Educational Resource

Professional
Practice
Twelfth Grade

Prepared by
Jorge Antonio Martínez M., PhD.

1
 Table of contents

Part I. The Office in the Business World

Personal Qualities at Work
1. Personal Qualities at Work
1 2. The Work Ethic
3. Personality
3.1. Your Attitude
3.2. Your Responsibilities
3.3. Values
4. Human Relations at Work
4.1. Loyalty, Cooperation, and Ethical Behavior
4.2. Resolving Conflicts at work
4.3. Sexual Harassment
4.4. Discrimination
5. Dressing Appropriately for work
6. Basic Work Manners
The Office Environment
1. The Office in Relation to the Total Organization
2 1.1. Understanding Organization
1.2. Types of Organization
1.3. Goals of Organization
1.4. Structure of Organizations
a. Organizational Chart
b. Organizational Level
1.5. Board of Directors
1.6. Management
2. Office Design
2.1. Workstations
3. Technology in Modern Offices
3.1. Virtual Office
3.2. Home Office
Technical Skills and Knowledge
1. Office Equipment and Supplies
3 1.1. Adding Machine
1.2. Calculator
1.3. Photocopies
1.4. Computer Equipment/Typewrite
1.5. Fax/Scanner
1.6. Central Exchange
2. Telephone Procedures
3. Communicating Orally
3.1. Listening and Speaking
3.2. Importance of Listenning
3.3. Speaking Effectively
3.4. Proper Language and Tone
4. Costumer Services
2
Office Support Skills

4
1. Business Correspondence
1.1. Preparing Effective Documents
1.2. Drafting and Revising
1.3. Editing and Proofreader’s Mark
1.4 Business Letters, Memos, E-mail
1.5 Types of Business Letters
1.6 Repetitive Letters
1.7 Business Envelopes
2. Commercial Documents
2.1. Invoices, Purchases and Sales Orders
2.2. Requisition Order
2.3. Receipts
2.4. Check and Stud Checks
3. Planning and Preparing a Presentation
4. Filing and Managing Records
5. Accounting and Other Financial Activities

Personal and Career Development

5
1. Planning and Advancing your Career
1.1. An Effective Job Search
1.2. Preparing Résumés and Application Messages
1.3. Interviewing for a Job

3
Part II. Tourism Business Operations
Tourism Career and Hotel’s Operations
1. Your Tourism Future Career

1 2.
3.
Your Tourism Future Studies at University
Hotel Structure
4. Guest Cycle
a. Guest Documents
5. Food and Beverage
6. Housekeeping

Travel Agencies and Airlines Operations

1. Travel Agency Structure
2 1.1. Tour Operator or Wholesaler Operations
1.2. Retailer Operations
2. Travel Agency’s Functions in the Tourism Field
3. Travel Agency Services
3.1. Airlines Ticket
3.2. Rent a Car
3.3. Cruises
3.4. Other Touristic Services
4. Airlines Services

Tourism Software’s: RESIGO Program, Amadeus

3
1. Resigo Program
1.1. Resigo Structure
1.2. Reservation Practice
1.3. Check-In
1.4. Check-Out
1.5. Charges and Billing
1.6. Folio
2. Amadeus

4
Part. I
The Office in the
Business World

5
1
Personal Qualities at
the Work

6
Personal Qualities at Work

To work is to interact with other people. Even those who work at home
interact with others. The character of each person in a group influences how
effectively the group will work together. In fact, an employee identifies as having
good character is one who has deep commitment to behaving appropriately. In
the business world, people are expected to behave in ways that others think are
honorable and fair. Even though employees may be acting on behalf of a
company. They have personal responsibility for their actions. They are expected to
respect the rights of others. Employees should remember that they influence the
nature and quality of their own work environment by their actions.

Employers expect office workers to

be reliable, productive, and cooperative.
They also expect employees to learn new
skills or knowledge that are needed for
success on the job.

According to the dictionary of the

English language, work means “exertion or
effort directed to produce or accomplish
something; labor; toil”. Work does not have
to be an unpleasant activity. If you enjoy
what you are doing, it can seem nearly
effortless and will be an important, vital part
of your life and your existence as a creative
human being. Work, then is any useful
activity or purposeful, creative endeavor.

What motivates people to work?

Some jobs are not very pleasant –yet somebody has to do them. The
necessities of life require that we work to earn a living. We need shelter from the
elements, clothing to keep us warm, and food to keep us healthy.

Money, people want money for many different reasons. Basic needs, such as,
food, clothing, and shelter, are obvious reason for working.
Creative satisfaction, some people have very special talents, and decide to
follow wherever those talents take them. Workers aware of the final result of
their work take pride in knowing that a task was completed, a goal
accomplished. Anything from a short report, carefully and neatly prepared,
to a new automobile design can bring creative satisfaction.
Contact with other, the companionship that comes from your job is an
important benefit of working. You and the people you work with will
accomplish things together. Belonging to a team that sets and accomplishes

7
 important goals can be gratifying.
Feeling of importance, influence comes, in part, from accepting responsibility.
Those individuals who are most often present when the work is being done
are usually also present when decisions are being made. The more you are
willing to work, and the greater responsibility you are willing to take, the
greater influence you will have. You are also likely to earn more money.
Interesting challenges and intellectual stimulation, some jobs and careers are
especially, fascinating, requiring research, problem solving, invention, product
creation, or other intellectual activity. Some people work jus because of this
intellectual stimulation.

The Work Ethic

Ethics Standards require honesty,

fairness, and justice in all business
dealings. These qualities provide a
foundation of trust. Company leaders
should make clear their attitude toward
standards of ethical behavior.
Companies want to be considered
trustworthy by their employees, their
customers, companies with which they deal, and the public. Companies have
developed standards of conduct for their employees, called codes of ethics or
codes of conduct. Such codes are communicated to all workers. Employees are
generally informed about the code of conduct when they first join the organization.
From time to time, employees are called together to discuss what the code means
in relation to specific behavior an actions. This staff deals with many vendors who
are eager to sell their products. The new statement makes clear that no employee is
to accept gifts of any value from any vendor. Companies also have procedures for
handling violations of ethical standards. Employees found guilty of violating the
code of ethics may be subject to disciplinary action.

Personality

Personality is the
particular combination
of emotional, attitudinal,
and behavioral response
patterns of an individual.
Different personality
theorists present their own
definitions of the word based on
their theoretical positions. When
we describe someone’s personality,
we use words which characterize whatever makes t hat person distinctive and perhaps even

8
unique. This is partly because we tend to notice people’s most outstanding characteristics (as
opposed to ways in which they are just average). For instance, just as we might describe
someone as ‘very tall’ or ‘totally bald’ based on their physical attributes, we might also describe
them as ‘very shy’ or ‘totally domineering’ based on their personality.
Many people are described into these clusters of their personality:

EXTROVERSION — the tendency to be outgoing, energetic and sociable

OPENNESS — the tendency to enjoy variety, novelty, challenge and intellectual
stimulation
NEUROTICISM — the tendency to experience unpleasant emotions
AGREEABLENESS — the tendency to be friendly, compassionate and cooperative
CONSCIENTIOUSNESS — the tendency to show self-discipline and self-control.

Nature and Nurture

Between all these one-sided views lies the general consensus: that our personality is built
on a combination of conscious (voluntary) and unconscious (involuntary) factors. To some
extent our genes and environment play a role, and to some extent our free will plays a role. But
probably the greatest role is played by the interaction of these two — how we learn to cope
with life using the resources we’ve got.
Overall, personality is about nature interacting with nurture. Or to put it another way:

Personality = Temperament + Character

Temperament refers to our nature — our inborn characteristics, our ‘factory settings’,
how we are wired. Even at birth one can see individual variations on the human theme.
Some infants, for example, are naturally timid while others are naturally bold.
Character refers to our acquired (or nurtured) characteristics, our ‘custom settings’, how
we have learned to deal with life since we were born. Our character is also the sum of
our virtues and vices. A person of good character, for example, has high integrity; a
person of bad character does not. It helps to be a
good judge of character.

It has been said that temperament is

something we share with other animals, while
character is, perhaps, uniquely human.

When people arrive at the office, they

bring with them their individual traits and
personalities. Regardless of a person's position
or responsibilities in the workplace, personality
plays a role in how a person approaches a
job, completes a task and interacts with others.

9
 Teamwork
Individual personalities become recognizable during
teamwork activities. Someone with an outgoing
personality is likely to be a cheerleader for the
group, focus on positive aspects of the project, and
possibly volunteer for leadership and coordination
roles. Likewise, someone who is shy and reserved is
more likely to take a follower role and be more
comfortable completing tasks that are assigned to
him or taking direction from others.

Time Management
People who are naturally focused and organized
are usually efficient in managing time and
completing tasks on schedule. These people do well
in leadership roles, but their personalities can
potentially conflict with those who have a more laid-
back and relaxed approach and aren't as deadline-
conscious or motivated. This becomes a problem if a
colleague has a manipulative personality as well,
and attempts to sabotage other staffers' work
efforts. While not necessarily poor workers, people
with overly-relaxed personalities often prefer to work
at their own pace without constraints of time lines,
which can lead to frustrations unless appropriately
managed.

Problem-Solving
Analytical personality types have the ability to
problem-solve in an organized manner. They might
accomplish this through leading brainstorming
sessions, developing decision trees or workflow
charts or creating detailed project plans. Indecisive
personality types often throw a wrench in the works
when they're unable to make a decision or choose
a course of action, and it results in stalled work
projects. This can be difficult in group work situations
in which one person meeting deadlines is crucial to
another person carrying out related tasks and
responsibilities.

Interpersonal Relations
Extroverted personality types are comfortable
engaging with colleagues and clients, and are often
able to work out minor differences and create
workable compromises. Neurotic personality types,

10
 however, are more likely to be disagreeable in nature. These individuals often
do better in work environments or positions in which they have limited
contact with clients, customers and co-workers.

Why is personality important in the workplace?

Building and cultivating relationships is an integral part of any career strategy.

Whether you are a job seeker, manager or entrepreneur, you are in the relationship
business. When it comes to building relationships you must start with self knowledge,
and that starts with personality. The study of personality is fundamentally about
asking: Who am I? I know it sounds cliché, but before you can effectively reach
outward to others, you have to be able to look inward. The study of personality
provides some great insights into how to do this.

Personality can be tough to define; from the four temperaments of

Hippocrates (choleric, melancholic, sanguine, and phlegmatic) to Freud’s theory of
the unconscious there have been countless attempts at nailing down this highly
abstract thing we call personality. A great way to describe personality is to use a
popular model called the Big Five.

The five factor model, more popularly known as the Big Five, is one of the
most researched models of personality. The model provides a great overview of
everyday personality and how it relates to the workplace. Compared to other
models, the Big Five enjoys a fairly high level of academic consensus as well as
empirical support. The theory being that there are five major trait categories that
describe our personality. According to the Big Five, we all consistently fall
somewhere along each of the following five continuums that I like to remember as
OCEAN.

Openness to Experience: At the open end, individuals are highly interested in

experiencing new things and are flexible in their thinking, where at the
opposite end, individuals are more closed minded and rigid in how they
approach new experiences.

Conscientiousness: Those who are high in conscientiousness tend to be

diligent and dutiful in the way the approach work and life. Individuals who
are lower on the conscientiousness scale tend to be big picture thinkers and
less interested in the details of how things get done.

Extraversion/Introversion: Probably the most recognizable personality trait is

extroversion because it’s easy to see. Extraverts are socially assertive and gain
energy from performing for and interacting with others. Introverts draw energy
from reflection and tend to prefer working alone or in small groups.

11
 Agreeableness: This scale looks at the level of friendliness versus hostility that
someone tends to display when interacting with others. Those high in
agreeableness are more trusting and modest whereas those low in
agreeableness are more suspicious and oppositional.

Neuroticism (Emotional Stability): Those who are highly neurotic tend to be

less stable and frequently demonstrate negative emotions. Those who are
more emotionally stable are generally pleasant and tend to be resistant to
stress.

When thinking about and observing personality I always caution people to

keep two things in mind: behavior and intent. Behavior vs. Personality: Behavior is
what we observe in others as bystanders. We all learn about others and make
attributions based on what we see. However, personality is not the only driver of
behavior, there are always external forces operating to influence how we behave.
Thus, we have to be careful about the attributions we make based on limited
observations within certain contexts. It is important to remember that we all have
the ability to act counter to our preferences, which his often referred to as acting
out of character. When trying to get a sense of someone, look for consistent
behaviors as opposed to unusual behaviors.

Intent and Personality: A frequent complaint I hear from clients is that one of
their colleagues is intentionally holding back and not asserting himself. In their mind,
this person is actively going against the grain. The issue is not that the person is trying
to be different than you; he/she is actually different from you! Understanding
individual differences is critical in managing teams. Diversity of personality is often a
key component to building a successful team. The trick is to understand how to
harness the power of personality differences for success.
Understanding your own personality and the personalities of those around you is
critical to success. Keep in mind personality is only one of many drivers of behavior,
but it is one that is consistent over time.

Your Attitude

The reasons you work will affect your attitude toward a job. When people
feel they have choices about the type of work they do, they demonstrate a better
attitude on the job. Those who feel obligated to work at dull jobs often feel
trapped. Their feelings are reflected in their attitude at work. Regardless of the job,
you can make it interesting by finding new and better ways of doing it, learning to
do additional assignments, and helping co-workers to become more efficient.

Have a food attitude about working is an advantage. You will probably work
about two thousand hours a year for about forty years, which will mean a total of
almost eighthly thousand hours. IF you do not have a good attitude tower your
work, the hours and years will drag by, offering neither creative satisfaction nor any

12
other sort of gratification. Your feelings of self-worth will suffer, and you could feel
like a failure.

