etc. At Lavinia, since the founding of the school the mid-
day break has been shorter than in other more traditional schools. The pupils eat at
the school, an arrangement that costs the parents 25 Euro a month, and which ac-
cording to both teachers and parents is appropriate to their needs. School finishes at 3
p.m., and those children who cannot return home at that time because of their par-
ents’ work schedule are offered recreational facilities on the school premises.
100
The pupils work with the computers approximately twice a week.
173

worked independently on different projects covering various school topics.
The school work at Lavinia is largely project-based, and in this particular
case the pupils were either working in groups or were from time to time re-
ceiving process guidance or corrections in relation to the work they had done
up to that point. The pupils who were not working near the computers were
occupied in finishing other projects. The pupils were all located close to each
other, since half the class was in the computer lab and the other half was in
a classroom next to the computer lab. The teacher, who is heavily engaged
in using ICT in education and has been involved in the integration of ICT at
the Lavinia Educational Centre for a number of years, walked between the
two rooms and assisted the pupils in following the coursework, both on her
own initiative and at their request.
Figure 6.14 Pupils working by the computer
The observations showed that in the learning situations, teachers and pupils
were interacting to a high degree. Both the observations and the interviews
with teachers and pupils demonstrated a highly motivated teaching staff. All
the teachers interviewed expressed satisfaction with their workplace, and
showed themselves to be highly motivated in terms of participating in pro-
jects leading to innovation in materials, pedagogical styles etc. Some of the
teachers said that they were happier at this school than in their previous
jobs, but could not say why exactly.
The preschool project “Sàlix i els sentits” (Salix and the senses) involves 4-5
year-olds. This is a 2-year project encompassing topics pertaining to the
social sciences, languages and Nature. Both computer and tape recorders
were used in the learning situation in order to teach the pupils about the
senses. They were also taught to stand before a group and give presenta-
tions.
174

Figure 6.15 Preschool pupils working with Salix
The project is being carried out in several Catalan schools. This teaching
approach differs from the previous methods used in the public schools, as
well as from some contemporary Spanish private schools. In these more
traditional schools, preschool pupils are taught classic subjects such as read-
ing, writing and arithmetic.
We observed two different preschool groups with approximately 25-30 chil-

dren in each. The observations took place in normal classrooms. The first
class was taught by one preschool teacher who played games with the chil-
dren and let them test their senses using fruits and vegetables. The second
class observed consisted of children who were somewhat older. They per-
formed different exercises, either as an entire group or individually before
the whole class. This class had both a regular teacher and a student teacher.
In general, what appears to make this school special compared to other

schools in Spain is:
1) The focus on project work
2) Transversal projects undertaken internally in the school which bring to-
gether children of different ages and abilities
3) Multimedia projects in co-operation with other schools, whether these
are from Catalonia or from other countries around the world.
The teachers do not have the sense that the school particularly differs from
Catalonia’s remaining private schools. They state that their teaching ap-
proach is fairly typical for public schools nowadays, but that they were one
of the schools to pioneer it in Catalonia.
Compared to private and religious schools, the learning situation at Lavinia is

distinguished by its modification of the roles of the actors involved. Lavinia’s
teaching is characterised by a high degree of interaction between the teach-
ers and pupils. The last-mentioned are required to make presentations and
175

to participate actively in the learning process. The multimedia programmes
developed since the 1980s and 1990s also ensure that all students have ex-
perience of using the internet and the computer in general.
In sum, the observations in the classroom showed that

x Pupils are divided into smaller groups
x Pupils carry out different assignments / work on different topics at the
same time
x Pupils are working independently on the computer
x The teacher instructs the pupils initially concerning the lesson they are
about to have
x The teacher guides the pupils individually, and the pupils participate
when the teacher corrects their work.
6.6.5.2 Discussion
In this section, the advantages and disadvantages of the kinds of learning

situations described are highlighted via the perceptions of the pupils, the
teachers and the parents interviewed.
In general, there is a high degree of satisfaction with the learning situation

at Lavinia among all the parties involved, i.e. the teachers, parents and pu-
pils. According to these, the approach being taken in the school was wholly
positive.
One parent explained that she had chosen the school for her children be-
cause the learning process is interactive, and because the teaching staff
value the pupils’ personalities. They are treated as individuals, which is more
important than the acquisition of academic skills. In addition, it is important
that the school is small. This has resulted in a tightly-knit unit which has a
feeling of family.
Another parent stated that for him, some of the positive factors are that the
school:
x Has a good reputation
x Has good morale
x Promotes Catalan culture (all the classes except the Castilian Spanish
language classes are conducted in Catalan)
x Applies the teachers’ imagination in using the classrooms in alternative
ways
x Gives the children only limited homework.
According to the parents, some people do not appreciate this way of teach-
ing, since less time is dedicated to traditional topics and it is feared that the
children are not learning skills in these areas as quickly as they would in a
traditional school. However, according to the parents, the end result seems
to be that the children learn additional skills on top of the same knowledge
as that acquired by the pupils of other schools.
The pupils are satisfied with their use of computers in the school. They all
have computers at home, but they like using them for schoolwork as well.
For example, the computer in the Castilian class is used for writing stories,
and one pupil said that she enjoys expressing herself with the computer.
They also use the computer for e-mail, since they are involved in a multi-
school project with children from other schools, and they use it to search for
information and photographs on the Internet.
The pupils are usually supervised when they use the computer at school, but
are also allowed to enter the computer lab unsupervised in order to search
176

for information on the internet or for general assignment work. Accordingly,
the older children in Lavinia have a certain degree of access to the equip-
ment. The pupils have also used computers in another educational context.
When they visited a museum in Tarragona, they were asked to search for
information using the museum’s computer equipment, and to respond to
some questions concerning the history of Rome. In that sense, ICT is also
being used outside of school within the framework of a school excursion.
6.6.6.1 Description
This chapter discusses how individual performance is measured, and whether

and how the general learning environment and its methods are being evalu-
ated.
The education system is still fairly traditional overall, and the children’s per-
formance is measured in accordance with the educational requirements of
the Catalan Generalitat and the State Department of Education. The per-
formance of the children is measured three times a year, with the aim of
ensuring continuity in the assessment of the pupils. The evaluation report,
which is rather formal, is sent to the parents. No assessment of the chil-
dren’s general level of knowledge or attitudes is included in these evalua-
tions. However, the teachers plan to observe each individual’s development
in order to ensure a more tailored evaluation that also focuses on other val-
ues. The attitude of the management is that there are general requirements
which the children’s learning must meet, but that when required these can
be achieved using less orthodox methods.
6.6.6.2 Discussion
The development processes at Lavinia appear to be somewhat constrained

by the fact that the pupils are measured in terms of the traditional require-
ments, as well as by the fact that the extracurricular skills which they ac-
quire in the innovative learning environment at Lavinia are not especially
valued under the current evaluation system. The school is still considerably
dominated by the old learning paradigm, and according to the management
and teaching personnel at Lavinia, the new school reform proposed by the
government will further hamper its development.
6.6.7 The future
This chapter first describes the primary challenges that the new learning
environment faces. Secondly it is outlined what can be learned in terms of
good practise from the case.
This chapter discusses the principal challenges faced by the new learning
environment.
At the micro level, for the teachers of both Lavinia and supposedly many
other primary or secondary schools, the main daily challenge is now one of
how to create multimedia education. One issue is learning how to use the
ICT tools, but knowing when to use them is a completely different one.
From the political/administrative point of view, the main challenge ahead is

a. to create teaching tools
177

b. to motivate and train teachers
c. to find and implement an organisational style that works.
At Lavinia, the perception of the future challenges is that the support of eve-
ryone, i.e. teachers, parents, the support centres, the regional government
etc., will be required in order to continue the development process. The pri-
mary challenge will be to overcome the constraints imposed by the proposed
new Law of Quality in Education. According to our informants, this law will
leave very little room for flexibility and innovation.
This section discusses what can be learned from the case study in terms of
good practice.
It is interesting to note how at Lavinia a learning environment is gradually

developing in which the roles of parents, teachers and pupils are changing,
but without the conscious awareness of society, or, to a certain extent, of
the actors involved. It is also interesting that this is possible without the sa-
me level of resource expenditure as that being applied to similar but more
highly-developed learning environments, particularly in the Scandinavian
countries. The important factors here are:
x A stable learning environment
x A small environment
x A relatively flat, bottom-up democratic organisation
x Individual autonomy
x Interdisciplinary co-operation, and
x Parental support.
What can be learned from Lavinia is, that when the above factors are
brought together with individual initiative it can produce innovative results. A
concrete example of this is the participation of Lavinia in school twinning as
explained in this report. The school is part of a network with different local,
national or international educational institutions, and communicate and / or
cooperate with other pupils via educational programmes that are available
on the Internet. Another example is the exercises that are carried out during
class in order to motivate the different intelligences of the pupils as has also
been explained here.
In sum, the Catalan school is an example of innovation occurring under un-

favourable circumstances.
6.6.8 Sources
6.6.8.1 Interviews
Catalan Department of Education:

Fina Denia
Jordi Castells
Lavinia Educational Centre:

Anna Traball Piqueras (Principal)
Maria Teresa Gavalda Mas (Head of Studies)
Anna Piñero (Teacher)
Vicent Martínez Centelles (Teacher and person responsible for the technical
implementation of ICT at Lavinia)
Mari Angeles (Preschool teacher)
178

Laura Pareja Pané (Preschool teacher)
Pupils:
Ares (11 years)
Nico (11 years)
Saul (11 years)
Natalia (11 years)
Parents:
Raimon Galbán (Father of a 4-year-old girl)
Cristina Ribas (Mother of an 11-year-old boy)
Telephone interview:
Albert Sangrá, director of educational and methodological innovation, the
Open University of Catalonia
Pla Annual, Curs 2002-2003, CEIP Lavínia
Websites
http://www.xtec.es/ceiplavinia/
6.7 Vinstagårdsskolan, the Municipality of Stockholm
The Vinstagårdsskolan case study was performed at the school in the mu-
nicipality of Stockholm in Sweden in April 2003. It comprised the following
activities:

tion plans, internal evaluations etc., plus the global framework condi-
tions.
3) A conversation with the vice-principal about the construction of the
school
4) An interview with a school administrator working in the schools admini-
stration department of the city district of Hässelby-Vällingby
5) An interview with a local politician from the city district of Hässelby-
Vällingby
6) An interview with parents of children attending Vinstagårdsskolan (focus
group)
7) An group interview with teachers
8) Two group interviews with pupils
9) Three observations of learning in three different work units
10) Observation of the general physical environment of the school, including
its architecture
Vinstagårdsskolan is a new school that enrolled its first pupils in 2001. It is

housed in the former headquarters of Konsumentverket (the Swedish Con-
sumer Agency), and is located in the Vinsta industrial suburb of Stockholm.
The city district council to which the school belongs is Hässelby-Vällingby,

with a population of 58,824101. The district is a typical suburb comprising
both houses and apartment blocks which house a correspondingly mixed
101
http://www.usk.stockholm.se/internet/omrfakta/omrfakta.asp?omrade=sdn04&typ=s
dn
179

population in terms of age, income, occupation and level of education. How-
ever, it has the highest unemployment rate in the city, and 8% of the popu-
lation is of foreign origin.
Vinstagårdsskolan is a school for grades 7 to 9, and mostly enrols pupils

from three grade 1-6 schools in the district, although a limited number of
pupils come from other schools and other school districts as well. At the
moment, 352 pupils attend the school, and 37 teachers work there. 25% of
the pupils are of foreign origin.
The building of a new school was motivated by the need for more space in
existing schools, due to a growing number of children in the area. The choice
to build a new school instead of enlarging existing ones was primarily based
on a parental initiative, as a group of parents considered it unsatisfactory
that their children had to be dispersed among a number of other schools
when they finished grade 6. After considering different options, school ad-
ministrators and politicians supported the idea. Many options were investi-
gated before Konsumentverket’s former headquarters building was selected
as the basis for the new school.
In April 2001, the principal was appointed, and shortly before the school
opened in August 2001, the first teachers were employed.
The school will be expanded in several phases. In 2001, the first grade seven
started, and in 2002, a new grade seven started. So this year the school
comprises grades 7 and 8. The school will not be fully operational until next
school year, when the grade 7 of 2001 will become grade 9, and all three
year groups will be represented.
The rebuilding of Konsumentverket’s former residence is being carried out at

a rate to match the need for more space as new pupils join the school. The
outer walls and the administration wing remain more or less as they were
when the consumer organisation occupied the building. So from the outside
the school resembles the surrounding office and industrial buildings, but on
entering the front door you find yourself in a café in which pop and rock mu-
sic is played during breaks, and where children sometimes sit and work on
their projects.
180

The school is currently organized into four units of approximately 80 pupils
and 7 teachers each, as well as two special units containing 40 pupils plus 8
teachers/assistants, and 10 pupils plus 10 teachers/assistants respectively.
Each unit has its own home area with a meeting place for all pupils, plus
smaller rooms for up to 16 pupils and a teacher. There is also an office whe-
re the teachers can work. Besides the unit areas there are common areas
such as the gym and art and needlework rooms, where the pupils take those
particular subjects. When fully operational, the school will house approxi-
mately 540 pupils and 50 teachers altogether.
The figure below gives an overview of the school organization as it exists in

the 2002/03 school year.
Figure 6.16 Overview of the work units at Vinstagårdsskolan

and the administration in the 2002/03 school year
Work unit 1 Work unit 2

Grade 7-8 Grade 7-8
circa 80 pupils circa 80 pupils
circa 7 teachers circa 7 teachers

