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Use Questions to Zero In
on Valuable Information

Humans have realized the power of questions for more than

twenty-four hundred years when the Greek philosopher
Socrates (469–399 BC), found that instead of simply lecturing,
he could pose a series of carefully directed questions that
enabled the students who answered them to arrive at their
understandings or conclusions themselves.
 Keep in mind that what is
Instead of expecting meaning to
important is not always the
simply pop up magically like a
same as what is interesting.
jack-in-the-box, active learners
A lot of information (such as
take the initiative, using their
the number of steps in the
own questions to extract
Empire State Building) falls
meaning from readings and
under the general heading of
lectures.
trivia.

Trivia fascinates some students and bores others.

Regardless, it’s rarely important. At best it provides support

for a controlling idea. If you think trivia is interesting, you
may find this motivates you to remember it. It’s still better
to focus your attention on the important ideas
though. When you do, the details that interest you will often
remain in the picture. If, on the other hand, you focus on
trivia instead, the controlling ideas may be pushed out of
frame
The Echo Chamber
The echo chamber describes a situation in which
information is amplified by constant repetition. If
the information is false, it may be mistaken as true. If
the information is true, it may appear to be more
relevant or important than it actually is. The satirist
H. L. Mencken’s “bathtub hoax” offers an interesting
insight into the echo chamber run amok, whereas urban
legends provide more commonplace examples. And
because the echo chamber isn’t just for false
information, it helps sometimes to take a good look at
the “news” that everyone is buzzing about.

Confirmation bias

In the case of learning a new word, this tendency is relatively

harmless. But the same phenomenon can act to reinforce your
particular viewpoint or bias at the expense of other
information that may actually contradict or modify your
beliefs.

This is known as confirmation bias. In the journal Review of

General Psychology, psychologist Raymond S.
Nickerson defines confirmation bias as “the
unwitting
selectivity in the acquisition and use of
evidence.”
So, although selectivity is an essential tool in reducing the
glut of information you’re exposed to, it can also have a
negative effect by shielding you from vital information or
depriving you of the complete picture.

All of us are susceptible to confirmation bias. It’s important

to be aware of this tendency and to keep your mind open for
differing evidence and information that might change your
viewpoint. Also, it doesn’t hurt to have a set of consistent
guidelines that you use to gauge the validity of information.
Many people make a decision whether or not to trust
information based on their “gut.” And it’s true that our
hunches and instincts do seem to provide us with clues,
although there is very little scientific data to support this.

Unfortunately, emotional appeals have a way of short-

circuiting common sense. It happens to nearly all of us
at times. Articulate, charismatic liars can sometimes
trigger a positive response while honest but awkward
writing or speaking can sometimes put us on guard.

Logical Fallacies

Although your own biases can affect the way you select
and interpret information, there are also elements
embedded in some arguments that can lead you to
unknowingly accept a false conclusion as fact. Usually
there is a flaw in an otherwise reasonable argument that
renders it invalid.

These are commonly known as logical fallacies and

are used by writers and speakers sometimes
accidentally but often on purpose to lead you to a
desired conclusion
.
One of the best-known logical fallacies has to do with
ice cream sales. It suggests that because an increase in
ice cream sales seems to correspond with an increase in
crime, ice cream must cause crime. What’s tricky about
a fallacy is that it’s usually made up of a true premise or
premises that reach a false conclusion. Therefore, a
person who isn’t listening or reading critically may
notice the true statements but overlook the logical
leap that leads to a false outcome. It’s true that ice
cream sales and crime often increase at the same time.
But it’s not true that one causes the other. (It’s more
likely that hot weather is the cause for the increase in
both.)

Another common fallacy is known as the

straw man.
That’s a situation in which the writer or speaker uses an
opposing example that is either weak or imaginary in
order to make his argument appear to gain legitimacy or
strength. The straw man is often called “some” or
“some people” to present the appearance of a real
opposition without ever naming it.

So, if the authors of a study skills textbook wanted to

appear more courageous and defiant than they
actually are, they might write: “Although there are
some who may want to do away with study skills
textbooks altogether, we were determined to make sure
that our book was published.” A person who read
this might feel increased respect and admiration for
these brave authors and might even be tempted to
purchase an additional book or two just to spite those
who want to do away with study skills textbooks
altogether.

But there’s only one problem. The enemy is never

specified. It’s a phantom. And that is how the straw
man fallacy works.