Positive Attitude, generally people with a positive attitude has a high level of
self-esteem, are pleasant to be around, and have many friends and
numerous interests. They smile easily and go out of their way to greet their co-
workers, offer to assist in small ways, and help make life easier and more
pleasant for those around them. They are considerate, and they know how
to compromise. When appropriate, they willingly, change their own ideas
and behavior for the good of their associates. Those people with a positive
attitude seem unflappable, and very little appears to trouble them. They
rarely complain when things go wrong around them. They willingly take
responsibility for the mistakes they make and for their own shortcomings. They
do not blame others when things get difficult.

Negative Attitude, a negative attitude is further characterized by constant

complaining about nearly everything. Complainers grumble about the boss,
about co-workers, about conditions in the office, about the weather, about
their salaries, and on and on. People with negative attitudes usually have low
self-esteem and blame others for their own mistakes and shortcomings. They
constantly make excuses and never admit their own failures. They seem
unable to see things from any perspective but their own and are generally
concerned only about advancing their own well-being. They often attempt
to force their opinions on others.

Your Responsibilities

One important aspect of any job is responsibility. Even if your job does not
require you to accept total responsibility for the outcome of a project, you will be
responsible for your portion of it and for your personal conduct. Your attitude will be
reflected in your willingness to meet your responsibilities.

Work responsibility refers to duties that people in certain positions should

claim. This can refer to both laborious and social tasks. Recognizing and fulfilling
one’s work responsibility is generally regarded as an essential part of a strong work
ethic.

When a person is hired, the bargain generally is that she will receive a certain
amount of compensation for completing certain tasks. In addition to those tasks,
other things may be required of her. For example, if she is dealing with the public,
she may need to display friendly and compassionate mannerisms. She may also be
required to restrain from the use of drugs or intimate relationships with co-workers.
The combination of these things is her work responsibility.

13
 Attitude and social skills can also play a large role in work responsibility. Your
most important responsibilities as an employee are:

to take reasonable care of your own health and safety

if possible to avoid wearing jewelers or loose clothing if operating machinery
if you have long hair, or wear a headscarf, make sure it's tucked out of the
way as it could get caught in machinery
to take reasonable care not to put other people - fellow employees and
members of the public - at risk by what you do or don't do in the course of
your work
to co-operate with your employer, making sure you get proper training and
you understand and follow the company's health and safety policies
not to interfere with or misuse anything that's been provided for your health,
safety or welfare
to report any injuries, strains or illnesses you suffer as a result of doing your job,
your employer may need to change the way you work
to tell your employer if something happens that might affect your ability to
work, like becoming pregnant or suffering an injury. Because your employer
has a legal responsibility for your health and safety, they may need to
suspend you while they find a solution to the issue or problem, but you will
normally be paid if this happens
if you drive or operate machinery, you have a responsibility to tell your
employer if you take medication that makes you drowsy. If you have, they
should temporarily move you to another job if they have one for you to do.

Values

Our values are those elements of your life which you find personally important.

14
They are core beliefs which guide you on how to conduct your life in a way that is
meaningful and satisfying for you.

Values are the things against which you measure your choices, whether
consciously or not. You use them to rationalize your behaviour to yourself and others.
And they determine your level of satisfaction with your choices, even if decisions are
not freely made but constrained by other factors.

Your own values will emerge from a combination of your background, your
experiences, and your evolving sense of self. While some of these values may stay
constant throughout your life, others will develop and change as you do. For
example, it is very common for people to change their attitudes to pay, job security,
and flexibility of working hours as their own individual circumstances change, such as
becoming a parent. It is less common for a desire to work independently or with
others to change as much.

Your work related values concern how you would like to see some of your
values expressed in your career. Ideally your values will be in line with each other
and with the corporate values of the organisation you work for. In practice,
however, you are likely to make compromises and offset one value against another.

In relation to careers and the workplace, your values may include things
which make you feel good (or bad) about your work, and things that encourage
you to stay in a job (or leave). For example:

Tangible and intangible work conditions, such as:

 working in a team / working alone

 having your own office / sharing an office
 autonomy / supervision and direction
 being an expert / generalist
 office based / outdoor work
 goals and bonuses / deadlines and challenges
 competition / collaboration
 variety / routine
 risk / stability
 helping people / making a profit
 working for a large, well known organisation / small, upcoming company

Tangible and intangible rewards that your work may bring, such as:

 salary and related benefits

 bonuses
 pensions
 social status
 professional status

15
  power and influence
 sense of achievement
 personal challenge
 opportunity to travel

Values related to your preferred lifestyle, such as:

 working from home all or part of the time

 working part time or making time for other responsibilities
 working locally / commuting
 regular / flexible / long working hours
 saving / spending Money
 living simply / luxuriously
 time with family and friends
 time to pursue other interests
 living in the city / country
 moving around
 owning your own home

The values that affect your career choices and your satisfaction with them
may come from any category. But value groupings are less important than
recognizing which values from any group come high up in your list of priorities. To get
an idea of what matters most to you, try the exercise on the Identify your values
page in this topic.

Human Relations at Work

Relationships between employees and management are of substantial value

in any workplace. A human relation is the process of training employees, addressing
their needs, fostering a workplace culture and resolving conflicts between different
employees or between employees and management. Understanding some of the
ways that human relations can impact the costs, competitiveness and long-term
economic sustainability of a business helps to underscore their importance.

Human relations in the workplace are a major part of what makes a business
work. Employees must frequently work together on projects, communicate ideas
and provide motivation to get things done. Without a stable and inviting workplace
culture, difficult challenges can arise both in the logistics of managing employees
and in the bottom line. Businesses with engaging workplaces and a well-trained
workforce are more likely to retain and attract qualified employees, foster loyalty
with customers and more quickly adapt to meet the needs of a changing
marketplace.

16
Loyalty, Cooperation, and Ethical Behavior

Loyalty

The word loyal means faithful. It is a name used to describe people who
show or give constant allegiance or support to family, work, a group or country.
Someone who is loyal is trustworthy. Other synonyms for the word include staunch or
devoted.

We live in a world where selfishness seems to be the rule of the day, and
personal gain the objective of most relationships and endeavors. One of the most
honorable character traits a person can develop is the ability to be loyal. Loyalty is
the ability to put others before yourself, to stick with them through thick and thin, and
to look out for them. Whether you're struggling to be loyal to someone who's special
to you or curious about what exactly it means, read on to find out.

Loyalty implies sticking with someone or something even if it goes against

your own self-interest. Especially in business, loyalty carries the expectation that you
will be rewarded for this allegiance.

Cooperation

In our context, not only does it mean working well with others to achieve a
specific goal, it also means sharing your goals, your wants, and your interests to
expand your network.

Here are five tips to improve your cooperation:

Be Present. Ground yourself in the reality of where you are, your gifts and
talents and what you want for yourself. When you have clarity about
yourself, your attempts to cooperate with others will be viewed as sincere.

Involve
others. Whether it is
how to complete
a first-time task or
solve a once-in-a-
lifetime problem.
The old adage
that more brains are
better than
one applies here.
Sure, to share your
goals means that you might be setting yourself up for criticism. This is the
risk-reward continuum; you have to be willing try if you want the chance

17
 to reap the rewards. And that criticism might help you take important
steps toward being more successful!

Be compassionate. Learn about the interests of others. Respect them

and let everyone's strengths shine. Act in a way that is mutually satisfying.

Recognize that success is unlimited. Approach each day with the

thought that success for others is on the path to your own success.
Success is limitless. Unless you're in an individual sporting event, never
compete except against yourself.

Appreciate diversity. Like many, you may gravitate to those who are most
like you. Expanding our network to those among us who are different in
race, work experience, education, religion, or personality can enrich our
lives, our thinking, and our perspectives.
Two types of behaviors are necessary in the networked workplace:
collaboration and cooperation. Cooperation differs from collaboration in that it is
sharing freely without any expectation of reciprocation or reward. Collaboration is
just getting things done. Cooperation is what drives the extended enterprise —
customers, suppliers, partners and anyone else touched by the business.
Ethical Behavior

When we hear the word ethical, several ideas come to mind, most notably
good (versus bad) and right (versus wrong). Six concepts form the foundation of trust
upon which ethical business practice is built:
Ethics: Ethics refers to a set of rules that describes what is acceptable
conduct in society. Ethics serve as a guide to moral daily living and helps
us judge whether our behavior can be justified.

Values: Values are defined as the acts, customs, and institutions that a
group of people regard in a favorable way.

Morals: Morals are a set of rules or mode of conduct on which society is

based. Certain moral elements are universal, such as the laws forbidding
homicide and the basic duties of doing good and furthering the well-being
of others. Morals and ethics are very similar; both pertain to society's ideas
of right and wrong.

Integrity: To have integrity is to be honest and sincere. Integrity is defined as

adhering to a moral code in daily decision making. Integrity Put simply,
when people and businesses possess integrity, it means they can be
trusted.

Character: Character drives what we do when no one is looking. Each

person has the ability to build, change, or even destroy his or her own

18
 character. We can build our character through the way we live—by
thinking good thoughts, and performing good acts.

Laws: The law is a series of rules and regulations designed to express the
needs of the people. Laws frequently provide us with a sense of right and
wrong and guide our behavior, but not always. While murder is against the
law, it does not stop someone from killing another out of hatred, anger, or
in defense of a personal philosophy. It is worth noting that an illegal act
can be ethical. One of the most famous examples is Martin Luther King, Jr.'s
violation of the law with marches and sit-ins during the fight against
segregation.

Resolving Conflicts at work

Conflict happens when personalities clash, when team members perceive

interference from one another, when employees feel unable to progress due to
another’s actions. Conflict involves an ongoing situation, unlike a dispute, which is a
one-off incident. If a dispute goes unresolved, it can cause a conflict situation. This
state of affairs, if left unresolved, can escalate quickly and create a potentially
dangerous workplace situation. Initially a dispute between one or more employees,
without resolution, may cause an uncomfortable working environment,
characterized by gossip and rumour, an awkward atmosphere and non
cooperation between team members. This in turn can lead to further dispute in the
form of arguments and complaints. At this point others may become involved and
take sides. Incidents escalate and tension rises. This is now a conflict situation. The
passing of blame becomes a formal complaint; employees are increasingly non-
productive as all their energy is directed towards the conflict.

Without management intervention the conflict can readily approach crisis

point. There may be strong clashes, highly emotional outbursts, shock resignations,
verbal abuse, even threats of physical violence. At this point the only option is to
ponder…how was this situation allowed to get so out of hand?

Managers must get involved as early as possible and attempt to diffuse and
resolve the dispute to the satisfaction of both parties. Initially managers need to
bring both parties together and discuss the situation. A possible dispute resolution
process could be:

 Step 1: Bring both parties together. It is essential that both parties perceive
this to be in a neutral place.

 Step 2: Lay down ground rules

19

 Step 3: Identify the problem/issues.
Give each party a chance to
outline the incident/issues they
have from their point of view. List
the issues that must be resolved. If it
was a one off incident, what was
the underlying cause? Prioritize the
list according to urgency.
 Step 4: Understanding Both Sides
Using the list gets each person to
explain how he or she feels about
each issue/or the incident. Get
both sides talking and listening to
each other – encouraging both
sides to put forward their points of
view, but emphasize the discussion
of their feelings in regard to the
matter. Encourage both sides to
understand each other’s point of
view. In the case of irresolvable
issues, get both parties to agree to
disagree.
 Step 5: Move forward. Find a
resolution for each issue – how does
behavior need to be modified by
either or both parties in the future to
prevent a recurrence of dispute?
Get both parties to acknowledge
the problem/issues, and agree to
move forward. Give both parties a
written transcript of the meeting,
and ask them to sign a If they constantly interrupt, consider
commitment to future awareness of
the problem/issues.
 Step 6: Review. Review the situation
3 months later. Are the issues
resolved? If not do you need a
further mediation meeting? Would
counseling be appropriate?
How to handle high emotions
Be calm and supportive
Allow the person time to compose themselves,
if necessary give them a cool down period in a
safe environment
Does the person prefer to speak in private?
Bring in a counselor if necessary
How to handle anger
Be patient
Prevent the anger from being focused on the
other party
Stay calm and in control – your calmness will
help diffuse their anger
Request respect and cooperation
End the meeting if necessary, or pause it and
get the angry person to go somewhere ‘safe’
to cool off
How to handle the silent treatment
Encourage discussion by using open-ended
questions
Allow them to be silent for a while if necessary,
be patient
Rephrase difficult questions
Does the person prefer to speak in private? If
needs be, use an external arbitrator or bring in
a counselor
How to handle the gossips
Keep questions closed
Remind the person that you only need to know
facts and their own feelings
Get them to acknowledge whether they are
describing assumed versus evidenced behavior
Keep an open mind and get corroboration if
needed
How to handle the non-stop talkers
Keep questions closed
Control the flow, interrupt kindly but firmly
Ask them to sum up feelings using keywords
Get them to list issues in bullet point
Set a time for them to talk more about the issue
at a later date, or set up a session with a
counsel.
How to handle interruptions
Use non-verbal statements such as facial
expression
Request cooperation and respect
Remind the person interrupting that they will
get their chance to speak
communicating with each party separately
How to handle abuse or threatening
behaviour
Immediately request the behaviour stops and
explain why it is unacceptable
Pause or end the meeting
Remove the person/s to a safe environment
and allow them to cool down
Have the person removed from site if
necessary, using security officers or
equivalent.
20
Conflict Resolution

If possible direct negotiation between

conflicting parties with a manager as mediator is the
best, most direct way to handle the situation. However
once progressed to a conflict stage involving high
emotions and the complete breakdown of
communication between one or more parties it may
be necessary to bring in a higher level manager as
arbitrator.