Management Grade 7-8
Grade 7-8 Principal
circa 80 pupils circa 80 pupils
Vice-principal circa 7 teachers
circa 7 teachers

Grade 7-8 Work unit 9 Grade 7-9
circa 40 pupils Administrative circa 10 pupils
circa 8 teachers and service circa 10 teachers
employees

The State regulates the school system using aims and guidelines. The Educa-
tion Act, passed by the Swedish Parliament, provides the framework for all
kinds of educational activity. The Government decides on the curricula,
which are mandatory; these regulate the school system alongside the Educa-
tion Act.
181

The federal budget allocates a sum of money to the municipalities for carry-
ing out the various municipal activities. Each individual municipality may
determine how its schools are to be run within the limits set by the objec-
tives and framework established by Government and Parliament. A local
school plan describing the funding, organization, development and assess-
ment of school activities must be adopted. Using the approved curriculum,
national objectives and the local school plan, the principal of each school
draws up a local work plan. This must be done in consultation with the
school’s teachers and other personnel.
The municipalities in Sweden have autonomy regarding any decision to es-

tablish a new school. In the first instance, Vinstagårdsskolan represents a
response to the need for a new school that had resulted from the lack of
existing capacity in the district. The decision to build a new school instead of
enlarging the existing ones was taken by the local authorities following the
parents’ initiative. The school was established via a co-operative effort in-
volving parent representatives and local authorities, which formed a group
that developed the concept for the new school. The school building is pri-
vately-owned, and the district has a ten-year lease on it. This is very un-
usual in Sweden, as the majority of the school buildings are owned by the
municipalities.
Numerous possibilities existed concerning how the school should be estab-

lished and organized. The limits were determined by the framework of the
vision for Sweden’s education system, and by the curriculum’s prioritisation
of the development of basic skills and competencies.
Education Act and curriculum

The national curriculum102 sets out the overall objectives for schoolwork in
Sweden103. As mentioned earlier, the curriculum is the framework governing
the organization and work of the schools, and does not specify teaching
methods or subjects. It is very open in the sense that municipalities, school
managers, teachers and pupils can all influence and choose their preferred
methods for attaining the objectives it sets out. The curriculum describes the
norms and values applicable to the work of the schools, the levels of attain-
ment, pupil influence and responsibilities, assessment and grading, and the
responsibilities of head teachers. For each of these main headings there are
corresponding objectives and guidelines.
The syllabuses specify the purposes and objectives for the teaching in each
subject, as well as their educational roles. There are two types of objectives,
aspirational and mandatory. The mandatory objectives are those which all
pupils must be given the opportunity to attain. The aspirational objectives
are those which govern the format of learning and teaching.
Time schedules regulate the amount of teacher-supervised instruction to

which the pupils are entitled in each subject. It is the total amount of time a
pupil spends doing each subject which is regulated, not the number of hours
he must be offered in each subject in a given year. This gives the schools
considerable latitude for planning and conducting their teaching.
http://www.skolverket.se/pdf/english/compsyll.pdf
102
103
http://www.skolverket.se/pdf/lpo.pdf & http://www.skolverket.se/pdf/english/00-
575.pdf
182

Besides being very open and thus providing schools with quite flexible
frameworks and a great degree of freedom, the Education Act and curricu-
lum are quite visionary regarding the teaching/learning process and the or-
ganization of the schools. The basic values in the Education Act that promote
and guide Vinstagårdsskolan’s way of planning and organizing its work are,
inter alia, as follows:
x Pupils and teachers plan their teaching together. Pupils have the right to
influence what and how they intend to learn. The older the pupils are,
the greater the responsibility they must take for their own education.
This is part of their training in the democratic process.
x Everyone working in the school must promote consideration for the in-
trinsic value of each human being, and respect for their shared environ-
ment.
x Schools must let every pupil find his or her uniqueness, and thereby en-
able him to participate in society through doing his best in responsible
freedom.
x The school should be a mirror of society.
x The division into subjects is a practical way of organizing educational
content, but it is not the intention to erect boundaries between subjects.
Co-operation across subjects is necessary in order to facilitate the all-
round, meaningful development of knowledge in accordance with the
fundamental values of the curriculum, its goals and guidelines.
x Lifelong learning starts in childhood, where the basis and motivation for
learning is created.
As a supplement to the national Education Act and curricula, Stockholm City

Council has also drawn up a plan for the work of its schools which focuses on
basic knowledge, values and norms and other areas that are important for
improving their quality.
Pupils’ achievements are assessed in the eighth and ninth school years.
Naturally, up to this point parents are entitled to receive comprehensive re-
ports on their children’s progress. These most often take the form of a par-
ent-teacher-child discussion conducted each term, though a written report
also can be provided.
The regional level

The city of Stockholm has arranged that all 170 municipal schools will be
connected to the Stockholm Schools Data Network. The aim is that the pro-
vision of IT tools and infrastructure will assist both pupils and teachers in
strengthening the learning process. Through IT, education can be individu-
ally tailored to each pupil’s abilities to a higher degree.
An inspectorate appointed by the city visits each school biennially to monitor

its work. The inspectorate gives feedback if it finds anything unsatisfactory,
to enable the school’s performance to be improved.
The local level

At the local level, politicians and administrators support the school’s work. In
the initial phase, Vinstagårdsskolan was provided with ICT equipment to a
greater extent than is usual for the schools in the district.
Because the school is new, the furniture has been chosen to support the
school’s visions. This means that it has been able to buy furniture that sup-
ports a flexible learning environment.
The local administrative level also promotes international co-operation be-

tween schools. If, for instance, a school or class wishes to visit a school in
183

another country, the local board must sanction it, which they do in most
cases.
ICT initiatives
The National Action Programme for ICT in Schools (ITiS) was a 1999-2001
national initiative which aimed, among other things, to give 60,000 teachers
IT competence training and access to their own computers. Half of the Vin-
stagårdsskolan teachers took part. They were equipped with a personal
computer, and developed their competencies in the use of computers for
personal, administrative and learning purposes.
International level
The school is also participating in a European Union project on school and
quality development. This concentrates attention on this kind of work, and
also strengthens the school’s international perspective.
Other
The vice-principal sits in on the meetings of the local chamber of commerce
(Företagforeningen). The chamber has an education board, and the purpose
of the co-operation between itself and the school is for the pupils and teach-
ers to gain knowledge about working life, and for the local companies to be
able to benefit from the pupils’ projects, for instance.

There are no national, regional and/or local framework conditions which di-
rectly impede the development of the new learning environment and the
work of the teachers and pupils. Nevertheless, some of the conditions do
influence the extent to which some work has to be reorganised in the school.
The fact that pupils must take their examinations in Swedish, English and
mathematics by the end of grade 9 is the single most important factor influ-
encing how learning occurs. The school is new, and how learning is organ-
ized and undertaken differs considerably from other schools. Because of this,
the quality of learning at Vinstagårdsskolan has been called into question,
and has also been the subject of discussions among parents and in the
press. The questions concerning whether or not the school’s pupils are
achieving a basic knowledge of mathematics, writing, reading and listening
in Swedish and English are among the most important. It is therefore impor-
tant for the principal and the teachers to be able to demonstrate that their
methods are working just as well as those of traditional schools.
As a consequence of this, the pedagogical methods applied in these subjects

are still very traditional, in the sense that the teachers often instruct their
pupils, who then work individually. Swedish is an exception to this pattern,
as it is often integrated into other subjects in the course of project work.
Stockholmsproven (laid down by the city of Stockholm), which consists of
examinations conducted during grade 7, is also one of the factors that influ-
ences the teachers’ work similarly.
The teachers explain that they have chosen this mode of teaching because
they want to make sure that the pupils pass their exams just as satisfactorily
as pupils from other schools. But they themselves also need to develop their
competencies in planning and carrying out learning step by step, because
the way in which the work is being conducted at Vinstagårdsskolan is new to
them too.
Another impeding factor is that national and municipal guidelines and objec-
tives are too seldom followed up, either by funding or via the measurement
184

of the objectives attained. This means that schools neither follow the guide-
lines nor attain the objectives.
In the beginning, there was resistance to the establishment of the new

school, which came mainly from two sides. One side was represented by
other schools, which would have fewer pupils as a result of these attending
Vinstagårdsskolan instead, and the other comprised parents who felt uncer-
tain about the methods to be applied at Vinstagårdsskolan.

The interior of the school has been planned and built to support important
fundamental principles governing its organisation, work environment and
pedagogical approach. This is also reflected in how the work is organized by
the teachers and pupils.

The principal of the school was hired before the school was finished, and
before any of the teachers were even aware that it was possible to apply for
a job at the school. He had a preparatory period of 5 months, during which
he was asked to draw up a work plan for the school. This was later used
when recruiting the new teachers, as it formed the foundation for their fu-
ture work. The work plan describes the organization of work at the school,
its physical environment, its pedagogical objectives, its visions and the con-
crete goals to be attained by the end of the development period in the sum-
mer of 2003.
The work plan describes how the school is organized into smaller units com-
prising 75 to 90 children and 7 teachers. The pupils are aged 13-15, and
instead of dividing them into grades 7, 8 and 9, they belong to and work
within a work unit which cuts across the traditional grade demarcations. 5 of
the 7 teachers in each unit work only within that unit, whereas the other two
work in more than one unit because they are specialists in minor subjects
such as art or physical exercise.
The work units are completely autonomous in the sense that they plan and
carry out their work precisely as they wish, as long as they adhere to the
framework of the school’s overall work plan. The teachers have a shared
office in the unit, and must be present at the school for 35 hours a week.
The reasons for organizing the work into smaller units (which are known as
‘schools within a school’) are that this organizational model makes it possible
to:
x Follow pupils’ social, emotional and intellectual development for a rela-
tively long time (3 years)
x Obtain a holistic picture of the pupil
x Create security
x Achieve continuity and holism in teaching and other activities
x Focus on the pupils’ maturity, stage of development, intellectual apti-
tudes and knowledge of skills, as well as focusing on their interests in-
stead of their chronological age, and to plan their learning on this basis.
The work environment is intended to create safety, proximity and visibility,

and to be a modern, well-equipped workplace with a good atmosphere for
both students and employees.
There is no special ICT strategy for the school. ICT is viewed merely as a
means of attaining the pedagogical objectives and aims, and is therefore not
185

viewed as deserving any special emphasis. However, there is an ICT group
at the school which discusses the use of ICT and sets out guidelines for the
work to be done with ICT. All pupils and teachers also have their own e-mail
address, and weekly letters and information to parents are published on the
Internet.
There is also no overall strategy for the competence development of teach-

ers. Teachers’ competencies and skills are developed on an as-required ba-
sis, which seems to work quite well.
The principal and the vice-principal bear the pedagogical responsibility for
the school. However, they are not directly involved in the work of the units,
but handle the overall management of the school. Part of this task, for in-
stance, is to follow up the quality plan, to carry out surveys on how pupils
and teachers view the work being undertaken in the school, and to initiate
and plan common activities across the units such as debates and working
groups on specific topics, for instance concerning common indicators for the
units’ work. Another issue to be addressed in the future is that of dissemi-
nating good tools and experiences from one work unit to the others. A spe-
cific example is that of a computer-based tool for keeping track of pupils’
performance, which has been developed and applied in one of the work
units.
Teachers work mainly within their own units, but recently an art project in-
volved all pupils and teachers working across units. It is planned that there
should be more activities across units in the future.
There are three weekly conferences in each unit in which the teachers plan
their work and discuss important matters. There are also meetings across
units on specific topics in which teachers from different units can discuss
their work experiences. There are also groups of teachers across units who
discuss organizational matters such as quality criteria.
There is one technician who takes care of the entire school’s network and
computers, as well as a librarian and kitchen staff, etc.
During the existence of the school there has been a board of parents which
continuously appoints working groups to work on school affairs.
6.7.2.2 Discussion
Teachers find it much more motivating and challenging to work and learn in
this school than in other schools they have been in. However, some teachers
have left the school, mainly because they disliked or did not fully fit into the
way in which the work was organized, or the manner in which learning is
planned and carried out. This was especially so during the first year of the
schools’ existence. The second year has been quieter, probably due to the
fact that the teachers who now work at the school have settled into a satis-
factory way of organizing their work.
In their pevious jobs, many of the teachers at the school were accustomed
to working on their own, teaching only a few subjects and working within
narrowly-defined frameworks. Starting at Vinstagårdsskolan has also been a
challenge to them, as there is no principal who plans their working day, and
they must find new ways to plan and conduct the learning process. Some
teachers have left the school for these and other reasons, primarily because
they did not fit in.
186

All the teachers we talked to view the fact there none of the units has a
leader a strength, because they have a considerable influence on their own
work. The theoretical risk of such autonomy might be that critical issues
such as the allocation of time and duties would give rise to conflict. But so
far this has not been the case, and the teachers are very satisfied with being
in charge of their own work organization.
However, there is one area where teachers would prefer the principal and
the vice-principal to be more visible. These two individuals have the primary
overall pedagogical responsibility for the school, as set out in the work plan.
The teachers would like them to provide more feedback on their practical
work and to follow up with new ideas, e.g. through being present in the units
during learning sessions.
The principal is well aware of this, and finds himself in a dilemma in which he
is forced to find a balance between a traditional managerial role and a new
role in which he needs to be more of a stage manager or director than a su-
pervisor. On the one hand, the units are supposed to function as schools
within a school, and on the other hand the school also needs to be an entity
in itself. So far, there has been much work to do with the work units to get
them to function properly, but in the long run increased working across the
work units might become necessary.
Another issue that could be viewed as both a strength and a weakness is the
fact that the units organize their work and learning very differently. An ex-
ample is that in one unit, all the teachers carry out joint planning and co-
operate on conducting the programme they have planned. In another unit,
the mathematics teacher and the English teacher plan and carry out all their
work on their own, separate from the rest of the group.