Sexual Harassment

Sexual harassment is bullying or coercion of a sexual nature, or the

unwelcome or inappropriate promise of rewards in exchange for sexual favors. In
most modern legal contexts, sexual harassment is illegal. Sexual harassment may
occur in a variety of circumstances, often, but not always, the perpetrator is in a
position of power or authority over the victim (due to differences in age, or social,
political, educational or employment relationships) or expecting to receive such
power or authority in form of promotion. Forms of
harassment relationships include:

The perpetrator can be anyone, such

as a client, a co-worker, a parent or legal guardian,
relative, a teacher or professor, a student, a friend,
or a stranger.
The victim does not have to be the
person directly harassed but can be a witness of
such behavior who finds the behavior offensive and
is affected by it.
The place of harassment occurrence
may vary from school, university, workplace and
other.
There may or may not be other
witnesses or attendances.
The perpetrator may be completely unaware that his or her behavior is offensive
or constitutes sexual harassment or may be completely unaware that his or her
actions could be unlawful.
The incident can take place in situations in which the harassed person may not
be aware of or understand what is happening.
The incident may be one time occurrence but more often it has a type of
repetitiveness.
Adverse effects on the target are common in the form of stress and social
withdrawal, sleep and eating difficulties, overall health impairment, etc.
The victim and perpetrator can be any gender.

21
 The perpetrator does not have to be of the opposite sex.
The incident can result from a situation where the perpetrator thinks they are
making themselves clear, but is not understood the way they intended. The
misunderstanding can either be reasonable or unreasonable. An example of
unreasonable is when a woman holds a certain stereotypical view of a man
such that she did not understand the man’s explicit message to stop.

Discrimination

Discrimination in employment and occupation takes many forms, and occurs

in all kinds of work settings. It entails treating people differently because of certain
characteristics, such as race, colour or sex, which results in the impairment of
equality of opportunity and treatment. In other words, discrimination results in and
reinforces inequalities. The freedom of human beings to develop their capabilities
and to choose and pursue their professional and personal aspirations is restricted,
without regard for ability. Skills and competencies cannot be developed, rewards to
work are denied and a sense of humiliation, frustration and powerlessness takes
over. There are some types of discrimination as follow:
Age
Disability
Equal Pay/Compensation
Genetic Information
Harassment
National Origin
Pregnancy
Race/Color
Religion
Retaliation
Sex
Sexual Harassment.

Dressing Appropriately for work

Appropriate dress, along with basic

etiquette, is one of the most common associations
made to professionalism. We form first impressions
and overall judgments about people by the way
they dress. If the way someone dresses affects the
perception of your company's customers or
business partners, it is important to maintain a
standard of dress that creates a positive
impression. No standard or casual dress standards
may make employees comfortable, but the p oint
of professionalism and etiquette is to make others

22
comfortable.

Many Companies’ objective in establishing a business casual dress code1, is

to allow our employees to work comfortably in the workplace. Yet, we still need our
employees to project a professional image for our customers, potential employees,
and community visitors. Business casual dress is the standard for this dress code.
Because all casual clothing is not suitable for the office, these guidelines will help
you determine what is appropriate to wear to work. Clothing that works well for the
beach, yard work, dance clubs, exercise sessions, and sports contests may not be
appropriate for a professional appearance at work.

Clothing that reveals too much cleavage, your back, your chest, your feet,
your stomach or your underwear is not appropriate for a place of business, even in a
business casual setting. Even in a business casual work environment, clothing should
be pressed and never wrinkled. Torn, dirty, or frayed clothing is unacceptable. All
seams must be finished. Any clothing that has words, terms, or pictures that may be
offensive to other employees is unacceptable. Clothing that has the company logo
is encouraged. Sports team, university, and fashion brand names on clothing are
generally acceptable.

This is a general overview of appropriate business casual attire. Items that are
not appropriate for the office are listed, too. Neither lists is all-inclusive nor are both
open to change. The lists tell you what is generally
acceptable as business casual attire and what is
generally not acceptable as business casual attire.
No dress code can cover all contingencies so
employees must exert a certain amount of
judgment in their choice of clothing to wear to
work. If you experience uncertainty about
acceptable, professional business casual attire for
work, please ask your supervisor or your Human
Resources staff.

Slacks, Pants, and Suit Pants. Slacks that are

similar to Dockers and other makers of
cotton or synthetic material pants, wool
pants, flannel pants, dressy capris, and nice
looking dress synthetic pants are
acceptable. Inappropriate slacks or pants include jeans, sweatpants,
exercise pants, Bermuda shorts, short shorts, shorts, bib overalls, leggings, and
any spandex or other form-fitting pants such as people wear for biking.

1
A dress code is a set of standards that companies develop to help provide their employees with guidance about
what is appropriate to wear to work. Dress codes range from formal to business casual to casual. The formality of the
workplace dress code is normally determined by the amount of interaction employees have with customers or
clients.

23
 Skirts, Dresses, and Skirted Suits. Casual dresses and skirts, and skirts that are
split at or below the knee are acceptable. Dress and skirt length should be at
a length at which you can sit comfortably in public. Short, tight skirts that ride
halfway up the thigh are inappropriate for work. Mini-skirts, skorts, sun dresses,
beach dresses, and spaghetti-strap dresses are inappropriate for the office.

Shirts, Tops, Blouses, and Jackets. Casual shirts, dress shirts, sweaters, tops,
golf-type shirts, and turtlenecks are acceptable attire for work. Most suit
jackets or sport jackets are also acceptable attire for the office, if they violate
none of the listed guidelines. Inappropriate attire for work includes tank tops;
midriff tops; shirts with potentially offensive words, terms, logos, pictures,
cartoons, or slogans; halter-tops; tops with bare shoulders; sweatshirts, and t-
shirts unless worn under another blouse, shirt, jacket, or dress.

Shoes and Footwear. Conservative

athletic or walking shoes, loafers, clogs,
sneakers, boots, flats, dress heels, and
leather deck-type shoes are acceptable
for work. Wearing no stockings is
acceptable in warm weather. Flashy
athletic shoes, thongs, flip-flops, slippers,
and any shoe with an open toe are not
The most professional look must be
achieved when dressing for work and this
acceptable in the office. Closed toe and
applies to makeup as well as clothing. Makeup closed heel shoes are required in the
that is understated is best to look nice when
going to the office and this can be obtained manufacturing operation area.
through the use of brown, beige, and pink
makeup. These colors will all blend into the skin
and they can make a face look pleasant Jewelry, Perfume, and Cologne.
without adding too much pop or darkness to Should be in good taste, with limited visible
the face. All makeup should be applied lightly
to the skin and the best makeup is ones that body piercing. Remember, that some
are made with lighter tones.
All makeup should be chosen that
employees are allergic to the chemicals in
matches skin correctly and this is especially perfumes.
important when foundations and powders are
used. Makeup that does not match will look
caked on the skin and this can easily make a Hats and Head Covering. Hats are
woman look messy. Different shades of
powders and foundations should be tried in not appropriate in the office. Head Covers
front of the mirror and the best match should that are required for religious purposes or to
be used. Foundations and powders should be
applied in smaller amounts and any excess h onor cultural tradition are allowed.
makeup should be wiped away from the skin.
Not only can clumped on foundation and
powder look bad, but it will fall onto clothing Makeup. The less makeup the better
throughout the day.
Lipsticks, eye liners, and blush should be but not as if you have come out of bed.
used minimally when putting on makeup for
work. When these items are used, bright colors
Powders and matt foundations make the
and dark colors should be avoided. Also, colors skin look uniform and natural. Although 44%
like blue, green, and orange should not be
used. One makeup item that provides vibrant
of women don't feel attractive without
color can be used and this often looks nice makeup, overdoing it will make you look
when a color accentuates nice eyes or
prominent cheekbones. An eye shadow or too old and even transsexual. Looking like a
blush in a slightly darker pink shade can add sexual predator isn’t a good look either.
beautiful color and a slight shimmer to the
face.

24
 Don't go for bright red lipstick, lip gloss, false eyelashes and heavy eye
shadow. Make sure it’s subtle and pale. The state of your hands is very
important in a work environment involving direct customer and public
interaction. Nails should be manicured, avoid bright colours and chipped or
peeling nail varnish.

Basic Work Manners

Office etiquette is something that helps smooth the wheels of daily interaction
within the office. Getting along with people you'd probably never ask home to
dinner is essential for good work outcomes and a happy co-existence, and its office
etiquette that ensures this even where there is mutual dislike or disinterest. Moreover,
office etiquette ensures that you don't become office enemy number one because
you've been irritating people with unhelpful habits or comments. Not that you're
deliberately aiming to be an office challenge, but there are some actions that can
unwittingly because others discomfort or unease.

Moreover, office etiquette is the key deciding factor in how your colleagues
will respond to you and come to your rescue when you need help. The manner in
which you conduct yourself within the office environment among people who
effectively become your "second family" will determine how you're viewed and the
ease with which you will be supported by others around you.

Practicing Office Etiquette

Understand the point of office etiquette.

Be puntual.
Dress appropriately.
Stay away from gossip.
Ask before borrowing.
Always say please and thank you.
Don't consistently interrupt people.
Refrain from being loud.
Be sensitive to others’ need for privacy.
Avoid being a source of odors.
Keep your work area tidy.

Some tips about your basic work manners:

Treat all support staff with the same courtesy and respect you show your
boss.
If you have a community coffee pot, ALWAYS start a new pot when you
take the last cup or when there's less than a full cup left in the pot.

25
If you must pick your nose, clip your nails or pull out wedgies, do it in the
bathroom!
Don't address subordinates as "honey, babe, dear, or sweetheart," and
don't bully them. That is sexual harassment, and it's against the law!
Practice the six point rule for sitting by keeping all four legs of your chair on
the floor plus your two feet. It is appalling and offensive to see feet in
chairs with chins resting on knees, legs flapping or folded underneath
oneself. Sitting relaxed is reserved for the privacy of your own home.
Don't get involved in sexual affairs - especially with anyone who's married!

26
2
The Office Environment

27
The Office in Relation to the Total Organization

A business (also known as enterprise or firm) is an organization designed to

provide goods, services, or both to consumers. Businesses are predominant in
capitalist economies, in which most of them are privately owned and formed to
earn profit to increase the wealth of their owners. Businesses may also form not-for-
profit or be state-owned. A business owned by multiple individuals may be referred
to as a company, although that term also has a more precise meaning.

The etymology of "business" relates to the state of being busy either as an

individual or society as a whole, doing commercially viable and profitable work. The
term "business" has at least three usages, depending on the scope — the singular
usage to mean a particular organization; the generalized usage to refer to a
particular market sector, "the music business" and compound forms such as
agribusiness; and the broadest meaning, which encompasses all activity by the
community of suppliers of goods and services. However, the exact definition of
business, like much else in the philosophy of business, is a matter of debate and
complexity of meanings.

The term office is used in variety of ways. An office is a place in which the
affairs of a business or an organization are carried out. Also, an office can be
considered a location, usually a building or portion of a building, where
a company conducts its business. A company can have just one office, known as
its home office, or a main office and a variety of field offices or branch offices. All of
these offices are involved in some way in the business of the company.

Office tasks are related to the work of many parts of an organization.

Completing office tasks often requires judgment and making decisions.

28
Understanding the Organization

Today, teams and organizations face rapid change like never before.
Globalization has increased the markets and opportunities for more growth and
revenue. However, increasingly diverse markets have a wide variety of needs and
expectations that must be understood if they are to become strong customers and
collaborators. Concurrently, scrutiny of stakeholders has increased as some
executives have been convicted of illegal actions in their companies, and the
compensation of executives seems to be increasing while wages of others seems to
be decreasing or leveling off. Thus, the ability to manage change, while continuing
to meet the needs of stakeholders, is a very important skill required by today's
leaders and managers.

An organization (or organisation) is a social entity that has a collective goal

and is linked to an external environment. The word is derived from the Greek
word organon, itself derived from the better-known word “ergon” which means
"organ" – a compartment for a particular task. The term organization has come to
acquire a number of meanings. Organizations of people who meet had have some
sort of formal relationship, such as a civic club, a political party, or an athletic team,
may be called an organization. A business enterprise, with all its resources,
personnel, equipment, and methods of production and distribution is typically called
an organization.

There are many definitions of the term organization. In an early definition

Chester Bernard labeled it "a system of consciously coordinated activities of two or
more persons." Hari Das said, that "an organization is an abstract social entity." Social
entity is "a structured group of two or more people brought together to achieve
certain objectives".

"An organization can be conceptualized as a collection

of individuals deliberately structured within identifiable
boundaries to achieve predetermined goals."

From this definition we can identify:

Organizations are social entities

All organizations have a structure
Organizations are designed to achieve specific goals
Organizations have identifiable boundaries
Organizations exist in a relatively permanent basis
All formal organizations use specific knowledge (or technology) to perform
work-related activities.

These features are visible in most organizations. In general, formal

organizations are the means by which we produce and supply a variety of goods
and services. In this text, I also use the terms "enterprise," "corporation," "firm," and

29
"company," synonymously, although I recognize that each has a particular legal
connotation.

Types of Organization

It is important that the business owner seriously considers the different forms of
business organization—types such as sole proprietorship, partnership, and
corporation. Which organizational form is most appropriate can be influenced by
tax issues, legal issues, financial concerns, and personal concerns. For the purpose of
this overview, basic information is presented to establish a general impression of
business organization.

Sole Proprietorship

A Sole Proprietorship consists of one individual doing business. Sole

Proprietorships are the most numerous form of business organization in the United
States, however they account for little in the way of aggregate business receipts.