6.7.3.1 Description
In each of the units at the school there is a large room in which all the pupils
can be present simultaneously, six smaller rooms where 16 pupils can be
present at the same time, and a media lab. There is also a wardrobe where
each pupil has a locker and can store his jackets and footwear.
Besides the units’ own individual areas, there are rooms for such activities as
physical exercise, physics, art, chemistry etc., as well as a café, a cafeteria
and a library in which pupils can work on projects. There are also two units
for special needs education in the school.
The school has one computer per 8 pupils, and all the computers are con-
nected to the Internet. The computers are located throughout the units and
in the library in such a way that the pupils can access them whenever and
wherever they want to work, provided of course that they are not already in
use. Besides computers, there are printers and scanners in each unit. The
school’s furniture is bought from Kinnarps, a company that specializes in
creating flexible, mobile furniture, with the purpose of being able to re-
organize the learning environment.
Each unit is responsible for buying or making its own learning material. Pur-
chases are also made in co-operation with the library, and all units have ac-
cess to the learning material available from Skolverket’s website104. At the
moment, the computers are mainly used for word processing and internet
104
See http://www.skolverket.se
187

searches, and therefore the need for buying or accessing digital learning
material is not urgent.
Now that the school is established, it has the same budget as the other
schools in the municipality.
6.7.3.2 Discussion
When the school was converted from offices, it was rebuilt in such a way as
to support the organizational, environmental and pedagogical objectives.
Extra funding was made available in order to provide the school with net-
works, furniture, computer equipment etc., to a greater extent than with any
other school. Of course, this means that the school has had a better start-
ing-point than other schools. Nevertheless, the teachers agree that the way
in which their work is organized and the learning takes place could be copied
even in a traditional school building with long corridors and classrooms. The
parents endorse this view, and emphasise that the really crucial factor for
the success of such a learning environment is the attitudes of management
and teachers.
Among other things, the parents say that they have received the strong im-
pression that the teachers at this school really believe in what they are do-
ing, and that this influences them as well as the pupils. According to them,
there is also a kind of openness in the school which they do not recognise
from other schools. This means, for instance, that the parents can come and
go as they please in the school – even in the teachers’ rooms – and always
feel welcome.

The learning environment is determined by the set of pedagogical rules and
objectives described in the school’s work plan. As mentioned earlier, the
school principal regards the school’s organization, work environment and
pedagogical approach as being closely related and interwoven. When a
school wants to initiate change, it is necessary to include all three levels.
Therefore the pedagogical principles at Vinstagårdsskolan should be viewed
in the context of the organizational structure.
Additionally, the learning environment is characterized by the means

through which its objectives are reached.
6.7.4.1 Description
At Vinstagårdsskolan, the following pedagogical principles and values guide
the new learning environment:
x The school aims to promote job satisfaction and well-being, as well as
knowledge and skills within the areas of language acquisition, mathe-
matics, information handling and knowledge seeking
Vinstagårdsskolan will:
x Create holism in pupils’ school attendance, and will therefore to a great
extent work with cross-disciplinary projects/themes for longer periods of
time
x Train pupils to be responsible for their own learning process
x Involve pupils in planning, carrying out and following up their own learn-
ing process
x Develop pupils’ social competencies through co-operation in flexible
groupings
x Give every pupil an individual development plan
x Plan and carry out activities in such a way that the majority of them can
be achieved within the framework of the school day
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x Create learning environments that promote and develop creativity and
knowledge seeking. This presupposes an array of pedagogical methods
and work formats, and the taking into account of every pupil’s individual
learning style. Traditional didactic pedagogical methods are moderated in
favour of more tailored learning methods.
The school’s work plan lists its five most important cornerstones:
x Personal and social development
x Acquisition of knowledge and skills
x Development of work methods
x Development of forms of influence and co-operation
x Development of a good work environment and organization.
For each of the cornerstones, the fundamental perspective, vision and views
are stated in addition to the aims. Some of the basic perspectives influencing
how learning takes place are:
x The school will create the basis for transforming pupils into independent
and democratic citizens through participation and co-operation
x The school prepares and trains pupils for society and work as it exists
both today and in the future
x The school develops the pupils’ lifelong learning strategies
x The organization and its work are founded on the basic assumption that
each and every person is unique, and has different qualifications and
backgrounds for learning
x The teachers’ ways of working and co-operating comprise models and
examples for their pupils’ work
x Parents play an important and active role in developing the pupils’ social
and knowledge-based competencies
x ICT is an important tool in the pupils’ work
x The focus should not be on all pupils learning similar content, but on the
quality of what they are learning
x There should be constant alternation between written and oral work
x Individual assignments are also part of the group work.
The overall principle for the work in each of the units is to realize a number
of aims. This means that teachers as well as pupils must always be working
within the framework of the school’s overall aims and objectives, and within
the aims and objectives established for each of the pupils. The school pro-
vides a number of tools for this work:
x Syllabus and curriculum guidelines
x Development plan and dialogue for each pupil
x Mentors
x Visibility of objectives
x Portfolio
x Log books.
By the end of this school year, Vinstagårdsskolan is supposed to have devel-

oped syllabus and curriculum guidelines for all its subjects, including aims
and objectives for three different levels of pupil achievement.
189


aims and objectives pertaining to themselves, because they have partici-
ing it.
The pupils learn how to plan and carry out their own work in order to attain
the goals set out in the development plan. One of the tools for monitoring
this process is the log book in which the pupils are intended to note down
their aims, methods and results. Pupils show the log books to their parents
every Monday, when the parents sign them; they show them to their men-
tors on Tuesdays, and update them on Thursdays.
The children work together in groups across age boundaries, and are not
kept in the same groups for more than one project in a row. The teachers
put the groups together on the basis of a number of criteria, for instance
interests, level of knowledge or skill within the area, age, etc.
6.7.4.2 Discussion
The overall view of pupils, parents and teachers alike is that the school and
the manner in which learning is planned and carried out has been a success.
Both the teachers and the pupils have stated that the first year was a chal-
lenge.
This was certainly the case for those pupils who came from schools where
traditional teaching methods had primarily been used. The new methods
employed at Vinstagårdsskolan, and the freedom to choose them (and to a
certain extent content), together with the free planning of time and space,
was both thrilling and frustrating. Pupils in the present grade 8 say that they
were confused by the lack of direct control, and found it hard to handle in
the beginning. The pupils in the current grade 7 have only partially shared
this experience. The pupils themselves are convinced that the new grade 7
has benefited from grade 8’s experiences and help. It is therefore anticipated
that the newcomers’ problems will increasingly diminish.
Especially during the first year, a number of pupils left the school after hav-
ing been there for a relatively brief period. In the second year, a number of
parents chose not to send their children to Vinstagårdsskolan at all, but the
number of pupils leaving the school was much smaller. The parents stated
that the reason that some of them had moved their children was that they
were anxious, because this school did not at all resemble what they knew
from their own childhood. A minority of parents was not sure that the chil-
dren were learning what they were supposed to through the new methods.
The parents who were interviewed for this case study said that the teachers
believed in what they were doing, which had convinced them that the school
was on the right track.
190

In the second year, there was only minor publicity surrounding the school.
All the people we interviewed agree that there was no longer any fuss being
made about the school.
The tools being used to follow up the learning process and the children’s
progress are all working well except for the portfolios. Pupils, parents and
teachers are all very satisfied with the mentor arrangement and the devel-
opment dialogues. Some of the pupils in the 8th grade said that they were
not using the log book any more, because they were now accustomed to
planning, carrying out and following up their own work. As one girl said, “It’s
all in my head now!”
The world outside the school is not separated into subjects, and therefore
the learning process should not be either. As a consequence of this, the tra-
ditional division into subjects should not be the dominant model for the or-
ganisation of work. 40% of the time spent at the school is supposed to be
spent on creative working methods and projects which mirror holistic think-
ing. But in those subjects where national examinations are used to assess
the pupils, the teachers continue to teach in the traditional way.
Is this school equally suited to all kinds of pupils? This question is highly
relevant, and is of course is hard to answer at the present time. But both
teachers and parents have no doubt that this school is at least better for
more of the children than a traditional school. The teachers’ presence among
all the pupils during the entire school day creates a safe and secure envi-
ronment for them. The fact that there are more classmates than usual in the
school ensures that all the pupils will find friends with whom they can feel
comfortable. The mentors follow the students for three years in all subjects,
and have the opportunity to follow up in various different ways, including via
the involvement of other teachers. The methods used are very varied, and
thereby stimulate more learning styles. The competencies developed are
also more varied, as they include social, physical and knowledge-based
skills.
ICT is viewed mainly as a learning tool, not as a topic in itself. This is re-
flected in the minor focus on ICT which exists in the work plan, and in the
pedagogical objectives it describes. All the teachers use ICT as a natural part
of their work, both for lesson preparation and for teaching. When asked why
ICT is not more clearly emphasised in the school plan, the principal and the
teachers both state that the focus is on learning. ICT is used daily, and the
pupils say that they use ICT much more in this school than they have done
before. The goal is to have 6 pupils per computer at the school. At the mo-
ment this is not the case, but the pupils say that they never lack access to a
computer. This is due to the fact that the work methods of the pupils are
mixed, and they are not using computers all the time.

When we visited Vinstagårdsskolan, we observed three learning situations,
i.e. three specific learning activities which were planned and carried out. We
also caught glimpses of other activities in progress while we were there.
6.7.5.1 Description
The visit to Vinstagårdsskolan gave us an idea of the variety of learning
methods being used, the focus on methods rather than content, and the use
of ICT for learning purposes.
The main themes of the learning activities were:
x World history
x Job interview
191

x Advertising project.
World history
24 pupils were working in groups of varying sizes with world history projects.
At the beginning of our observation, the pupils were all gathered in the
common area of their unit, in order to hear one of their teachers introduce
the work.
The teacher presented a work method to the pupils. The presentation had
been created using PowerPoint, and was presented on a big screen. A car-
toon crocodile was used to represent a pupil who was supposed to start work
on a project concerning the Boston Tea Party. The aim of the project was
outlined, together with a list of activities which the pupils were to carry out:
x Select the topic to investigate
x Draw up a mind map, either on paper or using the computer. The topic
had to be in the middle, with questions surrounding it such as “what
happened?”, “where did it happen?”, “when did it happen?”, “what hap-
pened afterwards?”, “who was involved?”, “why did it happen?”
x Find two written texts (in book format) describing the topic
x Find and list key words
x Write a brief summary outlining the two different views represented in
the two texts
x Ask questions desired to be answered in the form of additional informa-
tion
x Search the Internet for the additional information
x Write a longer text on the topic
x Ask new questions, and try to find the answers to them
x Revise and correct the text
During the presentation, the teacher used concrete examples to illustrate

how the crocodile was working, and how the pupils were supposed to be
working afterwards. After the presentation, the pupils started working on
their projects in groups. As they worked, the pupils were able to seek help
from the teacher.
The objective in this learning situation was not to introduce or describe a

single event of world history. Instead, the emphasis was on the method
which the pupils were supposed to be applying in their work after choosing
their topic. The pupils’ choice of topic was motivated by their own interests,
and was selected from among a number of topics outlined by the teacher.
In this example, the computer functioned as an information bank in which

students were able to find supplementary information on the topic they were
working on. The order in which the children were recommended to work was
first to find information on the topic in two books, and then to look for addi-
tional information on the Internet. This reflects the outcome of careful con-
sideration, since it is a strategic aim that pupils should both learn how to
search the Internet for information and be able to distinguish reliable infor-
mation from the less reliable. By using two books first, and thereby getting
an overview of the topic, the children had a basis on which they were able to
search for and sort the information they obtained.
Job interview
Another example was that of a job interview. Pupils are supposed to do their
practical during the 8th grade. They used the process of applying for a job as
practice preparation for finding a place to do their practical. Prior to our ob-
servation, the teachers provided pupils with nine job ads, from which they
192