Advantages

Ease of formation and dissolution. Establishing a sole proprietorship can be as

simple as printing up business cards or hanging a sign announcing the
business. Taking work as a contract carpenter or freelance photographer, for
example, can establish a sole proprietorship. Likewise, a sole proprietorship is
equally easy to dissolve.
Typically, there are low start-up costs and low operational overhead.
Ownership of all profits.
Sole Proprietorships are typically subject to fewer regulations.
No corporate income taxes. Any income realized by a sole proprietorship is
declared on the owner's individual income tax return.

Disadvantages
Unlimited liability. Owners who organize their business as a sole proprietorship
are personally responsible for the obligations of the business, including actions
of any employee representing the business.
Limited life. In most cases, if a business owner dies, the business dies as well.
It may be difficult for an individual to raise capital. It's common for funding to
be in the form of personal savings or personal loans.

Partnership

A Partnership consists of two or more individuals in business together.

Partnerships may be as small as mom and pop type operations, or as large as some
of the big legal or accounting firms that may have dozens of partners. There are
different types of partnerships—general partnership, limited partnership, and limited

30
liability partnership—the basic differences stemming around the degree of personal
liability and management control.

Advantages

Synergy. There is clear potential for the enhancement of value resulting from
two or more individuals combining strengths.
Partnerships are relatively easy to form, however, considerable thought
should be put into developing a partnership agreement at the point of
formation.
Partnerships may be subject to fewer regulations than corporations.
There is stronger potential of access to greater amounts of capital.
No corporate income taxes. Partnerships declare income by filing a
partnership income tax return. Yet the partnership pays no taxes when this
partnership tax return is filed. Rather, the individual partners declare their pro-
rata share of the net income of the partnership on their individual income tax
returns and pay taxes at the individual income tax rate.

Disadvantages

Unlimited liability. General partners are individually responsible for the

obligations of the business, creating personal risk.
Limited life. A partnership may end upon the withdrawal or death of a
partner.
There is a real possibility of disputes or conflicts between partners which could
lead to dissolving the partnership. This scenario enforces the need of a
partnership agreement.

Corporations

Corporations are probably the dominant form of business organization in the

United States. Although fewer in number, corporations account for the lion's share of
aggregate business receipts in the U.S. economy. A corporation is a legal entity
doing business, and is distinct from the individuals within the entity. Public
corporations are owned by shareholders who elect a board of directors to oversee
primary responsibilities. Along with standard, for-profit corporations, there are
charitable, not-for-profit corporations.

Advantages

Unlimited commercial life. The corporation is an entity of its own and does not
dissolve when ownership changes.
Greater flexibility in raising capital through the sale of stock.
Ease of transferring ownership by selling stock.
Limited liability. This limited liability is probably the biggest advantage to
organizing as a corporation. Individual owners in corporations have limits on

31
 their personal liability. Even if a corporation is sued for billions of dollars,
individual shareholder's liability is generally limited to the value of their own
stock in the corporation.

Disadvantages

Regulatory restrictions. Corporations are typically more closely monitored by

governmental agencies, including federal, state, and local. Complying with
regulations can be costly.
Higher organizational and operational costs. Corporations have to file articles
of incorporation with the appropriate state authorities. These legal and
clerical expenses, along with other recurring operational expenses, can
contribute to budgetary challenges.
Double taxation. The possibility of double taxation arises when companies
declare and pay taxes on the net income of the corporation, which they pay
through their corporate income tax returns. If the corporation also pays out
dividends to individual shareholders, those shareholders must declare that
dividend income as personal income and pay taxes at the individual income
tax rates. Thus, the possibility of double taxation.

Goals of the Organizations

Every organization has various types of goals. "Organizational goals are

desired states of affairs or preferred results that organizations attempt to realize and
achieve" (Amitai Etzioni). The idea of organizational goals has a long history in
economics, in which the classic position posits an entrepreneur or ownership group
which in turn establishes the goals of the firm. Alternatively, these goals may
represent a concesus arrived at by all members of the organization.
One useful scheme for describing organizational goals was provided by Charles
Perrow. He has identified the following types of organizational goals:

Officials’ goals. These goals are the formally stated goals of an organization
described in its charter and annual reports and they are emphasized in public
statements by key executives.
Operative goals are the outcomes that the organization actually seeks to
attain through its operating policies and activities.
Operational goals Organizational goals define the performance objectives
and desired behaviours within an organization.

However, a typical social organization today has multiple stakeholders-groups

of people, and consequently has multiple goals, which, at times, may be mutually
conflicting. According to Perrow, multiple organizational goals can be classified into
four major categories:

Output goals. These goals are the "end product," such as consumer products,
services, health care, or education.

32
 System goals. System goals relate to the organization itself, and they consist of
such things as growth, stability, profit, efficiency, market share.
Product goals. Product goals consist of the characteristics of the goods or
services, such as quality, styling, uniqueness, variety, and price.
Derived goals refer to the way an organization uses its power and influence to
achieve other social or political goals (such as employee welfare, community
services, or political aims).

Henry Minztberg has provided a different classification of goals:

System goals. There are four system goals: survival, efficiency, control, and
growth.
Formal goals. Formal goals are used by managers to tell everyone what they
are doing.
Ideological goals. These goals are what the people within the organization
believe in.
Shared personal goals. These goals are what people within the organization
come together to accomplish for their mutual benefit.

For most organizations, goals are constantly changing and members of the
organizations must respond appropriately, by formulating new goals as well as
deciding which goals will be accomplished, and in what order.

Structure of Organizations

Organizations are set up in specific ways to accomplish different goals, and

the structure of an organization can help or hinder its progress toward
accomplishing these goals. Organizations large and small can achieve higher sales
and other profit by properly matching their needs with the structure they use to
operate. There are three main types of organizational structure: functional, divisional
and matrix structure.

Functional Structure. Functional structure is set up so that each portion of the

organization is grouped according to its purpose. In this type of organization, for
example, there may be a
marketing department, a sales
department and a production
department. The functional
structure works very well for
small businesses in which each
department can rely on the
talent and knowledge of its
workers and support itself.
However, one of the drawbacks to a functional structure is that the coordination
and communication between departments can be restricted by the
organizational boundaries of having the various departments working separately.

33
Divisional Structure. Divisional structure typically is used in larger companies that
operate in a wide geographic area or that have separate smaller organizations
within the umbrella group to cover different types of products or market areas.
The benefit of this structure is that needs can be met more rapidly and more
specifically; however, communication is inhibited because employees in
different divisions are not working together. Divisional structure is costly because
of its size and scope. Small businesses can use a divisional structure on a smaller
scale, having different offices in different parts of the city, for example, or
assigning different sales teams to handle different geographic areas.

Matrix. The third main type of organizational structure, called the matrix
structure, is a hybrid of divisional and functional structure. Typically used in large
multinational companies, the matrix structure allows for the benefits of functional
and divisional structures to exist in one organization. This can create power
struggles because most areas of the company will have a dual management--a
functional manager and a product or divisional manager working at the same
level and covering some of the same managerial territory.

34
Organizational Chart

An organizational chart (often called organization chart, org chart, organigram(me),

or organogram(me)) is a diagram that shows the structure of an organization and the
relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs. The term is also used for similar
diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a
group of languages.

Staff authority is used to support the line authority. Line authorities are more
involved in the core activities of the business. They have little time to analyze all
information for many decisions. They do not have expertise in all technical areas.
Staffs are specialists, who help line authority in discharging their duties. For example,
a production manager (a line authority) does not have enough time and
experience to handle labor relation
problems. Staffs (who are specialists)
help them in doing so.

Line and staff organizations have

both line and staff executives. Line
executives are assisted by staff
specialists in R & D, planning, distribution,
quality, legal, audit, public relations, etc.
The job of staff is mainly advisory and
guidance. Line executives maintain the
supervisory power and control over the
execution of work.

Organizational Level

Organization structure levels refer to the chain of command within a

35
company. A small company's organization structure levels can be either tall, where
there are many levels or management, or flat, where fewer levels of management
exist. Tall organization structures are usually formed by functional area, product or a
combination, which is known as a matrix organization structure. The organization
structure a company employs is highly contingent upon its industry and overall
marketing strategy.

Most people think of three basic levels of management: top, middle, and first-
line managers.

Top managers are responsible for the overall direction and operations of an
organization. Particularly, they are responsible for setting organizational goals,
defining strategies for achieving them, monitoring and implementing the
external environment, decisions that affect entire organization. They have
such titles as chief executive officer (CEO), president, chairman, division
president, and executive vice-president. Managers in these positions are
responsible for interacting with representatives of the external environment
(e.g., important customers, financial institutions, and governmental figures)
and establishing objectives, policies, and strategies.

Middle managers are responsible for business units and major departments.
Examples of middle managers are department head, division head, and
director of the research lab. The responsibilities of middle managers include
translating executive orders into operation, implementing plans, and directly
supervising lower-level managers. Middle managers typically have two or
more management levels beneath them. They receive overall strategies and
policies from top managers and the translate them into specific objective
and programs for first-line managers.

First-line managers are directly responsible for the production of goods and
services. Particularly, they are responsible for directing nonsupervisory
employees. First-line managers are variously called office manager, section
chief, line manager, and supervisor.

Board of Directors

A company's board of directors provides the company with direction and

advice. It is their responsibility to ensure that the company fulfills its mission
statement and in doing so, it will frequently set the company's overall policy
objectives. For these reasons, a good board of directors includes knowledgeable
and experienced business people.

Typically, only one member of the board is involved with the day-to-day
activities of the company. This person is the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), and he or
she acts as a liaison between the board of directors and the rest of the company.

36
The CEO is responsible for communicating to the board the daily status of the
company, and for communicating and implementing the vision and policy
objectives.

A well functioning board acts as a top level advisor to the company. The
entrepreneurs who start a company usually provide the initial vision and mission
statement, and board subsequently gives advice on how to best implement this vision. A
good board of directors will also let the company know when it is drifting away from
its goals and objectives.

Management

The term management can be and often is used in several different

ways. Mary Parker Follett, described management as "the art of getting things done
through people." From Peter Drucker's viewpoint, managers give direction to their
organizations, provide leadership, and decide how to use organizational resources
to accomplish goals. The term management in this thesis refers to the definition of
management described by Richard L. Daft:

"Management is the attainment of organizational goals in an

effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling organizational resources".

There are two important ideas in this definition: (1) the four functions of
planning, organizing, leading, and controlling and (2) the attainment of organization
goals in an effective and efficient manner.

The successful manager must actively perform basic managerial functions.

One of the earliest classifications of managerial functions was made by Fayol, who
suggested that planning, organizing, coordinating, commanding, and controlling
were the primary functions. Some others theorists identify additional management
functions, such as staffing, communicated, or decision making. But now generally,
there is agreement that the basic managerial functions are: planning, organizing,
leading, and controlling. The additional functions (e.g., communicated, or decision
making) will be discussed as subsets of the four primary functions.

Planning. Planning is considered to be the central function of management

because it sets the pattern for the other activities to follow. "Planning means
defining goals for future organizational performance and deciding on the
tasks and use of resources needed to attain them". Planning encompasses
four elements:
 Evaluating environmental forces and organizational resources

37
  Establishing a set of organizational goals
 Developing strategies and plans to achieve the stated goals
 Formulating a decision-making process

These elements are concerned with organizational success in the near future
as well as success in the more distant future. Planning to the future, the manager
develops a strategy for getting there. This process is referred to as strategic planning.

Organizing. Organizing is the managerial function of making sure there are

available the resources to carry out a plan. "Organizing involves the
assignment of tasks, the grouping of tasks into departments, and the
allocation of resources to departments". Managers must bring together
individuals and tasks to make effective use of people and resources. Three
elements are essential to organizing:
 Developing the structure of the organization
 Acquiring and training human resources
 Establishing communication patterns and networks
 Determining the method of grouping these activities and resources is the
organizing process.

Determining the method of grouping these activities and resources is the

organizing process.

Directing or Leading. Leading is another of the basic function within the

management process "Leading is the use of influence to motivate employees
to achieve organizational goals". Managers must be able to make
employees want to participate in achieving an organization's goals. Three
components make up the directing or leading function:

 Motivating employees
 Influencing employees
 Forming effective groups.

The directing or leading process helps the organization move toward goal
attainment.

Controlling. The final phase of the management process is controlling.

"Controlling means monitoring employees' activities, determining whether the
organization is on target toward its goals, and making correction as
necessary. Controlling ensures that, through effective leading, what has been
planned and organized to take place has in fact taken place. Three basic
components constitute the control function:

 Elements of a control system

 Evaluating and rewarding employee performance

38
  Controlling financial, informational, and physical resources.

Controlling is ongoing process. An effective control function determines

whether the organization is on target toward its goals and makes corrections as
necessary. These all managerial functions are necessary and are related and
interrelated to each other.

Office Design

The structure and shape of the office is impacted by both management

thought as well as construction materials and may or may not have walls or barriers.
The word stems from the Latin officium, and its equivalents in various, mainly
romance, languages. An officium was not necessarily a place, but rather an often
mobile 'bureau' in the sense of a human staff or even the abstract notion of a formal
position, such as a magistrature. The relatively elaborate Roman bureaucracy would
not be equaled for centuries in the West after the fall of Rome, even partially
reverting to illiteracy, while the East preserved a more sophisticated administrative
culture, both under Byzantium and under Islam.

Offices in classical antiquity were often part of a palace complex or a large

temple. There was usually a room where scrolls were kept and scribes did their work.
Ancient texts mentioning the work of scribes allude to the existence of such "offices".
These rooms are sometimes called "libraries" by some archaeologists and the
general press because one often associates scrolls with literature. In fact they were
true offices since the scrolls were meant for record keeping and other management
functions such as treaties and edicts, and not for writing or keeping poetry or other
works of fiction.