were asked to choose two to apply for. The application was also supposed to
contain fictitious curriculum vitae.
We followed the progress of one pupil’s job interview as he applied for a job
at Volvo as an engineer. Two teachers were interviewing him, as would have
been the case in real life. Afterwards, he got feedback on his application, his
curriculum vitae, and how he did in the interview.
Prior to the interview, the Internet was used to find information about the
company, and a word processor was used to write the application and the
curriculum vitae.
These activities had manifold purposes. First of all, they were intended to
help prepare and train pupils for life after school. Secondly, they were sup-
posed to learn how to search for information, and to sort and use it con-
structively. In addition, they were being trained to write in Swedish, and to
put together an application and a CV using a word processing program. Fi-
nally, the pupils were receiving this training in a safe environment before
they had to perform an interview in real life.
While one pupil was being interviewed, the other pupils were working on
their applications or other topics with their fellow-pupils and the other teach-
ers.
Advertising project
Another project we observed was that the construction of a product adver-
tisement. Teachers provided the pupils with 6 different product descriptions.
One of these described a jacket that changed its appearance in accordance
with the current fashion trend. On the basis of a brief description of the
jacket (or one of the other products), groups of pupils were supposed to
create a single-page ad for the jacket. They were to use both text and
graphics to market the jacket. After finishing the advertisement, it had to be
presented to the entire group working on producing advertisements. Each of
the smaller groups was also asked to prepare a number of critical questions
concerning each of the products prior to the in plenum presentation.
Computers were used as a tool for creating the advertisement and laying out
the text and graphics. In addition, they were used to find information and
inspiration for the pupils’ advertisements. The pupils worked 3 days on this
project.
There are other reasons for carrying out this kind of project. The pupils were
supposed learn to work together in a group to plan and accomplish a task.
The pupils knew the purpose of the project and its anticipated result. They
were also given advice on how to work, but the planning and completion of
the project were their own responsibility. They were of course able to seek
help from the teachers during their work.
They were also supposed to learn about the methods and effects employed
by commercials and advertisements through creating an advertisement
themselves, instead of just analysing one or a few of them. The creation of
an advertisement was also intended to stimulate and develop the pupils’
analytical skills and their creativity and skills in Swedish. The computer was
used as a creative tool in conjunction with paper, pencils and crayons.
When the pupils knew beforehand that the other pupils would ask critical
questions, they also had to prepare for these. The purpose here was to make
the children consider the strengths and weaknesses of their products and
193

advertisements. They needed to be prepared to discuss, argue and reason
with others.
6.7.5.2 Discussion
At Vinstagårdsskolan, learning takes place within the work units. The activi-
ties are manifold, and the way in which the work is organized reflects this.
Sometimes the pupils are gathered into larger groups to listen to a teacher
explaining about content or methods, sometimes they work alone, and
sometimes (40% of their time) they are doing project work in smaller
groups.
The way in which the work is planned in each of the units is very different.
One unit combines project work and traditional teacher-directed teaching in
such a way that the activities continue each week according to a fixed rou-
tine. Another unit works on projects for one week, for instance, and has tra-
ditional teacher-directed classes for 3 weeks. One unit also splits the pupils
according to gender, so that sometimes the girls work together and the boys
work together. Neither the teachers nor the parents or pupils see this as a
problem, although some of the parents wonder why the gender division
takes place.
All the pupils and teachers we talked to during our visit found it motivating
and challenging (in a positive sense) to work and learn in the way they did.
Both pupils and teachers were quite enthusiastic and positive. The children
were very positive because:
x The organization of their school day is much freer than in their previous
schools
x The methods used are much more varied than the ones employed in
their previous schools
x Co-operation is motivating
x The development plans make the purpose of learning visible, and set up
aims to strive for
x The things they do are related to the world outside the school
x They develop independence
x They have learned how to use computers for different purposes, e.g. to
search the Internet for information and to write in a process-oriented
manner
x They have hardly any homework
x There is no rote learning.
The more sceptical comments made by pupils were:

x A great degree of self-discipline is required
x Some pupils cannot take responsibility for their own learning process
x It takes quite a long time to get used to the new way of learning and
working, and at the beginning some pupils are frustrated and anxious
that they might not learn what they are supposed to
x There is a risk of getting lazy or just sitting passively.
Teachers agree about the advantages mentioned by the pupils. In addition,

they are positive about how the learning is organized because:
x The assessment criteria are always visible to all the pupils within the
unit, which improves the latter’s performance
x Their contact with pupils is much more positive and constructive, as they
are functioning more as coaches and moderators than as supervisors and
controllers
x Their contact with each pupil is much closer and much more personal
than they are accustomed to, which improves their opportunities for
meeting the pupils’ individual needs
194

x The teachers’ work is never monotonous, which means that they are
constantly learning and developing themselves
x It gives the teachers confidence to work together and give each other
feedback, and it is stimulating to discuss learning in the context of the
different perspectives held by their colleagues
x The quality of teaching is better when the teachers have close contact
with just 15-16 pupils.
However, there are things which the teachers would like to discuss in greater
depth across units. The purpose would be to exchange experiences, and
perhaps find more homogeneous ways of working across units, although the
teachers would not at all prefer to have uniform rules for their work. The
things they would like to work on in the near future are:
x Assessment criteria, in order to discuss whether or not they should be
the same across units
x The exchange of information and experiences concerning the different
approaches to running projects and the different methods used
x How to use the log books and the portfolio.
Parents see the following advantages for their children:

x There are fewer pupils in each unit in a school than normal, which make
them feel safe and confident. At the same time, there are more pupils
than normal in a class, which means that the children will always be able
to find others with whom they share values and interests
x When children work in small groups, these can be regrouped if there are
conflicts or if the children simply don’t function well in a group
x Pupils with whom there are problems can be separated and work in dif-
ferent groups, which can reduce noise and disturbance
x Teaching and learning is tailored to meet the individual pupils’ needs,
and is based on objectives and aims
x The pupils are motivated, because they continuously discuss why they
are doing what they are doing
x Teachers and pupils are close, and have very trusting relationships
x There is hardly any bullying, probably due to the fact that teachers are
always present and the pupils are learning how to work together. In ad-
dition, the school is part of the FRIENDS project, which aims to develop
mutual support among pupils
x The environment is peaceful and quiet
x It is important that there is continuity in the children’s schooling such as
here, where they have the same teachers and can work without interrup-
tion for three years
x The children are able to plan their work and work more independently,
and can do more by themselves.
x All the teachers are very motivated, which motivates the children as well
x The children’s work is occasionally presented to their parents.
The parents themselves do not have anything negative to say about the
school and the learning which takes place there. But they do mention that
they need to have confidence in what is happening, because it differs so
much from what they are accustomed to from other schools. First of all, the
organization and the methods employed are different. Secondly, the pupils
have little or no homework, so it is not apparent from work performed at
home what/how much they are doing and achieving. However, this can be
measured by their motivation and the regular dialogues with teachers.

6.7.6.1 Description
195

There are several forms of measurement and evaluation being used in the
school. One of them pertains to the organization and the work environment.
The other concerns the pupils’ learning process.
The school has a plan for quality work which sets out the performance
measures for the school in terms of various criteria. Additionally, there is an
evaluation and a follow-up plan. This plan includes the filling-out by pupils of
a questionnaire whose answers will form the basis for deciding which areas
to focus on during the following year’s work.
In the first operational year of the school, the pupils’ answers resulted in an
average score of 3.08, where 4 was the maximum possible score for each
question, and 1 was the minimum. The areas that scored highly were areas
such as the pupils’ opportunity to take responsibility for their own work, the
fact that they were able to use what they learned at school outside the
school, and the fact that they had the opportunity to work on their own. The
areas in which the scores were lower concerned pupils taking action when
someone was bullied, and pupils taking part in the planning of what they
were supposed to be doing.
The performance of the pupils is measured and evaluated externally in

Stockholmsproven during grade 7, and via the national examination at the
end of grade 9. What these examinations measure is the pupils’ factual
knowledge, ability in mathematics, and their ability to listen, speak and write
in Swedish and English. They do not measure other things which are empha-
sized in Vinstagårdsskolan, such as the ability to work in groups, social and
democratic competencies, ability to find information etc.
During the school year, the pupils’ individual performances regarding both
knowledge and skills such as those mentioned above are systematically
evaluated via development plans, log books and portfolios.
6.7.6.2 Discussion
The organization of the work is, and is intended to be, evaluated continu-
ously by the principal and the teachers jointly. There have already been
more initiatives to improve the school organization on the basis of perform-
ance measurements, as well as undertaking such intitiatives in response to
teachers’ needs.
The main cause for scepticism towards the school is that people are anxious
about the pupils doing as well in the national examinations as the pupils
from other schools. This is a big concern not only for parents and pupils
(apart from the ones already attending Vinstagårdsskolan), but also to a
great extent for the principal and the teachers in the school. It is not that
the principal and the teachers do not believe in their own methods – they
certainly do. But there has been a lot of pressure and scepticism among the
general public which the school would like to neutralise.
6.7.7 The future

Vinstagårdsskolan will not be fully operational until the 2003/2004 school
year, when there will be pupils in grades 7 to 9 and all the work units will be
employed. This year, pupils from the school will take examinations (Stock-
holmsproven) for the first time, which means that the results of the organi-
zation and the pedagogical approach being followed in the school can also be
benchmarked against the results from other schools for the first time.

One of the main challenges for Vinstagårdsskolan is naturally to prove that it
is on the right track, and that its pupils can perform well against other
196

schools in the national examinations. This cannot of course be measured
before the end of the 2003/2004 school year.
In addition, it will be important for the school to have feedback on how its
pupils’ competencies, such as their ability to work together and independ-
ently, problem-solving abilities etc., are viewed by their future employers.
Those competencies are not measured by the examinations that take place
within the school system.
Another important issue is to analyze to what extent the school’s methods

are beneficial for all types of pupils. For instance, it is important to analyze
if, and to what extent, the creation of a safe and secure work environment
influences the pupils’ self-confidence positively and really does develop their
competencies on the basis of their individual skills and abilities.
One of the pupils said, “Everything is on track now, so we don’t actually

need Göran (the principal) and Magnus (the vice-principal) any more”.
But as we see it, these two individuals face new challenges in maintaining
the high level of morale and the teachers’ motivation, and in continuing the
development of the school. During the initial phase, the teachers are moti-
vated by the new way of working, but what happens when the daily round
takes over?
Another issue is that of the absence of leadership within the work units.
There is a tendency at the moment for some teachers to take the responsi-
bility for a work unit onto themselves. What will happen in the future?
The teachers also face great challenges. First of all, it will be interesting to
see if the organization of their work will be as smooth in the future as it is
today. Secondly, it will be a challenge for them to integrate the new methods
into those subjects (English, mathematics and to a certain extent Swedish),
which today are taught in the traditional way.
For the moment, the budget for next school year has not yet been adopted.
The teachers know that there might be reductions in hours within each unit
as the school grows next year. They feel that they are presently working
many hours already, and fear that the workload might grow next year if re-
ductions are made.
For the local politicians and administrators, it will be a challenge to integrate

the new ways of organizing and learning into other schools if Vin-
stagårdsskolan proves to be a success. At the moment, the pupils do not
receive a holistic education, because they come from schools which use tra-
ditional methods, and after grade 9 they go on to the gymnasium (i.e. upper
secondary school), for instance, which also teaches using traditional meth-
ods. There are current plans to build a new gymnasium in the district, which
could be partially based on the same model as Vinstagårdsskolan.
Another challenge exists for general teacher training. How could the meth-
ods used at Vinstagårdsskolan be taught in teacher training colleges if they
proved to be successful in the long run?

Vinstagårdsskolan has had the best possible start, as it is a new school
housed in a building which supports the overall organizational and pedagogi-
cal objectives. In addition, it has been possible to recruit new teachers who
have signed up to the principles embodied in the work plan. But according to
197

the principal, teachers, parents and pupils, other schools could apply a num-
ber of principles from Vinstagårdsskolan, although it will probably be a
slower process there.
First of all, every school could draw up a work plan covering its organization,
environment and pedagogical approach. In an existing school, all teachers
could take part in formulating a vision for their school.
Secondly, the teamwork model for teachers could also be applied in other
schools. Teachers could take on the responsibility for one or more grades.
Thirdly, the methods used, and the integration of computers into learning,
could also be applied in other schools, provided of course that they had
bought or were able to buy computers and connect them to the Internet.
6.7.8 Sources
Rektorsbrev nr. 3, läsåret 2002/03. The principal’s newsletter in which he
describes the findings from the first questionnaire completed by the pupils,
and what has happened during the most recent period.
The Vinstagårdsskolan work plan, see:

http://www.vinstagardsskolan.stockholm.se/verksam/verksamindex.htm (in
Swedish only)
The plan covering the work of schools in Stockholm, see:

http://www.vinstagardsskolan.stockholm.se/verksam/verksamindex.htm (in
Swedish only)
Syllabuses for compulsory schools, see:

http://www3.skolverket.se/ki/eng/comp.pdf (in English)
Information on the Swedish school system and curriculum, see:

http://www.skolverket.se/english/index.shtml (in English)
Information concerning the national initiatives on ICT in schools, see:

http://www.skolutveckling.se/it_i_skolan/ (in Swedish only)
6.8 Additional case studies and information concerning schools using

ICT for learning
This section contains a number of links and references to other studies in-
volving the use of ICT for learning in schools.
x www.oecd.org contains 107 documents describing national case studies

concerning ICT in schools worldwide. The conclusions of an analysis of
the cases can be found in the report Schooling for Tomorrow, Learning to
Change: ICT in Schools, published by the OECD.
x Examples from outstanding schools in France, Sweden, Ireland and the

Netherlands can be found at www.owinsp.nl/tifkas (click on Producten).
x Links to INSIGHT schools can be found at

http://insight.eun.org/eun.org2/eun/en/index_insight.cfm, while here is
a description of ICT practices in the world of European school education:
http://insight.eun.org/eun.org2/eun/en/Insight_SchoolPractice/sub_area
.cfm?sa=2320.
198

x The Second Information Technology in Education Study: Module 2 is an
international study of innovative pedagogical practices that use informa-
tion and communication technology. In each of the 28 countries that
participated in the study, national panels used common selection criteria,
adjusted for the national context, to identify 174 innovative classrooms.
National research teams used a common set of case study methods to
collect data on the pedagogical practices of teachers and learners, the
role that ICT played in these practices, and the contextual factors that
supported and influenced them. The International Co-ordinating Commit-
tee (ICC) conducted a cross-case analysis using qualitative and quantita-
tive methods. For more information, see: http://sitesm2.org/
There are links to ENIS, the European Network of Innovative Schools, at

http://www.eun.org/eun.org2/eun/en/enis2/entry_page.cfm?id_area=18
199

200

7. The Future School
“All of our experience is with the past, but all of our decisions
are about the future”105
The purpose of this chapter is to identify trends and possible scenarios for
the future school, including the potential role of e-learning. The chapter
firstly outlines a variety of general societal trends that either currently or
potentially challenge and influence the development of schools in the future.
Secondly, two sets of scenarios for future schooling are presented. Finally,
the scenarios are used as input into a discussion of possible assumptions
concerning how the development of schools will be influenced in practical
terms by various driving forces in the future – that is, what kinds of re-
sponses to the challenges facing schools are likely to be made, and the
probability of a given type of school model emerging as a result. The chapter
is based on conclusions drawn from the preceding phases of the study, on
desk research, and on a scenario workshop for school experts (both practi-
tioners and theoreticians) from different EU Member States that was held in
Brussels in October 2003.
7.1 Why try to imagine the future?