There are many different ways of arranging the space in an office and whilst
these vary according to function, managerial fashions and the culture of specific
companies can be even more important. Choices include, how many people will
work within the same room. At one extreme, each individual worker will have their
own room; at the other extreme a large open plan office can be made up of one
main room with tens or hundreds of people working in the same space. Open plan
offices put multiple workers together in the same space, and some studies have
shown that they can improve short term productivity, i.e. within a single software
project. At the same time, the loss of privacy and security can increase the
incidence of theft and loss of company secrets.

Work spaces in an office are typically used for conventional office activities
such as reading, writing and computer work. There are nine generic types of work
space, each supporting different activities.

39
  Open office: An open work space for more than ten
people, suitable for activities which demand frequent
communication or routine activities which need
relatively little concentration
 Team space: A semi-enclosed
work space for two to eight people; suitable for teamwork which
demands frequent internal communication and a medium level
of concentration
 Cubicle: A semi-enclosed work
space for one person, suitable for activities which
demand medium concentration and medium
interaction

Workstations

A workstation is an
assigned location for an employee to
perform his or her job, and which is
equipped with all
the required tools and facilities. They
are areas that are similar to desks
except that they are larger and
contain more electronic equipment.
In many offices, partitions separate
the workstations, providing for more
privacy. They also contained shelves
and storage space for paper,
binders, manuals, pens, pencils,
books printouts, and computer disks. It is
very important, when it designs a
workstation, it counts with ergonomics
principles. Ergonomics is the study of the
relationship between people and their
work environments. It includes the study o
f ways to change conditions to makes
tasks easier and more natural. Studying
ergonomics can also lead to increased
productivity.

40
Technology in Modern Offices

The use of technology is common in today’s offices. Many companies use

up-to-date technology in their offices to help employees be productive. Because
the technology available is changing, the way work is accomplishes is also
changing. Workers should expect their duties, as well as the way they work, to
change from time to time. The need for high productivity and quality performance
means available is changing, the way work methods. Office workers must be skillful
learners –on their own and in
more formal training and
educational settings.

A modern office certainly

can look sleek, but much of the
technological setup of a truly
modern office has far more of an
impact than the colour of the
walls. This article considers what a
modern office really is and how
the modern technology plays
behind the scenes. There are
many interpretations about what
a modern office is, but there are
some clear trends too. More and
more modern offices are moving
to paperless systems and whether
this shift is happening in line with a
move to cloud or through an
existing network, there is certainly
a shift towards business
becoming more virtual. The
future of business is a mobile one
and the actual physical office
looks set to shrink as more staff
members move to work away from the central location.

Paperless offices are becoming more popular and they remain a very
modern occurrence. The paperless office is something that has a large number of
benefits for connectivity, productivity and for the environment, of course. A
paperless office will often reduce the need for lengthy processes and administration
because of the ability to cut out the printing and filing processes. Running a
paperless office does, however, require a high level of off site data storage to ensure
that your company processes are safe from any internal failures. Moving to a
paperless system will be a cost effective change with benefits for your carbon
footprint and environmental impact too.

41
Virtual Office

The virtual office idea came from a combination of technological

innovation and the Information
Age. The concept has roots in the
Industrial, where parallels to
current work styles, specifically
working from home, have been
drawn. The virtual office concept
is an evolution of the executive
suite industry. However, the
inflexibility of an executive
suite lease doesn't work for many
business models and helped spur
the virtual office concept. The
first commercial application of a
virtual office occurred in 1994, when Ralph Gregory founded "The Virtual Office,
Inc.", in Boulder, Colorado.

The term virtual describes something that has conceptual form but no
physical form that you can see or touch. The virtual office, therefore, has no
physical form but allows you to perform work activities as you would in a traditional
office setting.

A virtual office blends home and work to gain efficiencies in both. Office
expenses are low, while the user's professionalism retains the image of a traditional,
high-cost office. A virtual office user can reduce their environmental impact, as well
as the personal negatives of a daily commute.
Virtual office clientele have the flexibility to
match expenses with revenue fluctuations
immediately, as the costs are usually variable. A
virtual office can allow for low-cost expansion
with no long-term commitments. Users taking
advantage of virtual office receptionists eliminate
the traditional burden of health care, records,
payroll, insurance & rent. Also, traditional time-off
(sick days, vacations, personal leaves, etc.…)
does not apply to a virtual staff.

Home Office

A space within a person’s home that is

used to perform office tasks is referred t o as a
home office. In many home offices, workers can
communicate easily with others using e-mail, the
Internet, an intranet, fax, and a telephone.

42
Some people who work at home are able to take part in teleconferences with
persons at other locations. Many people who work in home office are self-
employed. Such persons are often called freelancers. Freelancers may
occasionally meet with customers or clients in person. However, they may
communicate primarily by e-mail, telephone, and mail.

43
3
Technical Skills and
Knowledge

44
Office Equipment and Supplies

Although there is no conclusive proof that offices were used by early humans,
we do know that Neolithic people were building storage shelves. The site is thought to
date from around 3100BC and in addition to the storage shelves and dresser; there is
other stone furniture such as seating and preparation surfaces. Even stone shelving
above the bed areas is evident, perhaps for storing more personal items and
possessions. Of course there is no specific evidence that these shelves were used for
storing anything other than pots and pans. However, it does serve to highlight that early
humans were more advanced and organized than we might otherwise imagine. It is
certainly true to say that people have been trading with each other since time
immemorial. Therefore we can assume that those who acquired possessions from others
would need a safe place to store them.

In a sense this can be viewed as ‘business’ and these acquisitions would no

doubt have to be organized and stored away ready for the next transaction. He use of
offices and office furniture for business, both private and commercial increased
exponentially with the invention of the telegraph and telephone.

During the 19th Century in the US for instance, as the rail and road networks
rapidly expanded, so did the proliferation of offices. It became normal to conduct
business from commercial offices, especially with the advent of electric lighting, the
typewriter and calculating machines. Wherever there were manufacturing facilities, an
office would be required to handle the administrative duties. Of course the single most
important invention that has contributed to office evolution is the computer. They allow
users to perform complicated administrative tasks more easily and effectively.
Computers enable people to network and share files within their own office
environment, and also with other users in offices all around the globe.

In the late 19th century, commercial offices for conducting business first
appeared in the United States. The railroad, telegraph and then the telephone were
invented allowing for instant remote communication. Wherever manufacturing existed,
for example in a mill or factory, the administrative office could now be placed at a
distance. Other inventions that promoted the office included: electric lighting,
the typewriter, and calculating machines.

Adding Machine

Apparently, Wilhelm Schickard produced the first

adding machine in 1623. Unfortunately, this one-of-kind
machine was destroyed in a fire and its existence
remained unknown until recently.

Blaise Pascal (re)invented an adding/subtracting

machine in 1642 with no knowledge of Shickard's machine.
Pascal made many of his machines and is therefore often
thought of as the original inventor. His first machine was 14"

45
x 5" x 3" and had 8 digits. The closest machine shown here to Pascal's is
the Addometer shown in the Simple Dial or Slide Adders section.

The adding machine was invented by a nineteen-year-old French boy named

Blaise Pascal way back in the year 1642. Blaise made it to help his father in his work. The
man was a clerk, and all day long he had to do a tremendous number of
mathematical calculations. The boy’s invention consisted of a wooden box with sixteen
dials on it. By turning the dials, one could do simple addition and subtraction very
quickly.

There were two prior attempts to create such a machine which were discovered
only recently. One is of Wilhelm Schickard who invented a mechanical calculator in
1623. Apparently only two prototypes were built and their location is unknown (if they
survived at all). Only in the 1950's when letters of Schickard were discovered was this
information revealed. From diagrams in these letters it was possible to reconstruct his
machine.

An even earlier attempt was made by none other than Leonardo Da Vinci. In
1967 some of his notes were found in the National Museum of Spain, which included a
description of a machine bearing a certain resemblance to Pascal's machine. A model
of Da Vinci's machine was made with the help of these notes.

Calculator
The first electronic calculators appeared in the
1960's as large desk-top electric models. During this
decade, they passed through three stages before
achieving real portability. First, the earliest ones in the
early 1960's used transistors. The basic operating
principles of mechanical calculators changed little from
the end of the 19th century to their obsolescence in the
1970s, though there were many developments in the
mechanisms and the materials used. This site shows
representative examples of the different types. Models
made before the end of the 19th century are very rare and are usually only to be seen
in museums and books. These include the Pascaline invented by Blaise Pascal, and the
Stepped Reckoner invented by Leibniz, both in the 17th century, and Charles Xavier
Thomas's Arithmometer in the 19th century. The mechanical calculators featured here
are typical machines which were ousted by the cheap electronic calculators which
were gradually developed during the 1960s and early 1970s.

Typewriters

The development of the typewriter from a clumsy contraption to a machine that

could write faster than a person with a pen can spans the whole of the 19th. century;
but it wasn't until the 1890's until it had really been perfected, with the introduction of
front-stroke key action, allowing the typist to see what they were typing as it was typed.

46
It is not surprising that this feature was used first on the Underwood, one of the most
recognizable typewriters in history. Shown below is my Underwood Model 5, made circa
1922 or 1923. The frame is cast iron, with stamped and machined steel for all the other
parts.

The evolution of the typewriter is part

of the ongoing history of the human need
to communicate. The development of the
typewriter was the result of a desire both to
speed up this process and to produce an
aid for the blind in reading and writing.
Gradually a machine emerged that
revolutionized the work of the writer.
Painstaking tasks that were normally
carried out by hand could be carried out
in minutes on the machine, leaving time
to enjoy the 'finer things in life'. As the first
Remington adverts declared; 'To save
time is to lengthen life. “The first patent
for a 'writing machine' was given to
Henry Mill in 1714. Sadly there are no
surviving details to prove its existence as
a working machine. The first known
typewriter was invented in the United States
of America by William Burt in 1830. This was called a Typographer and printed one
single letter after another. From this point on there was a flood of designs both in the
United States and Europe, causing some dispute over who invented what components.
These machines were usually one-offs and it was not until 1874 that a typewriter
became a commercial success. This was achieved by the inventors Christopher Sholes
and Carlos Glidden, who made an agreement with the Remington Company to have
their model, the 'Type-writer', manufactured in quantity.

With office life becoming faster paced, and people at home wanting to use
typewriters for personal use, portable typewriters appeared. This Remington portable
was also made in the 1920's and is very compact and light.

Photocopy

In the 19th century, commercial printers used platen presses for job work such as
business cards, envelopes, billheads, and circulars. Yates indicates that until 1876 the
Illinois Central Railroad used commercial printers when it needed large numbers of
copies of items such as circulars, and that it continued to use commercial printers after
1876 when it needed multiple copies of documents to be distributed to the public
rather than for internal use. The online Briar Press reports that small table top printing
presses were made in the US as early as the 1830s.

47
 In the 19th century, commercial printers used lithographic presses to print such
things as labels, stock certificates, bank notes, maps, insurance policies, and business
stationery. Sterne (p. 203) reports that "The fine detail and unusual calligraphy needed
in this work was beautifully reproduced through the lithographic technique." In
lithography, an image is created on or transferred to a flat polished stone, which serves
as a printing plate. The image is created on the stone using a greasy crayon, or
alternatively is created on a sheet of paper using greasy lithographic ink and then
transferred to the stone. Next, printers ink is applied to the stone. This ink adheres only to
the crayon or lithographic ink. The stone is then covered with a sheet of paper, and the
stone and paper are run through a press to make a lithograph.

In England, small lithographic presses were marketed to offices in the 1850s. One
example that was exhibited in 1851 is the S. Mordan & Co. Combined Lithographic and
Copying Press (Plate 14). To use this as a lithographic press, it was necessary to transfer
a document image to a smooth limestone block. A second example that was exhibited
in 1855 and described as suitable "for the Counting House,
Office, or Library" was exhibited by Waterlow and Son of London
in 1855 (Plate 14AAA). Waterlow's advertisement stated: "Nearly
One Thousand of these Presses have now been sold, and are
being successfully used in all Her Majesty's Government Offices,
Public and Private Schools, Railway Companies, Assurance
Offices, and also by the most influential Bankers, Merchants,
Clergymen, &c., in the United Kingdom." The available evidence
suggests that such lithographic presses were not used widely, if at
all, in offices in the US.

Samuel W. Lowe of Philadelphia patented a small printing press with a conical

roller in 1856; a Lowe press dating from 1865 is pictured at the online. William Tuttle and
Benjamin O. Woods produced small lever presses in Boston, MA, by 1857. A lever press is
a table-top hand-operated version of the larger foot-operated platen press used by
commercial printers. Woods advertised small Novelty printing presses in 1870 and
exhibited them at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. The online Briar Press Museum has
photographs of early Woods Novelty presses.

W. A. Kelsey & Co. began to market small lever presses in 1872 and continued to
sell them for over a century. The online Briar Press Museum has photographs of early
Kelsey presses. To the left is an illustration of a Kelsey Excelsior printing press from a
broadside distributed at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. Plate 14A shows later
Excelsior. Small lever presses were sold in a wide range of sizes by numerous
companies. Lever presses that printed items measuring 1.5" x 2.5" were as little as $2
while larger ones with the capacity to Stencil Duplicating Machines.

Electro-Chemical Stencil Duplicating Press

Late, 19th century inventors developed numerous duplicating technologies in

addition to the commercially successful ones that are described below. An 1872 report
describes a technology developed by Eugeio de Zuccato, an Italian in London. To the
bed and upper plate of an ordinary copying-press were attached wires leading from a

48
small battery. “An iron plate resting upon the bed of the press is coated with varnish,
and upon the surface is written with a steel point any communication it is desired to
copy. The letters having thus been formed in bare metal, a few sheets of copying
paper are impregnated with an acid solution of prussiate of potash, and placed upon
the scratched plate, which is then subjected to pressure in the copying-press. An
electric current passes wherever the metal has been left bare (where the writing is,
therefore), and the prussiate solution acting upon the iron, there is found prussiate of
iron or Prussian blue characters corresponding to those scratched upon the plate. The
number of copies that may be produced by this electro-chemical action is almost
unlimited, and the formation of the Prussian blue lines is, of course, instantaneous.

Mimeograph

Albert Blake Dick invented the Mimeograph stencil in 1884. The A. B. Dick Co.,
Chicago, acquired Edison’s copying system patents and, with Edison’s support, began
manufacturing and marketing Edison Mimeograph systems in 1887. Models were sold in
rectangular wooden boxes. The boxes contained a hand printing frame that consisted
of a flat bed or printing board and a hinged frame that held the stencil. The boxes also
contained an ink roller, an inking slate, ink, varnish and a brush for making corrections,
waxed stencil paper, blotters, a writing stylus, and a writing plate with a file-like surface
(see Plate 19) that was 1.5" to 3" top-to-bottom and as wide as the printing frame.

To prepare a handwritten stencil, "A sheet of Mimeograph stencil paper is

placed over the finely grooved steel plate and written upon with a smooth pointed
steel stylus, and in the line of the writing so made, the stencil paper will be perforated
from the underside with minute holes, in such close proximity to each other that the
dividing fibers of paper are scarcely perceptible." After the operator has written a few
lines, the operator moves the stencil upward over the writing plate so that a new
portion of the stencil is on top of the writing plate. "After the stencil is completed it is
placed in the printing frame, by which the stencil is firmly held taut and in a position for
rapid printing. After inking the roller on the slate furnished for that purpose, pass it over
the stencil sheet and a correct reproduction of the matter stenciled will appear on the
paper which has been previously placed underneath." Ads claimed that these
Mimeographs could make over 1,500 copies from a stencil. A. B. Dick claimed to have
sold over 80,000 Edison Mimeographs by 1892 and over 200,000 by 1899. In 1889,
Mimeographs were $12-$29.50, depending on size and whether they included the items
needed for handwritten, typewritten, or both types of stencils. Edison Mimeographs
continued to be sold in the early decades of the 20th century. The model numbers
denote different sizes and features. In 1889, the models used for handwritten stencils
were identified as No. 0 to No. 5; the model for typewritten stencils only was No. 12; the
models for both types of stencils were No. 20 to No. 25.

Photocopying Machines

The machines described above could not copy documents that had been
created in the past or that were received by an office. Efforts to copy such documents
began in the 1840s with the development of photosensitive paper. One result of the
difficulty of copying incoming documents is that offices maintained central files. Everett

49
All dredge of the National Archives in Washington, DC, stated: "Before the Xerox era
[which began in 1960], every government agency had one central filing system. When
anybody needed information he went to that central file. But today, with the copying
of documents made so easy, many a government executive prefers to maintain files in
his own office."

Computer Equipments

The computer
was born not for
entertainment or email
but out of a need to
solve a serious number-
crunching crisis. By
1880 the U.S.
population had grown
so large that it took
more than seven years
to tabulate the U.S.
Census results. The
government sought a
faster way to get the
job done, giving rise to
punch-card based computers that took up entire rooms. Today, we carry more
computing power on our smartphones than was available in these early models. The
following brief history of computing is a timeline of how computers evolved from their
humble beginnings to the machines of today that surf the Internet, play games and
stream multimedia in addition to crunching numbers.

1822: English mathematician Charles Babbage conceives of a steam-driven

calculating machine that would be able to compute tables of numbers. The
project, funded by the English government, is a failure. More than a century
later, however, the world’s first computer was actually built.

1890: Herman Hollerith designs a punch card system to calculate the 1880
census, accomplishing the task in just three years and saving the government $5
million. He establishes a company that would ultimately become IBM (IBM was
founded in 1911).

1937: J.V. Atanasoff, a professor of physics and mathematics at Iowa State

University, attempts to build the first computer without gears, cams, belts or
shafts.

50
1941: Atanasoff and his graduate student, Clifford Berry, design a computer that
can solve 29 equations simultaneously. This marks the First time a computer is
able to store information on its main memory.

1943-1944: Two University of Pennsylvania professors—John Mauchly and J.

Presper Eckert—build the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
(ENIAC). Considered the grandfather of digital computers, it fills a 20 foot by 40
foot room and has 18,000 vacuum tubes.

1946: Mauchly and Presper leave the University of Pennsylvania and receive
funding from the Census Bureau to build the UNIVAC, the first commercial
computer for business and government applications.

1953: Grace Hopper develops the first computer language, which eventually
becomes known as COBOL. Inventor Thomas Johnson Watson, Jr., son of IBM
CEO Thomas Johnson Watson, Sr., conceives theIBM 701 EDPM to help the United
Nations keep tabs on Korea during the war.

1954: The FORTRAN programming language is born.

1958: Jack Kilby and Robert Noyce unveil the integrated circuit, known as the
computer chip.

1964: Douglas Engelbart shows a prototype of the modern computer, with

a mouse and a graphical user interface (GUI). This marks the evolution of the
computer from a specialized machine for scientists and mathematicians to
technology that is more accessible to the general public.

1970: The newly formed Intel unveils the Intel 1103, the first Dynamic Access
Memory (DRAM) chip.

1971: Alan Shugart leads a team of IBM engineers who invent the “floppy disk,”
allowing data to be shared among computers.

1973: Robert Metcalfe, a member of the research staff for Xerox,

develops Ethernet for connecting multiple computers and other hardware.

1974-1977: A number of personal computers hit the market, including Scelbi &
Mark-8 Altair, IBM 5100, RadioShack’s TRS-80—affectionately known as the “Trash
80,” and the Commodore PET.

1975: The IBM 5100 becomes the first commercially available portable computer.

1976: Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak start Apple Computers on April Fool’s Day
and roll out the Apple I, the first computer with a single-circuit board.

51
1977: Radio Shack's initial production run of theTRS-80 was just 3,000. It sold like
crazy. For the first time, non-geeks could write programs and make a computer
do what they wished.

1977: Jobs and Wozniak incorporate Apple and show the Apple II at the first
West Coast Computer Faire. It offers color graphics and incorporates an audio
cassette drive for storage.

1978: Accountants rejoice at the introduction of VisiCalc, the first computerized

spreadsheet program.

1979: Word processing becomes a reality as MicroPro International releases

WordStar.

1981: The first IBM personal computer, code named “Acorn,” is introduced. It
uses Microsoft’s MS-DOS operating system. It has an Intel chip, two floppy disks
and an optional color monitor. Sears & Roebuck and Computerland sell the
machines, marking the first time a computer is available through outside
distributors. It also popularizes the term PC.

1983: Apple’s Lisa is the first personal computer with a GUI. It also features a drop-
down menu and icons. It flops but eventually evolves into the Macintosh. The
Gavilan SC is the first portable computer with the familiar flip form factor and the
first to be marketed as a “laptop.”

1985: Microsoft announces Windows, its response to Apple’s GUI. Commodore

unveils the Amiga 1000, which features advanced audio and video capabilities.

1985: The first dot-com domain name is registered on March 15, years before the
World Wide Web would mark the formal beginning of Internet. The Symbolics
Computer Company, a small Massachusetts computer manufacturer, registers
Symbolics.com. More than two years later, only 100 dot-coms had been
registered.

1986: Compaq brings the Deskpro 386 to market. It’s 32-bit architecture provides
as speed comparable to mainframes.

1990: Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN, the high-energy physics laboratory

in Geneva, develops HyperText Markup Language (HTML), giving rise to the
World Wide Web.

1993: The Pentium microprocessor advances the use of graphics and music on
PCs.

1994: PCs become gaming machines as Command & Conquer, Alone in the
Dark 2, Theme Park, Magic Carpet, Descent andLittle Big Adventure are among
the games to hit the market.

52
 1997: Microsoft invests $150 million in Apple, which was struggling at the time,
ending Apple’s court case against Microsoft in which it alleges that Microsoft
copied the “look and feel” of its operating system.

1999: The term Wi-Fi becomes part of the computing language and users begin
connecting to the Internet without wires.

2000: Sony releases the PlayStation 2.

2001: Apple unveils the Mac OS X operating system, which provides protected
memory architecture and pre-emptive multi-tasking, among other benefits. Not
to be outdone, Microsoft rolls out Windows XP, which has a significantly
redesigned GUI.

2003: The first 64-bit processor, AMD’s Athlon 64, becomes available to the
consumer market.

2004: Mozilla’s Firefox 1.0 challenges Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, the dominant
web browers.

2006: Apple introduces the MacBook Pro, its first Intel-based, dual-core mobile
computer, as well as an Intel-based iMac. Nintendo’s Wiihits the market.

2007: The iPhone brings many computer functions to the smartphone.

2009: Microsoft launches Windows 7, which offers the ability to pin applications to
the taskbar and advances in touch and handwriting recognition, among other
features.

2010: Apple unveils the iPad, changing the way consumers view media and
jumpstarting the dormant tablet computer segment.

Fax and Scanner Equipment

Sometimes called telecopying or telefax, is the telephonic transmission of

scanned printed material (both text and images), normally to a telephone number
connected to a printer or other output
device. The original document is scanned
with a fax machine (or a Telecopier),
which processes the contents (text or
images) as a single fixed graphic image,
converting it into a bitmap, and then
transmitting it through the telephone
system. The receiving fax machine
reconverts the coded image, printing a
paper copy. For many decades before
digital technology became widespread

53
the scanned data was transmitted as analog.

Although businesses usually maintain some kind of fax capability, the technology
has faced increasing competition from Internet-based alternatives. Fax machines still
retain some advantages, particularly in the transmission of sensitive material which, if
sent over the Internet unencrypted, may be vulnerable to interception, without the
need for telephone tapping. In some countries, because electronic signatures on
contracts are not recognized by law while faxed contracts with copies of signatures
are, fax machines enjoy continuing support in business.

The fax machine was once a staple of business communications. You could
almost instantly send documents, contracts, and information over the phone lines,
anywhere in the world. Despite the rise of email and easy file transfer, though, faxing
has not disappeared completely. In some cases, sending a fax is actually required.
While you may no longer have an official "fax machine" at your disposal, we can show
you a few companies that provide computer-based fax service for little or no cost.

Scanners

A scanner is a device that captures images from photographic prints, posters,

magazine pages, and similar sources for computer editing and display. Scanners come
in hand-held, feed-in, and flatbed types and for scanning black-and-white only, or
color. Very high resolution scanners are used for scanning for high-resolution printing,
but lower resolution scanners are adequate for capturing images for computer display.
Scanners usually come with software, such as Adobe's Photoshop product, that lets you
resize and otherwise modify a captured image. Scanners usually attach to your
personal computer with a Small Computer System Interface (SCSI ).

When a document is scanned, it is converted into a digital format. This creates

an electronic version of the document that can be viewed and edited on a computer.
Most scanners are flatbed devices, which mean they have a flat scanning surface. This
is ideal for photographs, magazines, and various documents. Most flatbed scanners
have a cover that lifts up so that books and other bulky objects can also be scanned.
Another type of scanner is a sheet-fed scanner, which can only accept paper
documents. While sheet-fed scanners cannot scan books, some models include an
automatic document feeder, or ADF,
which allows multiple pages to be
scanned in sequence.

Scanners work in conjunction

with computer software programs,
which import data from the scanner.
Most scanners include basic
scanning software that allows the
user to configure, initiate, and import
scans. Scanning plug-ins can also be
installed, which allow various
software programs to import scanned

54
images directly. For example, if a scanner plug-in is installed for Adobe Photoshop, a
user can create new images in Photoshop directly from the connected scanner.

While Photoshop can edit scanned images, some programs like Acrobat and
OmniPage can actually recognize scanned text. This technology is called optical
character recognition, or OCR. Scanning software that includes OCR can turn a
scanned text document into a digital text file that can be opened and edited by
a word processor. Some OCR programs even capture page and text formatting,
making it possible to create electronic copies of physical documents.

Office supplies

They are all the supplies regularly

used in offices by businesses and other
organizations. It includes small,
expendable, daily use items such
as paper clips, post-it notes,
and staples, small machines such
as whole
punches, binders, staplers and
laminators, writing utensils and paper,
but also encompasses higher-cost
equipment like computers, printers, fax
machines, photocopiers and cash registers, as well as office furniture such as
chairs, cubicles, filing cabinet, and armoire desks. Two very common medium-to-high-
cost office equipment items before the advent of suitably priced word processing
machines and PCs in the 1970s and 1980s were typewriters and adding machines.

Many businesses in the office supply industry have recently expanded into
related market for businesses like copy centers, which facilitate the creation and
printing of business collateral such as business cards and stationery, plus printing and
binding of high quality, high volume business and engineering documents

Central Exchange

In the era of the electrical

telegraph, post offices, railway stations, the
more important governmental centers
(ministries), stock exchanges, very few
nationally distributed newspapers, the
largest internationally important
corporations and wealthy individuals were
the principal users of such telegraphs.
Despite the fact that telephone devices
existed before the invention of the
telephone exchange, their success and
economical operation would have been
impossible on the same schema and

55
structure of the contemporary telegraph, as prior to the invention of the telephone
exchange switchboard, early telephones were hardwired to and communicated with
only a single other telephone (such as from an individual's home to the person's
business).