As the above quotation states, all of our experience is with the past, but all
of our decisions are about the future. Every day we are confronted with un-
certainty. We do not know what is going to happen, but we know and sense
that change is occurring, and that it is occurring faster than before. Hence it
becomes increasingly accurate to say that the past is not necessarily a reli-
ble guide to the future.
Taking into consideration the rapidity of change in society, successful strate-

gic planning – especially that which involves such a core societal institution
as the school – must involve an understanding of what might happen; in
other words, it must attempt to imagine probable and alternative futures.
It is apparent that the education world and the training sector has until re-
cently been characterised by a substantial absence of planning and ‘future
visions’. It is primarily the boom in new technologies that has brought about
a recognition of the need to speed up the innovation and change processes
in education and training in order to keep pace with the rapid changes occur-
ring in the wider society. In that sense, ICT holds great potential for encour-
aging change and innovation in the systems of education and training.
An interesting strategic planning exercise is to express what one would like

to see happening in the future instead of attempting to predict what actually
will happen. Underlying this proposition is the notion that armed with a set
of identified trends and key factors plus a variety of possible political deci-
sions and strategic tools, it is possible to influence the future. In this sense,
we define ‘trends’ as patterns of change over time in relation to some factor
that is of interest to the observer, while ‘key factors’ are defined as trends
that according to our mental map are expected to change the future of an
organization or field.
However, imagining the future is a difficult task. This was demonstrated dur-
ing a workshop run in October 2003 as part of this study. School experts in
105
Wiser Futures: Using Futures Tools to Better Understand and Create the Future,
Institute of Alternative Futures.
201

both practice and theory participated. The workshop’s purpose was to gener-
ate a set of plausible and alternative scenarios for the future, including a
most probable case, a worst-case and a best-case scenario for school devel-
opment. The underlying purpose was for the results of the workshop to be
reported in this study and thereby provide a basis for the discussion and
assessment of the Commission’s e-Learning initiative in order to assist in
drawing up recommendations for future action.
‘Plausible and alternative visions of the future’ represents a good discussion

framework for individuals and institutions involved with any given issue. It
also provides a good framework for the review of a current strategy, or es-
tablishes a basis for strategic decision making in the sense of “what do we
do if…?” Accordingly, scenarios can be used to generate and identify hypo-
thetical demands, challenges and opportunities, to appraise how current
strategies match the scenario demands and challenges (i.e. a strategy re-
view), and to assess what strategies/choices/actions will match the scenar-
ios’ demands, challenges and potentials. Finally, scenarios can be used to
facilitate the development of a future strategy/policy. Hence in this case, the
benefit of employing scenarios as an instrument is that they can be used to
describe in a generalised and hypothetical manner how schooling might de-
velop overall in society, although they should not be taken as a prediction of
the development of an individual school, or of schooling in a specific locality.
On the contrary, in practice one would expect that complex mixes of the
alternative futures identified via the scenarios are likely to emerge.
Below, the use of scenarios in a strategic process is illustrated:
Figure 7.1: Using scenarios in a strategic process
L ik e l y & A lt e r n a t iv e F u t u r e s P re fe rre d F u tu re
Scanning for
Vision
Trends
Identify Key Forces Values
Scenarios Mission
Revised & New Goals

Strategies
Prioritzed
Action Plan
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7.2 Main challenges facing the schools
Prior to staging this workshop, RAMBOLL had prepared a list of societal
trends which was given to the participants. The list was intended as a broad
but not exhaustive list of relevant trends to stimulate the discussion con-
cerning the nature of the key factors influencing the future school.
7.2.1 Trends with a potential influence on the future school

The following is the list of trends identified as potentially influencing the fu-
ture school:
7.2.1.1 Political factors
Factors Description
Globalization/ The overall political tendency that will also be a driving force
internationalization for school development in the future.
Increasing attention to There is a tendency for more and more aspects of the activi-
benchmarking ties of schools and the performance of pupils to be measured
and benchmarked across schools at the regional, national
and international level.
Demands for develop- The volume of content to be learned during school education
ment of additional and the competencies which must be developed are increas-
competencies and skills ing and will probably continue to increase in the future.
Nowadays, mathematics, mother tongue, religion and history
do not encompass the entire body of essential knowledge
that pupils must learn.
Transition to knowl- The transition towards the knowledge society might apply
edge society pressure on schools to develop skills and competencies cen-
tred on the production of knowledge.
Focus on lifelong learn- The need for the development of pupils’ abilities to learn
ing throughout their lives is liable to increase the pressure on
schools to develop such competencies.
Mismatch between de- The way that pupils’ performance is measured does not al-
mands and assessment ways correspond with the demands for skills and competen-
cies.
Pressure on education Education is regarded as the driving force for continued eco-
as initiator of economic nomic development.
growth
Centraliza- Guidelines and demands may be centralized while budgets
tion/decentralization are decentralized, which can create conflicts.
ICT strategies for Governments increase the production of strategies for the
school development integration of ICT in schools.
203

7.2.1.2 Economic factors
Factors Description
Increased focus on A scarcity of students and employees working
natural sciences with the natural sciences stimulates the demand
for a particular focus on the development of these
topics in school education. Natural sciences are
regarded as representing an area with a great
potential for growth.
Lack of resources in A lack of resources due to a decrease in taxation
public administration income might result in reduced school funding.
Increased pressure Due to an increased use of technology, schools
for investment in ICT will be forced to reinvest in both hardware and
software technology, and to employ people with
technical skills.
Increasing numbers The number of pupils in each class will probably
of pupils per class grow, requiring new ways of teaching and learn-
ing.
Public support for Local, regional, national and EU funding of pro-
projects jects in schools might stimulate new ways of
learning and teaching.
Competence devel- Teachers’ competence development is still needed
opment in relation to the use of ICT in teaching and in the
creation of new learning practices. Lack of compe-
tencies could impede the development of innova-
tive learning environments.
Increasing amount of An increasing amount of information is distrib-
information uted. On the one hand, this could be a source of
general inspiration. On the other hand, it might
lead to an information overload that pupils and
teachers will need time to cope with.
7.2.1.3 Socio-cultural factors
Factors Description
Individualization Increasing attention on the individual learner,
differentiation and different learning styles (e.g.
in accordance with Howard Gardner’s theories)
Focus on learning en- There is an increased focus on the creation of
vironments learning environments in which both pupils and
teachers feel secure, as this is regarded as the
foundation for learning.
New pedagogical New pedagogical trends such as problem-solving,
trends project work, co-operation, etc.
Increasing demand The increasing demand for people’s ability to
for handling flexibility cope with flexibility and complexity emphasises
and complexity the importance of incorporating this into school-
work.
Emphasis on respect The increasing cultural diversity of pupils result-
for cultural diversity ing from migration flows from third world coun-
tries in particular calls for a specific focus on the
ability of learners to respond to cultural diversity
and take it into account in education.
Increased acknowl- Increased acknowledgement of national linguistic
edgement of linguis- minorities in the EU Member States and in the
tic diversity accession countries requires educators to respect
and respond to the need for bi- or multilingual
204

Factors Description
education.
Increased pressure There is an increased focus on negative social

for educators to inheritance that requires educators to meet the
break the cycle of individual child’s needs in relation to changing its
negative social inheri- otherwise preordained future.
tance
Educators have to The school is increasingly taking over the paren-
take on the parents’ tal role in providing pupils with essential social
educating role skills.
Focus on school man- School management needs to have a more visible
agement role in creating innovative learning environments.
Teamwork versus iso- Teachers must learn to co-operate instead of
lation among teachers working in isolation in order to create robust and
innovative learning environments.
Movement from con- Project work, problem-solving, etc., together with
tent to competencies other competencies needed in the workplace, are
a focal point in schools.
Pupils’ demands Pupils demand an increase in the use of ICT in
their schoolwork.
Intercultural focus Increased globalisation and immigration make it
important to focus on intercultural factors.
Need for reflection The increasing volume of information and new
media makes it ever more necessary for individu-
als to learn how to reflect on the information they
have been exposed to.
7.2.1.4 Technical factors
Factors Description
More flexible tech- Technology devices are becoming increasingly
nology compact and flexible, in the sense that it is pos-
sible to carry one’s device(s) around and connect
to the internet remotely regardless of location.
This makes it possible to access learning re-
sources, teachers and co-learners from almost
anywhere.
Cheaper technology Technology continues to get cheaper, which
makes it possible for both schools and pupils to
buy computers and other devices and hook up to
the internet.
Need for up-to-date Ageing computers must be replaced. The same
technology applies to networks etc.
Unlimited possibili- Pupils and teachers will have more and more
ties for communica- communication options, creating great flexibility
tion in relation to where and when learning takes
place.
Different sorts of Technology can be designed in ways that sup-
technology ports different ways of learning and stimulates
more of the senses, e.g. touch, hearing and
sight.
Development of new New digital learning material is being created to
learning material support differentiated learning in schools.
Free software Linux, StarOffice and other free software prod-
ucts open up the market.
205

Factors Description
Pupils have their Pupils can bring their own laptops to school, less-
own laptops ening pressure on schools to buy and maintain
such equipment.
Connection to the Increased connectivity to the internet in both

internet schools and homes makes it possible to create
virtual learning environments.
7.2.2 Factors of key importance for future school development

During the workshop, the above-mentioned political, economic, socio-
cultural and technological trends that might be of importance for the devel-
opment of schools were discussed.
The workshop participants were asked to consider the question, ‘What key
factors will influence school development in the future?’
Divided into three groups, the participants were asked to consider the follow-
ing questions:
x Which of the trends listed are central driving forces – in other words, key
factors?
x To what extent is each of these factors relevant for the future develop-
ment of education?
x What factors do you consider to be the most important?
x What other factors are central driving forces?
x How probable do you consider the development of each of these factors?
Afterwards, each group first explained the outcome of the discussions in

their group to the rest of the participants. The next objective was to reach
consensus on a common list of key factors. This proved to be a very difficult
exercise.
The subsequent planned stage was that on the basis of the list of key factors
identified, the participants would again be divided into three groups and
work out a most probable, a worst case and a best case scenario for the fu-
ture development of the school. However, the workshop did not succeed in
reaching that stage, since the attempt to agree on a common list to work
from generated lengthy and intense debate among the participants. In fact,
time ran out, and the workshop culminated in the list of key factors influenc-
ing the school which is reproduced below. There was no undivided consensus
among the participants as to how the individual factors and their influence
on schools should be explained, but it was agreed that the factors included in
the list are all highly important for envisioning the future of the school. It
should be noted that this list does not prioritise the factors according to the
degree of probability or importance. This does not mean that the relative
importance or probability of the factors was not discussed, but reflects the
fact that insufficient consensus existed to permit assigning a priority ranking
in relation to the importance or probability of the factors identified. On the
contrary, it must be concluded that there exists a multiplicity of interpreta-
tions and consequent explanations concerning the factors listed, both in rela-
tion to the inclusion of a given factor and how its influence on the future
school scenario can be explained and interpreted. The list produced during
the workshop comprises the following:
1. Increased demand for coping with flexibility and diversity

2. Increased complexity of society
3. Increased (demand for) use of differentiated learning
4. Increased (demand for) use of ICT for learning
206