A telephone exchange is a telephone system located at service centers (central

offices) responsible for a small geographic area that provided the switching or
interconnection of two or more individual subscriber lines for calls made between them,
rather than requiring direct lines between subscriber stations. This made it possible for
subscribers to call each other at homes, businesses, or public spaces. These made
telephony an available and comfortable communication tool for everyday use, and it
gave the impetus for the creation of a whole new industrial sector. An exchange
consists of electronic components and in older systems also human operators that
interconnect (switch) telephone subscriber lines or virtual circuits of digital systems to
establish telephone calls between subscribers. In the public telecommunication
networks a telephone exchange is located in a central office (CO), typically a building
used to house the inside plant equipment of potentially several telephone exchanges,
each serving a certain geographical exchange area. Central office locations are often
identified in North America as a wire centers, designating a facility from which a
telephone obtains dial tone. For business and billing purposes, telephony carriers also
define rate centers, which in larger cities may be clusters of central offices, to define
specified geographical locations for determining distance measurements.

One of the first people to build a telephone exchange was Hungarian Tivadar
Puskás in 1877 while he was working for Thomas Edison. The first experimental telephone
exchange was based on the ideas of Puskás, and it was built by the Bell Telephone
Company in Boston in 1877. George W. Coy designed and built the first commercial
telephone exchange which opened in New Haven, Connecticut in January, 1878. The
switchboard was built from "carriage bolts, handles from teapot lids and bustle wire"
and could handle two simultaneous conversations. Charles Glidden is also credited with
establishing an exchange in Lowell, MA, with 50 subscribers in 1878.

Telephone Procedures

The Telephone plays a key role in communicating at work. Data, text, images, and
video as well as voice can be transmitted across the country or around de the world
using telephone channel. Office workers often need to share information with other
quickly and reliably. This information is often shares using telecommunications
technology. Telecommunications is the electronic transfer of data over a distance. This
data can be in the form of voice, video, text or images.

As technology changes, businesses are using new equipment and procedures to

improve communications. The integration of computer and telephone technologies is
called telephony. In a modern communications system, a computer may be used to
control and access telephone functions. Such a system may also allow users to access
computer functions by telephone. The common features of telephone systems are:

56
 Conference calls, at time it may be necessary to place calls that will have
three or more participants speaking at different locations. These calls are
known as conference calls. Conference calls may be handled in several
ways: with the user’s own equipment, operator-dialed service, or dial-in
advice.
Voice Mail Systems, is a messaging system that uses computers and
telephones to record, send, store, and retrieve voice messages. Voice
messaging systems are popular because they eliminate the problems of time
lost in playing “telephone tag”. Most voice mail systems operate 24 hours per
day. They are an important communications tool.
Videoconferencing, is communicating with people at two or more locations
using two-way voice and video data. A special conference room equipped
with microphones, television cameras, and screens is used to conduct
meetings in which data, text, voice, and documents may be exchanged.
Video conferences, sometimes called Web Conferences, may also be
conducted by computer. In a web conference, people communicate using
private computer networks or the Internet.

Listening and Speaking

When you handle telephone calls at work, you are representing your company.
To the individual who is calling, you are the company. To create a positive image, you
should develop good communication skills. Your voice, pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary, as well as your attitude, contribute to the impression you make when using
the telephone.

Your voice, when you talk with others in person, you make them feel welcome
by smiling and perhaps by shaking hands. When you talk by telephone, however, all
you have to convey interest and courtesy is your voice. Elements of your voice that you
must pay attention to include, tone, pace, and volume. The tone of your voice refers to
the changes in pitch used to emphasize words and to get your meaning across to the
listener. Your voice and speaking skills are put to the test when you speak on the
telephone. Speaking skills such as word pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary
usage affect the impression you give over the phone. Although you may have a
pleasant tone, a good pace, and a well-modulated voice, communication is difficult if
the person you are speaking with cannot understand your words.

 Pronunciation, correct pronunciation of words is essential for

understanding. Proper enunciation is also important. When you
enunciate effectively you pronounce words clearly and distinctly. If you
find that you have trouble communicating because of an accent, several
strategies can help you succeed:
- Pronounce words correctly and enunciate clearly
- Speak slowly, but no so slowly that you insult or annoy the caller
- Avoid long words, complicated phrases, or long sentences
- If you are unsure of any word’s pronunciation, look it up in the
dictionary.
 Grammar, although some rule of grammar is relaxed for spoken

57
 communications, you should follow basic grammar standards. Avoid use
of slang or regional expressions that may not be widely known or
understood, especially if the call is an international one.
 Vocabulary, you can learn new terms that relate to your position or your
company. You can also learn words that will help you express your
feelings, ideas, and needs. Avoid using trendy, slang expression in formal
business communications.

Handling incoming telephone calls requires skill in using proper telephone

technique and effective procedures. When answering the telephone, you usually do
not know who is calling or what the caller wants. You should know how to handle a
variety of situations and take care of caller requests, needs, and problems.

 Answer
promptly;
answer all
incoming calls
promptly and
pleasantly. If
possible,
answer the
telephone
before the
third ring. You
must be ready
to take notes
or a message.
 Identify yourself, if you are the person to whom all incoming calls are
routed, you should identify first the company, then, yourself.
Improper “Hello” or “Yes”
“Hello, hold please”
Proper “Good morning, International Hotel, Pat Lopez”
“Reservation Department, Luis Perez”.

 Assist the caller, your job is to help the caller as efficiently. Never assume
that you know what the caller wants. Instead, listen attentively to the caller’s
questions and comments. If you know that will take several minutes to find
the information needed for the call, do not keep the callers waiting.
 Conclude the call, as a general rule, the person who places a call is the
one who should end the call and hang up first. Use the caller’s name as you
end the conversation. For example, “Yes, Mrs. O’Toole, I will be sure to mail
you a copy of your voucher”

Communicating Orally

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is the activity of

conveying information through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as
by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behavior. It is the meaningful exchange of

58
information between two or more living creatures.
Communicating with others involves three primary steps:

Thought: First, information exists in the mind of the sender. This can be a concept,
idea, information, or feelings.
Encoding: Next, a message is sent to a receiver in words or other symbols.
Decoding: Lastly, the receiver
translates the words or
symbols into a concept or
information that a person can
understand.

Oral communication, while

primarily referring to spoken verbal
communication, can also employ
visual aids and non-verbal elements
to support the conveyance of
meaning. Oral communication
includes speeches, presentations,
discussions, and aspects of
interpersonal communication. As a type of face-to-face communication, body
language and choice tonality play a significant role, and may have a greater impact
upon the listener than informational content. This type of communication also garners
immediate feedback.

There are a variety of verbal and non-verbal forms of communication. These

include body language, eye contact, sign language, haptic communication,
and chronemics. Other examples are media content such as pictures, graphics, sound,
and writing. The Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines the
communication to include the display of text, Braille, tactile communication, large print,
accessible multimedia, as well as written and plain language, human-
reader, augmentative and alternative modes, means and formats of communication,
including accessible information and communication technology. Feedback is a
critical component of effective communication.

Barriers to effective communication can retard or distort the message and

intention of the message being conveyed which may result in failure of the
communication process or an effect that is undesirable. These include filtering, selective
perception, information overload, emotions, language, silence, communication
apprehension, gender differences and political correctness. This also includes a lack of
expressing "knowledge-appropriate" communication, which occurs when a person uses
ambiguous or complex legal words, medical jargon, or descriptions of a situation or
environment that is not understood by the recipient.

Physical barriers. Physical barriers are often due to the nature of the
environment. An example of this is the natural barrier which exists if staff is
located in different buildings or on different sites. Likewise, poor or outdated
equipment, particularly the failure of management to introduce new

59
technology, may also cause problems. Staff shortages are another factor which
frequently causes communication difficulties for an organization. While
distractions like background noise, poor lighting or an environment which is too
hot or cold can all affect people's morale and concentration, which in turn
interfere with effective communication.

System design. System design

faults refer to problems with the structures
or systems in place in an organization.
Examples might include an organizational
structure which is unclear and therefore
makes it confusing to know whom to
communicate with. Other examples
could be inefficient or inappropriate
information systems, a lack of supervision
or training, and a lack of clarity in roles
and responsibilities which can lead to
staff being uncertain about what is
expected of them.

Attitudinal barriers. Attitudinal barriers come about as a result of problems with

staff in an organization. These may be brought about, for example, by such
factors as poor management, lack of consultation with employees, personality
conflicts which can result in people delaying or refusing to communicate, the
personal attitudes of individual employees which may be due to lack of
motivation or dissatisfaction at work, brought about by insufficient training to
enable them to carry out particular tasks, or just resistance to change due to
entrenched attitudes and ideas.

Ambiguity of words/phrases. Words sounding the same but having different

meaning can convey a different meaning altogether. Hence the communicator
must ensure that the receiver receives the same meaning. It is better if such
words are avoided by using alternatives whenever possible.

Individual linguistic ability. The use of jargon, difficult or inappropriate words in

communication can prevent the recipients from understanding the message.
Poorly explained or misunderstood messages can also result in confusion.
However, research in communication has shown that confusion can lend
legitimacy to research when persuasion fails.

Physiological barriers. These may result from individuals' personal discomfort,

caused—for example—by ill health, poor eyesight or hearing difficulties.

Presentation of information. Presentation of information is important to aid

understanding. Simply put, the communicator must consider the audience
before making the presentation itself and in cases where it is not possible the
presenter can at least try to simplify his/her vocabulary so that the majority can
understand.

60
Listening and Speaking

You notice that many conversations are under way. Yu cannot hear what is
being said because voices are modulated so that only persons nearby hear the actual
words. You would undoubtedly observe persons talking by telephone and other in
conference with other people. In every instance, listeners are taking part in the
communication process. You will need to listen at work countless times. When you
listen effectively, you will be able to:

Follow through on oral instructions correctly

Consider the additional information as you continue your work and make
decisions
Use time productively.

Effective communication occurs when a desired effect is the result of intentional

or unintentional information sharing, which is interpreted between multiple entities and
acted on in a desired way. This effect also ensures the messages are not distorted
during the communication process. Effective communication should generate the
desired effect and maintain the effect, with the potential to increase the effect of the
message. Therefore, effective communication serves the purpose for which it was
planned or designed. Possible purposes might be to elicit change, generate action,
create understanding, inform or communicate a certain idea or point of view. When
the desired effect is not achieved, factors such as barriers to communication are
explored, with the intention being to discover how the communication has been
ineffective.

Importance of Listening

Listening is the ability to accurately receive and interpret messages in the

communication process. Listening is key to all effective communication, without the
ability to listen effectively messages are easily misunderstood – communication breaks
down and the sender of the message can easily become frustrated or irritated.

Listening is so important that many top employers provide listening skills training
for their employees. This is not surprising when you consider that good listening skills can
lead to: better customer satisfaction, greater productivity with fewer mistakes,
increased sharing of information that in turn can lead to more creative and innovative
work. Many successful leaders and entrepreneurs credit their success to effective
listening skills. Richard Branson frequently quotes listening as one of the main factors
behind the success of Virgin. Effective listening is a skill that underpins all positive human
relationships, spend some time thinking about and developing your listening skills – they
are the building blocks of success.

Listening is not the same as Hearing. Hearing refers to the sounds that you hear,
whereas listening requires more than that: it requires focus. Listening means paying
attention not only to the story, but how it is told, the use of language and voice, and
how the other person uses his or her body. In other words, it means being aware of

61
both verbal and non-verbal messages. Your ability to listen effectively depends on the
degree to which you perceive and understand these messages.

Adults spend an average of 70% of their time engaged in some sort of

communication, of this an average of 45% is spent listening compared to 30% speaking,
16% reading and 9% writing.

Based on the research of: Adler, R., Rosenfeld, L. and Proctor, R. (2001)
Interplay: the process of interpersonal communicating (8th edn), Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt.

The 10 Principles of Listening

A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left
unsaid or only partially said. Effective listening involves observing body language and
noticing inconsistencies between verbal and non-verbal messages.

Stop Talking “If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have
two tongues and one ear.” Mark Twain. Don't talk, listen. When somebody else
is talking listen to what they are saying, do not interrupt, talk over them or finish
their sentences for them. Stop, just listen. When the other person has finished
talking you may need to clarify to ensure you have received their message
accurately.

Prepare Yourself to Listen. Relax. Focus on the speaker. Put other things out of
mind. The human mind is easily distracted by other thoughts – what’s for lunch,
what time do I need to leave to catch my train, is it going to rain – try to put
other thoughts out of mind and concentrate on the messages that are being
communicated.

62
 Put the Speaker at Ease. Help the speaker to feel free to speak. Remember
their needs and concerns. Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage
them to continue. Maintain eye contact but don’t stare – show you are listening
and understanding what is
being said.

Remove Distractions. Focus on

what is being said: don’t
doodle, shuffle papers, look
out the window, and pick
your fingernails or similar.
Avoid unnecessary
interruptions. These
behaviours disrupt the
listening process and send
messages to the speaker that
you are bored or distracted.

Empathize. Try to understand the other person’s point of view. Look at issues
from their perspective. Let go of preconceived ideas. By having an open mind
we can more fully empathize with the speaker. If the speaker says something
that you disagree with then wait and construct an argument to counter what is
said but keep an open mind to the views and opinions of others.

Be Patient. A pause, even a long pause, does not necessarily mean that the
speaker has finished. Be patient and let the speaker continue in their own time,
sometimes it takes time to formulate what to say and how to say it. Never
interrupt or finish a sentence for someone.

Avoid Personal Prejudice. Try to be impartial. Don't become irritated and don't
let the person’s habits or mannerisms distract you from what they are really
saying. Everybody has a different way of speaking - some people are for
example more nervous or shy than others, some have regional accents or make
excessive arm movements, some people like to pace whilst talking - others like
to sit still. Focus on what is being said and try to ignore styles of delivery.

Listen to the Tone. Volume and tone both add to what someone is saying. A
good speaker will use both volume and tone to their advantage to keep an
audience attentive; everybody will use pitch, tone and volume of voice in
certain situations – let these help you to understand the emphasis of what is
being said.