5. Increased demand for benchmarking of qualifications
6. Increased focus on school management
7. Pressure on education as an initiator of economic growth (short-term
demand for skills)
8. Institutionalisation of child care
9. Increased pressure from stakeholders to be involved in the development
of the school
10. Increased pressure for democratisation of schools
11. Development of alternative pathways to education
12. Pressure for inclusiveness / inclusive learning
13. Rapid change
14. Mismatch between the current roles of teachers, education and salaries
15. Increased social division
16. Need for ethical debate
17. Need for reflection
18. A change in learning philosophies concerning the reproduction of facts is
passé, while the creation of knowledge is in vogue.
As the discussion did not reach a stage that would enable a ranking accord-
ing to the importance or degree of probability concerning the factors in-
cluded in the list above, we believe that the items identified should be re-
garded as representing some of the main challenges facing the school as
seen from the perspective of the participating experts, who are working with
school development across Europe at both the practical and theoretical level.
Some of the participants argued against the creation of scenarios along the
following lines:
Firstly, there is a danger that such scenarios will merely reflect what is ‘po-
litically correct’ in our current political environment and give an account of
the dominant ideologies.
Secondly, they might not give sufficient weight to long-term visions and the
three main objectives which the school must achieve, namely:
1) Personal development and ‘flourishing’
2) Preparing pupils as citizens
3) Preparing pupils as ‘professionals’ and ‘producers’.
It was felt that there was also a danger of ignoring tensions in the relative
weightings that ought to be given to the school’s three main functions.
Thirdly, a more interesting exercise might be to work with polarities. They

suggested that due attention should be paid to ‘axes of tension’ rather than
‘drivers’, thereby recognising the importance of making compromises. For
example:
x ‘Back to basics’ versus ‘learning to learn’
x ‘Top down’ versus ‘bottom up’
x ‘Standard certification schemes’ versus ‘peer validation’
x ‘Globalisation’ versus ‘territorialisation’
x Short-term ‘employability’ versus ‘autonomy building’ and ‘social and
economic empowerment’
x ‘Teacher empowerment’ (and better pay) versus ‘devaluation of the
teaching function’.
Later in this chapter we will return to the question of dominant values and
the more general long-term goals and visions of the school. With regard to
the methodological point raised during the workshop concerning whether it
would be more appropriate to work with ‘axes of tension’ (or polarities), it is
207

our belief that capturing the polarities in the school debate is precisely what
scenarios are good at, as the creation of scenarios forces their creators to
think in terms of poles, opposites, contrasts etc.
Confronted with the inability in this study to create the hoped-for scenarios,
we have tried to analyse and interpret the discussion which took place in our
workshop in relation to two different sets of scenarios. One of these was
worked out by the OECD, and another set was developed in the ‘Scenario
and Forecast Report Year 2’. We believe that our workshop’s discussion to a
great extent corroborates the OECD’s identification of six scenarios under
three main headings as well as the creation of the three scenarios described
in the Scenario and Forecast Report Year 2, in the sense that these kinds of
scenarios might well have resulted if our workshop had been more results-
oriented.
Accordingly, in the following we will cite both the OECD scenarios and those
of the Scenario and Forecast Report Year 2. The purpose is twofold:
x To present some scenarios for future school development that we believe
are relevant for the development or revision of strategies concerning
learning and the use of ICT in schools
x To use the scenarios for a further discussion of the future school and the
role of ICT, including the generation of recommendations for future ac-
tion and study.
7.3 OECD scenarios

Below are cited in brief the six schooling scenarios for the years up to 2020
which were developed by the OECD's Centre for Educational Research and
Innovation (CERI) 106.
CERI has developed six scenarios which are grouped under three main head-
ings. First of all, we briefly introduce the clusters and their scenarios, and
then we present descriptions of the six scenarios in an overview table.
7.3.1 First cluster: Attempting to maintain the status quo

In this cluster, the basic features of existing systems are maintained well
into the future, whether from public choice or due to an inability to imple-
ment fundamental change.
Scenario A: Bureaucratic school systems continue

The future unfolds as a gradual evolution of the present school. Schools con-
tinue to be institutionally quite strong, but their ability to implement funda-
mental change is absent. The scenario assumes the continuation of power-
fully bureaucratic systems, strong pressures towards uniformity, and resis-
tance to radical change. Schools are highly distinct institutions, knitted to-
gether under complex administrative arrangements. Political and media
commentaries are frequently critical in tone, but despite the criticisms, radi-
cal change is resisted. Many fear that alternatives would not address funda-
mental tasks such as guardianship and socialisation in parallel with the goals
relating to cognitive knowledge and diplomas, nor deliver equality of oppor-
tunity.
106
The scenarios cited are taken from the OECD website. For more information, please
see
http://www.oecd.org/document/10/0,2340,en_2649_34521_2078922_1_1_1_37455,
00.html.
208

Scenario B: Teacher exodus
The meltdown scenario: Schools will enter a phase of major crisis, precipi-
tated by teacher shortages, that is highly resistant to conventional policy
responses. It is triggered by a rapidly ageing profession and exacerbated by
low teacher morale and buoyant opportunities in more attractive graduate
jobs. The large size of the teaching force makes improvements in relative
attractiveness costly, with long lead times for measures to show tangible
results in terms of overall numbers. There are wide socio-geographic and
subject-area disparities in the depth of the crisis. Very different outcomes
might follow: at one extreme, a vicious circle of retrenchment and conflict,
and at the other, emergency strategies spurring radical innovation and col-
lective change.
7.3.2 Second cluster: Re-schooling

Within the second cluster, the future school would see major investment and
widespread recognition for schools and their achievements, including those
of their professionals, with high priority attached to both quality and equity.
Scenario A: Schools as core social centres

The focus is on socialisation goals and schools in communities. Here, the
school enjoys widespread recognition as the most effective bulwark against
social, family and community fragmentation. It is now heavily defined by
collective and community tasks. This leads to extensive shared responsibili-
ties between schools and other community bodies, sources of expertise, and
institutions of further and continuing education, shaping but not conflicting
with high teacher professionalism. Generous levels of financial support are
needed to meet the demanding requirements for quality learning environ-
ments in all communities, and to ensure elevated esteem for teachers and
schools.
Scenario B: Schools as focused learning organisations

The focus is on knowledge. Schools are revitalised around a strong knowl-
edge-oriented rather than a social agenda, in a culture of high quality, ex-
perimentation, diversity and innovation. New forms of evaluation and com-
petence assessment flourish. ICT is used extensively alongside other learn-
ing media, both traditional and new. Knowledge management is to the fore,
and the overwhelming majority of schools justify the label ‘learning organi-
sations’ (hence equality of opportunity is the norm). They have extensive
links to tertiary education and a variety of other organisations.
7.3.3 Third cluster: De-schooling

Rather than high status and generous resourcing for schools, the dissatisfac-
tion of a range of key players leads to the dismantling of school systems to a
greater or lesser degree.
Scenario A: Learning networks and the network society

New forms of co-operative networks come to predominate. Dissatisfaction
with institutionalised provision and the expression given to diversified de-
mand leads to the abandonment of schools in favour of a multitude of learn-
ing networks, hastened by the extensive possibilities of powerful, inexpen-
sive ICT. There is a process involving the de-institutionalisation or even dis-
mantling of school systems as part of the emerging ‘network society’. Vari-
ous cultural, religious and community voices are to the fore in the socialisa-
tion and learning arrangements for children, some of them very local in
character, others employing distance and cross-border networking.
209

Scenario B: Extending the market model
Competitive mechanisms become dominant. Existing market features in edu-
cation are significantly extended as governments encourage diversification in
a broader environment of market-led change. This is fuelled by dissatisfac-
tion by ‘strategic consumers’ in cultures where schooling is commonly
viewed as a private as well as a public good. Many new providers are stimu-
lated to come into the learning market, encouraged by thoroughgoing re-
forms of funding structures, incentives and regulation. Flourishing indicators,
measures, and accreditation arrangements start to displace direct public
monitoring and curriculum regulation. Innovation abounds, as do painful
transitions and inequalities.
Table 7.1 below sums up the OECD scenarios with regard to the following
issues:
1. Learning and organisation; 2. Management and governance; 3. Resources

and infrastructure; 4. Teachers107
107
The text in the individual boxes is quoted more or less directly from the website
referred to in the previous footnote.
210

Table 7.1: OECD future school scenarios
Attempting to maintain status quo Re-schooling De-schooling
Scenar- Bureaucratic school Teacher exodus Schools as core social Schools as focused Learning networks and Extending the market
ios systems continue centres learning organisations the network society model
Learning Curriculum and Where teacher short- The focus of learning Demanding expectations Greater expression The most valued learn-
and qualifications are ages are acute they broadens, with more ex- for all for teaching and given to learning for ing is importantly de-
organi- central areas of pol- have detrimental effects plicit attention given to learning combines with different cultures and termined by choices
sation icy, and student on student learning. non-cognitive outcomes, the widespread devel- values through net- and demands -
assessments are key Widely different organ- values and citizenship. A opment of specialisms works of community whether of those buy-
elements of ac- isational responses to wide range of organisa- and diversity of organ- interests. Small group, ing educational ser-
countability, though shortages - some traditional forms and settings isational forms. Flourish- home schooling and vices or of those, such
questions persist tional, some highly in- emerge, with strong em- ing research on peda- individualised ar- as employers, giving
over how far these novative - and possibly phasis on non-formal gogy and the science of rangements become market value to differ-
develop capacities to greater use of ICT. learning learning is systemati- widespread. ent forms of learning
learn. Individual cally applied. routes. A strong focus
classroom and on non-cognitive out-
teacher models re- comes and values
main dominant. might be expected to
emerge. Wide organ-
isational diversity.
Man- Priority is given to Crisis management pre- Management is complex, ‘Learning organisation’ With schooling assured There is a substantially
agement administration and dominates. Even in ar- as the school is in dy- schools characterised by through inter-locking reduced role for public
And gov- capacity to handle eas which escape the namic interplay with di- flat hierarchy structures, networks, authority education authorities,
ernance accountability pres- worst difficulties, a for- verse community inter- using teams, networks becomes widely dif- which would oversee
sures, with strong tress mentality prevails. ests and formal and non- and diverse sources of fused. There is a sub- market regulation but
emphasis on effi- National authorities are formal programmes. expertise. Quality norms stantial reduction of would be less involved
ciency. The nation initially strengthened, Leadership is widely dis- typically replace regula- existing patterns of through organising
(state/province in acquiring extended tributed and often collec- tory and punitive ac- governance and ac- provision or ‘steering’
federal systems) powers in the face of tive. Strong local dimen- countability approaches. countability, though and ‘monitoring’, while
remains central, but crisis, but progressively sion of decision-making, Decision-making root-ed public policy responsi- entrepreneurial man-
faces tensions due, weakened the longer the while drawing on well- strongly within schools bilities might still in- agement modes are
for example, to de- crises remain unre- developed national/ in- and the profession, with clude addressing the more prominent. Im-
centralisation, cor- solved. A competitive ternational support the close involvement of ‘digital divide’, some portant roles for in-
porate interests in international teaching frameworks, particularly parents, organisations regulation and frame- formation and guid-
learning markets, market develops apace. where social infrastruc- and tertiary education, work-setting, and ance services and for
and globalisation. ture is weakest. and with well-developed overseeing remaining indicators and compe-
guiding frameworks and schools. tence assessments
support systems. that provide market
‘currency’.
Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education 211

Attempting to maintain status quo Re-schooling De-schooling
Scenar- Bureaucratic school Teacher exodus Schools as core social Schools as focused Learning networks and Extending the market
ios systems continue centres learning organisations the network society model
Re- No major increase in As the crisis takes hold, Significant investments Substantial investments There would be a sub- Funding arrangements
sources overall funding, funds flow increasingly would be made to update in all aspects of school- stantial reduction in and incentives are
and infra while continual ex- into salaries to attract the quality of premises ing, especially in disad- public facilities and critical in shaping
struc- tension of schools' more teachers, with and equipment in gen- vantaged communities, institutionalised prem- learning markets and
ture remits with new so- possible detrimental eral, to open school fa- to develop flexible, ises. Whether there determining absolute
cial responsibilities consequences for in- cilities to the community, state-of-the-art facili- would be an overall levels of resources. A
further stretches vestments in areas such and to ensure that the ties. Extensive use is reduction in learning wide range of market-
resources. The use as ICT and physical in- divides of affluence and made of ICT. The part- resources is hard to driven changes would
of ICT continues to frastructure. Whether social capital do not nerships with organisa- predict, though major be introduced into the
grow without chang- these imbalances would widen. ICT is used exten- tions and tertiary educa- investments in ICT ownership and running
ing schools' main be rectified depends on sively, especially its tion enhance the diver- could be expected. of the learning infra-
organisational struc- strategies adopted to communication capabili- sity of educational plant Diseconomies of small structure, some highly
tures. escape ‘meltdown’ ties. and facilities. scale, with schooling innovative and with
organised by groups the extensive use of
and individuals, might ICT. Problems might
limit new investments. be the diseconomies of
scale and the inequali-
ties associated with
market failure.
Teachers A distinct teacher The crisis, in part A core of high-status Highly motivated and There is no longer reli- New learning profes-
corps, sometimes caused by teaching's teaching professionals, enjoying favourable ance on particular pro- sionals - public, pri-
with civil service unattractiveness, would with varied contractual conditions, with strong fessionals called vate; full-time, part-
status; strong un- worsen with growing arrangements and condi- emphasis on R&D, con- ‘teachers’: the demar- time - are created in
ions/associations but shortages, especially in tions, though with good tinuous professional cations between the learning markets,
problematic profes- the most affected areas. rewards for all. Around development, group teacher and student, and new training and
sional status and General teacher rewards this core would be many activities, networking parent and teacher, accreditation opportu-
rewards. could well increase, as other professionals, com- (including internation- education and communities would emerge
might the distinctive- munity players, parents, ally). Contractual ar- nity, blur and some- for them. Market
ness of the teacher etc., and a blurring of rangements might well times break down. forces might see these
corps in reflection of roles. be diverse, with mobility New learning profes- professionals in much
their relative scarcity, in and out of teaching. sionals emerge, readier supply in areas
though established ar- whether employed of residential desirabil-
rangements may even- locally to teach or as ity and/or learning
tually erode with ‘melt- consultants. market opportunity
down’. than elsewhere.
Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education 212

7.4 Scenarios of the Scenario and Forecast Report
Another set of scenarios was generated by the L-CHANGE Consortium in the
Scenario and Forecast Report Year 2.
On the basis of a very thorough analysis108, the L-CHANGE Consortium be-

hind the Scenario and Forecast report has highlighted three main directions
of change that appear to emerge from it, while emphasising that sometimes
the three directions converge and produce similar effects, and at other times
they diverge. The three main directions highlighted are:
1. A push towards de-institutionalisation and ‘marketisation’ of education
and training, according to which an increased autonomy of learners who
are choosing and buying from among a vast multiplicity of learning op-
portunities is not supported and mediated very substantially by the con-
ventional education and training organisations.
2. Change related to innovation processes takes place within or through the
initiative of education and training in the following directions: lifelong
learning philosophy, including a higher degree of integration among the
different subsystems of education and training; the autonomy of learners
and a shift from teaching-based to learning-based approaches, also
thanks to ICT; the introduction of flexibility and quality elements, based
on a higher level of responsiveness to the changes and needs of both
economy and society.
3. A tremendous moment of inertia exists in education and training sys-
tems, which have frequently absorbed technological innovations in the
past without substantially changing their way of working, so inhibiting
both the previously-mentioned drivers of change.
Below, we present the three scenarios derived from these three main direc-
tions of change.
7.4.1 Scenario 1 – De-institutionalisation

In this scenario, conventional education and training institutions are losing
importance, to the advantage of new market actors who are able to assem-
ble and offer a wide choice of content and services to different segments of
learners/consumers, with a possible improvement in the efficiency of the
learning production process and improvement of learning options in terms of
market relevance and formal ‘aesthetic’ quality, whereas this is not so cer-
tain in relation to content and pedagogical approaches. In this scenario, the
key assets are the considerable availability of learning content and the ca-
pacity to distribute it effectively to the highest number of potential learn-
ers/buyers, either at home or at workplace learning centres. The develop-
ment of this scenario may emerge out of policies supporting the privatisation
of education and training, or out of no policy at all, since market forces are
already operating in this direction.
7.4.2 Scenario 2 – Lifelong learning in place

In this scenario, the service rather than the product aspect of learning is well
perceived by individuals and ‘organised’ collective users, while content avail-
ability is not the key asset for the success of learning providers: individual
counselling, guidance, monitoring, evaluation, certification, community build-
ing and animation are the ‘proximity services’ that constitute a significant
part of the quality of the learning experience. In this scenario, most e-
Learning is integrated into classroom, community or workplace learning, so it
For details, please see Scenario and Forecast Report Year 2, March 2003, by the L-
108
CHANGE Consortium for the European Commission. 241

builds on existing groups of learners who are interested in sharing at least a
part of their learning experience. This scenario is the explicit objective of
most of the European public policies that are focused on the innovation of
education and training systems through the use of ICT and lifelong learning.
Industrial actors are involved in the implementation of these policies, but
mainly as partners of education and training institutions and within the pa-
rameters of defined education/training policy aims. Behind these policies, the
principle of considering education and training as goods of public interest
(‘public goods’) that deserve public investment and cannot be left solely to
market forces can readily be found. An awareness of the risk of new social
exclusion deriving from an unequal distribution of access to ICT and learning
opportunities is also inspiring lifelong learning policy orientations that sup-
port the establishment of this scenario.
7.4.3 Scenario 3 – Inertia

In this scenario, the resistance of education and training systems to change
in any of the directions towards which innovation programmes and market
forces would tend to push is the characteristic element. Of course, if conven-
tional institutions will not change substantially (they may well buy and use
ICT, but simply in order to continue the same modes of teaching based on
content transmission, albeit in a different manner), this does not mean that
nothing will change around them in education and training. In fact, a ‘dual
market’ may develop in which title-oriented learners will continue to address
conventional institutions, while most competence-oriented learners will find
other suppliers who can better serve their requirements/desires. This sce-
nario could emerge both as a result of ‘protectionist’ public policies that pre-
vent private and new actors in general from interfering in the formal provi-
sion of education and training (via closed accreditation systems, emphasis
on requirement for formal titles in order to work in public administration,
etc.) or from failure of the implementation of the innovation policies pre-
sented in Scenario 2.
7.5 Imagining the future school and working out school strategies
At a generalised level, the two sets of scenarios cited above operate within
the same set of reference frameworks concerning the likely future of the
school. They identify the same three fundamental evolutionary forces: 1.
driving forces pushing for a phasing out of the institutionalised manner in
which schools currently operate, 2. driving forces pushing for a focus on
change processes, and hence creating a qualitative development of educa-
tion that still takes place within core learning institutions, and 3. conserva-
tive driving forces that make fundamental changes in the nature of the
school unlikely.
We believe that both sets of scenarios are interesting and realistic in the
sense that they undoubtedly identify the main driving forces which are creat-
ing challenges for the future school. However, we regard the more detailed
OECD scenarios as being the more useful for the discussion of recommenda-
tions for future actions and study in relation to innovative learning environ-
ments. It is interesting that the OECD’s CERI has tried to develop two sce-
narios for each of the overall patterns of change processes identified. This
implies the existence of additional room for alternative interpretations of
trends and key factors, and hence for alternative scenario outputs. It also
emphasises the need for the consideration of what directions it would be
desirable to see change processes taking, since different political strategies
and allocations of resources are important factors in this respect. This ap-
plies both to the question of which of the fundamental driving forces will
242

prevail and what the most likely detailed scenario falling under the rubric of
an overall developmental pattern will be.
Since we have encountered great variations in the identification of trends

and key factors and the interpretations of how they might influence future
schooling during the workshop staged for this study, we also believe that the
OECD scenarios are more in line with the likely output that would have
emerged if we had had sufficient time to agree on a set of scenarios. We
believe it would have been important to the participants to develop the more
detailed scenarios, as this would give them greater scope for the different
assessments of the challenges for schools that they identified.
Even though the scenarios of the L-CHANGE consortium give greater atten-
tion to the role of e-learning, we still tend to favour the OECD scenarios as
being more helpful as a basis for discussing the future potential of e-
learning. This is connected with our previously-stated position that any dis-
cussion of innovative learning environments and the role of e-learning within
them first and foremost requires attention to be paid to learning strategies
and pedagogies from a child development perspective, and only afterwards
to how e-learning can be used as a means of strengthening both the devel-
opment and implementation of new learning theories and practices. We be-
lieve the same considerations apply to the development of new strategies for
school development, including e-learning strategies.
ICT approaches make many new opportunities in school education possible.

ICT prompts the reappraisal of the teaching and learning process, and net-
working opens up a range of new and mutually beneficial links for parents,
local communities and other groups. In other words, as we have tried to
demonstrate in this report, ICT can be used to shift schools towards more
learner-oriented ways of working. While some people tend to see ICT as the
driving force behind these changes, we tend to view it more as a facilitator,
although it is plainly a precondition for certain new learning practices.
7.5.1 Links between values, strategies and future school development

We stated above that we would return to the question of dominant values
and the overall long-term goals and visions for the school.
What is the purpose of the school, and how does such a discussion fit to-
gether with the discussion concerning the future school? Is the purpose of
the school to prepare pupils to become successful workers, family members
or citizens in a democratic society? Most people would tend to answer that
the school ought to fulfil all these requirements. A good school should help
pupils to solve the problems they will encounter at work and in their per-
sonal relationships, to take on the responsibility of caring for themselves and
their families, to get along well in a variety of life settings, and to become
motivated, contributing members of a democratic society. Where disagree-
ments might arise is in relation to the relative weightings to be given to
these objectives.
The question of the purpose of the school is closely linked to that of domi-
nant values. Our desk research, interviews, observation and analysis con-
ducted all emphasise that education and learning are not value-free areas.
On the contrary, they reflect, adopt, oppose and/or produce society’s values.
A thorough analysis of the detailed scenarios would also reveal the key fac-
tors related to the values arising out of a variety of expectations and hy-
potheses concerning causality relationships between multiple factors and the
243

development of schooling. There are many possible directions that the evolu-
tion of the various school-related subsystems might take in the future (such
as the competence development of teachers, the role of school manage-
ment, centralized/decentralized school legislation, use of ICT, development
of pedagogies), and these will probably depend on what values will prevail,
grow and flourish in society in general, and, specifically, in each of these
subsystems.
Accordingly, the development of the future organization, curriculum, role of

teachers and pupils etc. in future learning environments will largely be gov-
erned by how different values continue to coexist or conflict in the schooling
subsystems, and will determine the most important objective of the school.
In other words, the responses made to the current challenges will shape the
future school.
At a basic level we tend to agree with the argument that despite massive
and rapid scientific, technological and social change, children still have the
same needs they have always had: They need to be protected, and their
development must be guided and supported by the people around them.
Children encounter many stimulating models of behaviour via the television
and the Internet, often in the absence of emotionally significant or influential
adults. But they cannot rear themselves.
Through its early interactions, the child learns to imitate, identify with and
internalise the attitudes, values and habits of its parents, teachers, grand-
parents and other people around them. These people become important be-
cause they help the child to make sense of and manage its experiences.
They thereby protect and assist the child in growing along the important
developmental pathways, namely the physical, social-interactive, psycho-
emotional, ethical, linguistic, intellectual-cognitive, and eventually the aca-
demic. Understanding this process is essential. To be successful, schools
must create the conditions that make sound development and hence learn-
ing possible109.
An adherence to the basic notion that learning is both an aspect of develop-

ment and is simultaneously a facilitator of development, and therefore that
learning ought to promote positive child and youth development, will be the
basis of the recommendations for future actions and study presented in the
next chapter.
For an elaboration of this line of argument, see the commentary by James P.

109
Comer M. D, Yale Child Study Center: Schools that Develop Children, The American
244Prospect, vol.12 no. 7, 23 April 2001.

8. Conclusions and Recommendations
This chapter firstly presents our overall study conclusions concerning the
identification of specific subjects for further research, issues requiring in-
depth analysis or empirical testing, and the problems and opportunities
which exist for integrating and developing the use of ICT for education and
training. Secondly, the chapter presents a set of recommendations for future
action and study concerning innovative learning environments and the inte-
gration of ICT.
As a background for the undertaking of drawing both conclusions and rec-

ommendations, the advances made in the Member States, and in particular
the advances made due to innovative learning environments in relation to
the four main foci of the elearning initiative were considered. As pointed out
in Chapter 1 of the present study, these are:
x The provision of high-quality information and communications technol-

ogy (ICT) infrastructure and equipment in the field of education
x An improvement in the standard and level of ICT training for teachers
and those involved in the wider workforce
x The development of high-quality educational content
x The reinforcement of ICT-related co-operation and dialogue
8.1 Conclusions
Given the broad scope of the terms of references for this study, there are
many conclusions and sub-conclusions to be stated in relation to the issues
discussed in this report. The executive summary at the beginning of the re-
port summarises the findings and conclusions concerning each of the issues
it covers. Therefore this chapter attempts to draw some more general and
visionary conclusions covering the study as a whole.
1. The concept or notion of a learning environment as a separate topic has

become current in educational discourse in close connection with the emerg-
ing use of ICT for educational purposes on the one hand, and the construc-
tivist/constructionist concept of knowledge and learning on the other.
2. The findings of the study confirm a strong public involvement in promot-

ing the integration of ICT in learning in the school environment. This means
that even where the integration of ICT in schools is not yet underway, it is a
major goal which is jointly recognised as representing a priority need among
both central and local government politicians, school administrators, school
management, teachers, parents and pupils. There is a general awareness in
all Member States that ICT potentially has an important part to play in pro-
moting social inclusion and equal opportunities. Considerable emphasis is
therefore being placed on ICT in education as a key instrument in meeting
the EU goals of being at the forefront of the knowledge society of the future.
The concept is not exclusively regarded as a learning tool that is confined to
educational settings, but as one that has broader ramifications encompass-
ing lifelong learning and a general adaptation to the requirements of the
knowledge society.
3. In the study we have shown that in all the Member States there is a
strong tendency in the direction of integrating ICT into education, and that
the ICT infrastructure of schools has been improved considerably in the past
few years. Nevertheless, generally speaking the study has demonstrated
that the important differences in the level of infrastructure among Member
States are partly replicating the differences in the level of investment in edu-
245

cation that may be observed among European countries, not only for infra-
structure but for teacher education, services and education at large, and
especially when comparing some countries in the Northern part and some in
the Southern part of Europe.
4. Some of the general characteristics of new and innovative learning envi-

ronments in which ICT is being used to support new ways of learning can be
described as follows:
x The role of school management is important as it is changing from tradi-

tional “schedule planners” towards managers of change as regards im-
plementing new organizational structures and exploring the possibilities
of setting up new ICT infrastructure and value managers as regards be-
ing drivers of implementing new pedagogical practises.
x The role of teachers tend to change from a ‘teacher to pupils’ process of
knowledge processing to more ‘group-based’ or ‘pupil to pupil’ processes
where the teachers act more systematically as advisors, guides and su-
pervisors for students, as well as providers of the frameworks for the
learning process of their students.
x Pupils are supposed to have a more active participation in their own
learning process.
x Pupils are also supposed to be collaborating more, increasing their social
participation and improving their communication and collaboration skills.
x The use of ICT gives schools the opportunity to network with other insti-
tutions – both cultural institutions and other educational institutions –
and gives them access to new forms of learning / multimedia material.
x However, the innovative use of technology often only occurs within the
classroom, and not very often between classrooms, across entire
schools, or between schools and other institutions and organisations.
x ICT is used mainly for collaborative and communication activities, pro-
5. We consider that ICT should not be regarded as the primary driver of

school change in itself, but instead ought to be perceived as a facilitator or
intermediary of change. Expectations concerning what is achievable through
the use of ICT must accordingly be (re)adjusted.
6. With regard to praxis, it appears to be the case that the information and
communication benefits of ICT technologies are being exploited much more
than its learning potential. We believe that the manner in which some of the
innovative learning environments described in this report’s case studies have
additionally succeeded in exploring and taking advantage of the learning
potential of ICT unquestionably represents the minority in relation to the
overall reality prevailing among Europe’s schools. On the other hand, the use
of ICT for information and communication is widespread, though to a much
greater extent in some Member States than in others.
7. There is a paradoxical mismatch between our finding that the constructiv-

ist approach to learning represents a trend and a common vision among new
pedagogical theories, and the fact that in practice ICT as a learning tool is
being applied only to a very limited degree. This implies the overall conclu-
246

sion that the new learning theories still remain to be fully explored, tested
and implemented.
8. However, although those innovative learning environments that are taking

advantage of the learning potential of ICT remain few in number, they are
representative of a growing trend. In some Member States in particular, it
appears from our research that amid the movement for the integration of
ICT are many new school projects that also seek to integrate its learning
potential. This is especially the case in those countries which have been keen
to invest public money and establishing the widespread access to and use of
ICT for information and communication purposes, such as the Netherlands,
Sweden and Denmark. Accordingly, it appears that such investment tend to
pave the way for the more substantial use of ICT in connection with any
pedagogical and organisational changes occurring in the schools.
9. This study has shown that an important factor in the paradigm shift to-
wards constructivism is the school management style. The result can be in-
novative when either a bottom-up or top-down approach is followed, but
since the innovative learning environments typically require systematic
changes in the organisation of work etc., such a change is most likely to oc-
cur when the management encourages change and is supportive of new ini-
tiatives.
10. Concerning the capacity for the cultural incorporation of change, the ad-
vance of new technologies appears to be faster than the rate of progress in
education and training. Some claim that this results from a generally conser-
vative attitude which would prevail among teachers and school managers.
However, other factors may impede the integration of ICT for learning. More
research should be done to evaluate the impact of change. Parents them-
selves tend to express concern about the ‘teaching methods’ being employed
in the innovative learning environments. More evidence should be given of
the possible virtues of ‘change’ and added value to the learning process.
There is clearly a difference in the level of incorporation of change proc-

esses; accordingly, some countries have come a long way in initiating a
paradigmatic change in which constructivism is becoming fully incorporated
into educational practice. In some countries this process is being supported
and further encouraged both financially and morally by the responsible pub-
lic authorities. In others, development is more gradual and is mostly being
introduced into the school system via a bottom-up approach that is driven by
individual initiatives rather than by public support for educational innovation.
11. The introduction of new pedagogies and the full exploitation of ICT as a
learning tool are just as dependent on sympathetic political attitudes as on
the cultural capacity for incorporating change. Existing in parallel with the
pedagogical constructivist tendencies of current pedagogical theories is a
conservative education movement in most Member States that is demanding
a refocusing of the purpose of the school towards teaching traditional disci-
plines and basic skills. This trend contradicts the trend towards the main-
streaming of constructivistic approaches to learning, based on providing
learners with a greater ability to build their own knowledge. However, com-
promises should be found between the “back to basics” approach and the
“constructivism”.
12. Many colleges of education still do not equip future teachers or adminis-
trators with adequate knowledge or skills to enable them to promote a cul-
ture that is supportive of general child development. The greatest emphasis
is still on the curriculum, instruction, assessment, administration, and (occa-
247

sionally) the use of technology. This kind of prioritisation in the training and
competence development of teachers and school administrators also repre-
sents a barrier to change processes in the direction of the new kinds of
learning environments discussed and presented in this study.
13. In most of those countries that do give priority to improving the stan-
dard and level of teachers’ ICT training, the need for training in the integra-
tion of new pedagogies is underestimated.
8.2 Recommendations for future actions and study

As regards future action and study, the findings and conclusions of the pre-
sent study on innovative learning environments give occasion for the follow-
ing recommendations from RAMBOLL Management:
1. More empirical based studies on how the new learning practises

influence the ability to learn and develop of different groups of
pupils are needed. There seems to be a need for more empirical based
studies on how the new learning practises influence the ability to learn
and develop of different groups of pupils, for instance pupils with special
needs, pupils of refugee and immigrant origin and pupils of different so-
cial classes. This recommendation is based on the finding that there are
huge differences in the perception of the ability of the innovative learn-
ing environments to cope with some of the more fundamental problems
of education.
2. There is a need for developing new tools for assessing learning

progress in relation to the innovative learning environments. The
study has shown that there is a need for developing new tools for as-
sessing learning progress in relation to the innovative learning environ-
ments in order to make it possible to measure the abilities of the pupils
on the premises that they are taught by and not, as is presently the
case, on the premises of the traditional educational system. Hence, it is
recommended that a study on what kind of assessment tools already ex-
ist in relation to new learning paradigms and the development of addi-
tional assessment tools should be carried out.
3. There is a need for a both theoretical and empirical based study

on the special conditions that distinguish school management
from other management. The study has shown that there is a new
and growing focus and pressure on school management as an important
factor for school development. There seems to be a need for a both
theoretical and empirical based study on the special conditions that dis-
tinguish school management from other management.
4. A mapping and comparison of practical tools for school manage-

ment in everyday life and in particular of change processes is
needed. In addition there is a need for a mapping and comparison of
practical tools for school management in everyday life and in particular
in change processes as school managers seem to be left with their own
experiences or general management theories and tools. The inspiring
role of school managers should also be taken into account as change is
not just a matter of management, but relates to the general educational
‘ethos’.
248

5. Training of teachers in basic knowledge about and use of ICT
should be accompanied by training in new pedagogies and inno-
vative learning practices. The study has shown that continuing train-
ing of teachers in ICT is a priority in most Member States. Nevertheless
if the intention is to promote innovative learning environments, the
training in basic knowledge about and in the use of ICT should be ac-
companied by training in new pedagogies and innovative learning prac-
tices. In order to realize the full learning potential of ICT for schools and
pupils, it must be an aim that teachers and administrators, in addition to
having thorough knowledge of their disciplines, know how children de-
velop generally and academically and how to support that development.
This is based on our finding that innovative learning environments are
not created by ICT ‘per se’ but result from the combination of a number
of factors of which ICT merely constitutes one, and which depends upon
local contexts.
6. A handbook of practical tools and experiences within the use of

ICT for different purposes in different educational disciplines is
needed. It seems from the study that it could be to the benefit of both
school managers, teachers, pupils and their parents to gather in the
form of a handbook in depth information of the concrete tools and con-
crete experiences within the use of ICT in different learning processes
and educational disciplines across the EU. This should include a review of
the learning philosophy and purpose behind the individual tools.
7. There is a need for studies on integration of knowledge as re-

gards child development and learning in educational policies.
Also, more studies should be carried out that map and compare how
knowledge about child development and learning is and can be inte-
grated in educational policies, new learning practises and ICT pro-
grammes for learning.
8. Educational policies should be based in knowledge of children’s

development and its relationship to learning patterns. ICT-
integrated policies should be based on educational visions and principles.
For example, the evolving knowledge of children’s development and its
relationship to learning patters should be taken into account.” This ap-
plies to general national and EU policy frameworks like for instance the
eLearning action plan and the eLearning initiative.
9. More studies on good practise examples of the existence and

promotion of networks between cultural and educational institu-
tions is needed. As the ICT has improved the possibilities of co-
operation between institutions considerably, it seems interesting to con-
duct more studies on good practise examples of the existence and pro-
motion of networks between cultural and educational institutions, and
the exchange of knowledge, learning material etc. between different
schools, local municipalities and regions in and across Member States.
10. A guide to cultural institutions that provide good material and

experiences for educational purposes across Europe should be
produced. In addition, it seems relevant to assess and compare educa-
tional material and proposed experiences, which are – in some cases -
designed jointly by educational and cultural or scientific institutions.
11. A cross country, cross institutional dialogue on innovative learn-

ing environments should be intensified. In order to help the knowl-
edge sharing and in order to get input from the various sub divisions of
249

the educational environments, the European Commission should take
measures to keep various forum for round table discussions for instance
in the form of scenario workshops about the different elements of inno-
vative learning environments among both school practitioners (teachers
and managers), school administrators and educational theorists.
250

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European Commission

DG Education and Culture

3. External structures influencing the activities of schools 17

4. The organizational/institutional settings influencing teachers‘ and

5. Theories and models of Innovative Learning Environments 49

6. Case studies of Innovative Learning Environments 83

7. The Future School 201

8. Conclusions and Recommendations 245

x A general description of the current situation in the European Union con-

The study included both theoretical and empirical investigation.

The following is a summary of the findings, conclusions and recommenda-

What is an Innovative Learning Environment?

The common features in all of the theoretical definitions of innovative learn-

The conception of learning environment in the present study adds a socio-

Innovative learning environments can be defined and described in numerous

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Hence, it was decided not to choose or apply a single definition of Innovative

So, in order to analyse and describe new learning environments, an interpre-

1. The overall external structural framework such as national school poli-

Rules are not to be regarded simply as rigid rules to be strictly followed by

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Resources are of two kinds, authoritative and allocative. Authoritative re-

In conclusion, in this study, Innovative Learning Environments were seen

Towards a new learning paradigm

The common perceptions relate to a number of potential changes.

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

The role of ICT in the new learning paradigm

The findings of the study confirm a strong public involvement in promoting

Case studies of innovative learning environments

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

x School strategies and action plans

x Models of school organisation and teachers’ activities

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

x School culture and management style

x The role of teachers and pupils

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

x The role of ICT

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Some of the general characteristics of new and innovative learning environ-

According to many experts, the architecture and construction of the schools

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Another financial issue relates to the purchase of new computer equipment

x Networking and internationalisation

Main challenges of the innovative learning environments

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

The future school

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

L’objectif était de donner à la DG Education et Culture une analyse compre-

x une description générale de la situation dans les pays membres dans le

L’étude fait partie de l’initiative elearning et du plan d’action elearning et elle

Qu’est-ce que c’est l’environnement éducatif nouveau?

Toutes les définitions théoriques sur les environnements éducatifs nouveaux

La conception de l’environnement éducatif de cet étude ajoute la dimension

Les environnements éducatifs nouveaux peuvent être définés et décrits de

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

En conséquence, pour analyser et décrire les environnements éducatifs nou-

x le cadre externe tel que les politiques de l’éducation nationale, le

D’abord, un environnement éducatif nouveau donné fait partie d’un cadre

Le modèle suppose qu’on peut analyser les environnements éducatifs nou-

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

4. The organizational/institutional settings influencing teachers‘ and

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

x Models of school organisation and teachers’ activities

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

L’objectif était de donner à la DG Education et Culture une analyse compre-

L’étude fait partie de l’initiative elearning et du plan d’action elearning et elle

Qu’est-ce que c’est l’environnement éducatif nouveau?

La conception de l’environnement éducatif de cet étude ajoute la dimension

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

x le cadre externe tel que les politiques de l’éducation nationale, le

D’abord, un environnement éducatif nouveau donné fait partie d’un cadre

Le modèle suppose qu’on peut analyser les environnements éducatifs nou-

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Il y a deux types de ressources – les ressources authoritatives et les res-

Vers un nouveau paradigme dans l’éducation et la formation?

En pratique, il s’avère que la dissémination des activités de l’éducation nou-

Il s’avère que le changement du paradigme dépend du contexte. L’étude

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Beaucoup d’informateurs de cette étude trouvent que les TIC représentent le

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Nous n’avons pas eu l’intention d’établir des généralisations à la base des

x Les stratégies des écoles et les plans d’action

x Modèles de l’organisation de l’école et des activités des ensei-

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

C’est l’opinion généralement recue que la formation des enseignants est un

x La culture de l’école et le style de gestion

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Selon le nouveau paradigme de formation l’un des objectifs de la formation

x L’engagement des parents

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

En ce qui concerne l’enseignant il y a certains obstacles à surmonter quand

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Selon beaucoup d’experts l’architecture et la construction des écoles sont

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Quant à l’achat des ordinateurs nouveaux, beaucoup d’écoles ont acheté

Le dernier aspect financier c’est la rénovation de l’école si on décide d’établir

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Il s’avère qu’il y a un conflit entre le souhait de réorganiser les méthodes de

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

En conséquence, c’est notre avis que le développement des environnements

1. Il faut encore des études empiriques sur l’influence des nouvelles

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Chapter 2 describes the study’s methodology. First of all, it describes the

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education

Final Report – Innovative Learning Environments in School Education