Listen for Ideas – Not Just Words. You need to get the whole picture, not just
isolated bits and pieces. Maybe one of the most difficult aspects of listening is
the ability to link together pieces of information to reveal the ideas of others.
With proper concentration, letting go of distractions, and focus this becomes
easier.

63
 Wait and Watch for Non-Verbal Communication. Gestures, facial expressions,
and eye-movements can all be important. We don’t just listen with our ears but
also with our eyes – watch and pick up the additional information being
transmitted via non-verbal communication.

Speaking Effectively

Our voice can reveal as much about your

personal history as your appearance.
The sound of a voice and the content of speech
can provide clues to an individual's emotional state
and a dialect can indicate their geographic roots.
The voice is unique to the person to whom it
belongs. For instance, if self-esteem is low, it may be
reflected by hesitancy in the voice, a shy person
may have a quiet voice, but someone who is
confident in themselves will be more likely to have
command of their voice and clarity of speech.

Aspects of Effective Speaking

Effective speaking has nothing to do with the

outdated concept of 'elocution' where everyone
was encouraged to speak in the same 'correct' manner. Rather, effective speaking
concerns being able to speak in a public context with confidence and clarity, whilst at
the same time reflecting one's own personality. Aspects of effective speaking include:

Accents.
Finding your voice.
The effect of breath on voice and speech.
Vocal production.

The voice is responsive to emotions and sometimes gets 'blocked', which can
prevent or hinder the expression of a range of feelings. However, it is possible to use
physical exercise to help produce a more flexible voice, in the same way that people
who use vocal sounds professionally take lessons, to ensure that their voices are kept in
a versatile condition and ready to vocalize a range of sounds.

When under stress an individual's breathing pattern will change. When your
muscles are tense you cannot use your lungs to their full capacity, when a person is
frightened or nervous, a common symptom is tension in the neck and shoulders. This
occurs because, when under pressure, over-breathing tends to occur. Plenty of air is
inhaled, but with fast breathing there is not enough time to exhale and relax.

64
Good breathing is essential for two reasons:

1. By using full lung capacity the breath will support the voice and the voice will
become richer, fuller and stronger. This will benefit individuals who have a small
voice and who worry that they cannot be heard when speaking to a group of
people. Volume is controlled in the abdomen not in the throat, so breathing to full
strength will allow for greater control of the voice.

2. Breathing deeply and rhythmically has a calming and therapeutic effect as it

releases tension and promotes relaxation. Individuals who are relaxed are more
balanced, receptive and confident. It is no coincidence that several religions use
rhythmic breathing techniques such as meditation, yoga and silent contemplation,
and vocal release in the form of chants, mantras or hymn singing as aids to their
devotions. By easing physical tension, mental stress decreases and the mind is
effectively freed to follow creative pursuits.

The following three core elements of vocal production need to be understood for
anyone wishing to become an effective speaker:

Volume. This is not a question of treating the voice like the volume control on the
TV remote. Some people have naturally soft voices and physically cannot
bellow. Additionally, if the voice is raised too much, tonal quality is lost. Instead
of raising the voice it should be 'projected out'. Support the voice with lots of
breath - the further you want to project the voice out, the more breath you
need. When talking to a group or meeting, it is important to never aim your talk
to the front row or just to the people nearest you, but to consciously project what
you have to say to those furthest away. By developing a strong voice, as
opposed to a loud voice, you will be seen as someone positive.

Clarity. Some people tend to speak through clenched teeth and with little
movement of their lips. It is this inability to open mouths and failure to make
speech sounds with precision that is the root cause of inaudibility. The sound is
locked into the mouth and not let out. To have good articulation it is important
to unclench the jaw, open the mouth and give full benefit to each sound you
make, paying particular attention to the ends of words. This will also help your
audience as a certain amount of lip-reading will be possible.

Variety. To make speech effective and interesting, certain techniques can be

applied. However, it is important not to sound false or as if you are giving a
performance. Whilst words convey meaning, how they are said reflects feelings
and emotions. Vocal variety can be achieved by variations in:

 Pace: This is the speed at which you talk. If speech is too fast then the
listeners will not have time to assimilate what is being said. Nevertheless, it is a
good idea to vary the pace - quickening up at times and then slowing down
– this will help to maintain interest.
 Volume: By raising or lowering volume occasionally, you can create
emphasis. If you drop your voice to almost a whisper (as long as it is

65
 projected) for a sentence or two, it will make your audience suddenly alert,
be careful not to overuse this technique.
 Pitch - Inflection - Emphasis: When speaking in public, try to convey the
information with as much vocal energy and enthusiasm as possible. This does
not mean your voice has to swoop and dive all over the place in an
uncontrolled manner. Try to make the talk interesting and remember that
when you are nervous or even excited, vocal chords tense and shorten
causing the voice to get higher. Emphasize certain words and phrases within
the talk to convey their importance and help to add variety.
 Pause: Pauses are powerful. They can be used for effect to highlight the
preceding statement or to gain attention before an important message.
Pauses mean silence for a few seconds. Listeners interpret meaning during
pauses so have the courage to stay silent for up to five seconds – dramatic
pauses like this convey authority and confidence.

Proper Language and Tone

Office workers should use standard language and correct grammar at work.
Use of standard language helps other understand spoken massages. Increasingly,
workers talk with others from around the world. Many people have learned English as a
second language. For these people, using standard language helps ensure that your
message will be understood.

Colloquialisms are informal words and phrases. These words are used among
people who know each other well or among people from a specific
geographic area. Some colloquialisms are commonly used at work among
employees who know each other well and tend to speak informally.

Slang is informal language. Discovering the meaning of slang words is difficult

for those outside the group in which such words are popular. Slang
expressions are often short-lived. Most of the time, slang expressions are
inappropriate when communication with others at work.

Nonverbal communication describes the process of conveying meaning in the

form of non-word messages.

Some forms of non verbal communication include chronemics, gesture, body

language or posture, facial expression and eye contact, object communication such
as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols, infographics, and tone of voice, as well as
through an aggregate of the above. Speech also contains nonverbal elements known
as paralanguage. These include voice lesson quality, emotion and speaking style as
well as prosodic features such as rhythm, intonation and stress. Research has shown that
up to 55% of human communication may occur through non verbal facial expressions,
and a further 38% through paralanguage. Likewise, written texts include nonverbal
elements such as handwriting style, spatial arrangement of words and the use
of emoticons to convey emotional expressions in pictorial form.

66
Customer Services

Customer service is the provision of service to customers before, during and after
a purchase. “Customer service is a series of activities designed to enhance the level of
customer satisfaction – that is, the feeling that a product or service has met the
customer expectation."

The importance of customer service may vary by product or service, industry and
customer. The perception of success of such interactions will be dependent on
employees "who can adjust themselves to the personality of the guest". From the point
of view of an overall sales process engineering effort, customer service plays an
important role in an organization's ability to generate income and revenue. From that
perspective, customer service should be included as part of an overall approach to
systematic improvement. A customer service experience can change the entire
perception a customer has of the organization.

The key to good customer service is to treat the customer as you would wish to
be treated if the tables were turned. Everybody is different and customers will have
different aspirations, motivations and reasons for choosing your company. By

67
understanding the needs of your customers you can achieve a higher level of customer
satisfaction, continued business and a more enjoyable working experience. If you work
in an area where tipping is common you will likely do better financially too.

A happy, satisfied customer is likely to return and/or tell others about the good
experiences that they had when dealing with your company – word of mouth
recommendations from friends and colleagues are very valuable.

Smile. This is the most simple

and often the most powerful tip for
customer service (and most other
interpersonal interactions). Smiles are
contagious – usually when you smile at
somebody they’ll smile back at you. Do
not pretend to smile, or produce a false
smile since these are easy to spot and
send the wrong messages. Instead relax,
gain eye-contact and smile naturally. This
will help the customer or client to feel at
ease and welcomed, and you’ll come
across as friendly and approachable, setting the scene for a more positive
interaction. If you are talking to somebody on the telephone then you can
still smile – your voice sounds different when you smile and are happy. Clients
and customers are more likely to want to talk to a cheerful person with an
enthusiastic personality and by smiling while you talk you can help to project
this.

Make the Customer Feel Welcome. Use an appropriate greeting to make

your customer feel welcome. Customers nearly always have a choice of
which businesses and organizations they use, they didn’t have to pick yours
and they don’t have to pick yours in the future. Start positively with a warm,
sincere welcome; but don’t overdo it! “Good Morning”, “Welcome”, “Thanks
for stopping by” are all simple introductions and you can follow up with “How
can I help”, “Are you looking for something in particular today” or some other
appropriate comment to indicate that you are there to help and that you
are happy to help. Continue communicating as appropriate, relax and be
as natural as possible – if necessary steer the conversation around the
product or service you want to sell. You don't want to come across as being
pushy or too complacent so try to be natural and avoid sounding as if you
are reciting a script. Never complain to a customer about your organisation,
your day, how busy you are the management, your colleagues or anything
else that may lead the customer to develop negative feelings.

Listen. You are unlikely to be able to help all your customers effectively if you
don’t listen to their needs. By not listening you can become very frustrating to
the customer and may lose a sale or repeat visit. Listen to the customer’s
needs, empathize and find the best solutions.

68
Be True to Your Word. Only ever offer a customer or client something that you
are sure you can give them. It is better not to mention a delivery date and
then deliver tomorrow than it is to say you’ll deliver tomorrow and then don’t.
It is better to tell your hotel guests that the fire alarm system is being tested in
the morning than let them find out for themselves. Stick to deadlines, make
sure you turn up promptly for any appointments and never make promises
you cannot keep. If situations change then let the customer know as soon as
possible.

Be Memorable – For the

Right Reasons. We tend to remember
positive and negative experiences more
vividly than average day-to-day ones.
Try to make every customer’s experience
a positive one that they’ll remember and
talk to others about. Be helpful, be
courteous and polite – give a little extra if
possible, even if it is just some advice or
extra information about the product or
service they are buying or interested in
buying. If appropriate, and you need to
be careful here, try telling a joke or
introducing an element of humour; if successful you will add to the positive
experience of the customer.

Learn Your Business – Be An Expert. Make sure that you know more about
your business than the customer does, be able to answer questions about
your business or organisation even if they are not related to your normal field
of work. If you don’t know the answer to a question then say so, NEVER lie or
make up an answer; if possible find somebody who does know the answer.
Don’t be afraid to ask the customer/client questions that will give you a
better understanding of their needs.

69
4
Office Support Skills

70
Business Correspondence

Office workers often compose business letters and memos or e-mail messages.
Employees may prepare letters or memos for or with coworkers as well as for
themselves. The ability to compose and prepare effective business messages will make
you a more valuable employee. Business documents should be clear, concise,
courteous, complete and correct. These traits are known as the five C’s of business
writing. They are your guidelines to preparing business documents. You can quickly the
effectiveness of your document by considering these factors.

Preparing Effectiveness Documents

Business communication is communication that promotes a product, service, or

organization; relays information within a business; or functions as an official statement
from a company.

Effective business communication starts by asking the right questions to

understand the customer’s needs and wants to be able to recommend a product or
service customized to the customer. Writing effectively allows you to express your ideas
clearly and coherently, and it is an essential part of corresponding with others in the
workforce. In the professional world, being able to write well is a key to being successful
in nearly every field.

Whether you like it or not, most jobs require writing—e-mails, letters, memos,
reports, analyses, project summaries, product descriptions, and the list goes on. The
ability to write well is essential in obtaining a job (think résumés and cover letters), in
performing the job, and in being promoted. Those who do not write well and who make
obvious grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors are at a disadvantage in the
corporate world. To preserve your professional image, make sure that your writing is as
effective as possible by following these guidelines:

Know the Purpose and Scope of Your Document

Before you begin writing; know the purpose for which you are writing and what
you want your document to accomplish. As you write, keep your primary
objective in mind (you could even type it at the top of your document and refer
to it throughout the writing process, if needed; you can delete it when you are
finished with the initial draft), and never stray from it. However, if in the course of
your writing you discover that your focus has changed, that’s okay. Simply make
sure to revise your writing as needed to reflect your new purpose in order to
maintain a clear, coherent document. Tell readers early on how they will benefit
from reading your document—what they will be able to accomplish, what
information they will be able to gain, what product or service they will be able to
purchase that will make their lives better or easier, or in what other way they will
be able to benefit from reading your document.

Identify (and Write to) Your Audience

Knowing to whom you are writing will help you determine the tone and content

71
of your document. If you’re not exactly sure who your audience is, ask yourself
who you are writing the document for or who is most likely to benefit from what
you are writing. If you are writing with the intent of selling a product or service to
someone or promoting a cause, you may want to ask yourself: What age are my
intended readers? What’s their background? Where do they live? What stage of
life are they in? What are their interests? What is important to them? These and
similar questions will help you to target and write to your audience. As you write,
do be careful of technical and other jargon, acronyms, and abbreviations.
Unless you are writing for a very specialized field, it is best to avoid jargon and to
spell out acronyms and abbreviations on their first use. No matter your audience,
you generally don’t need to be overly stuffy or formal; a normal, conversational
tone will usually do the job.

Understand the Needs of Your Reader

Once you have identified your audience, try to anticipate the information that
your reader will want or need, and identify and include that information in your
document as you write. Also try to address any potential arguments or concerns
readers might have, and address those, as well.

Organize Your Document

Follow the standard format for the type of document you are writing, whether it
be a memo, letter, e-mail, résumé, report, advertisement, project summary, or
other communication. For longer documents, start with an outline, and work
from there. The beauty of word processors is that you can easily restructure your
ideas later if necessary. Creating an outline helps you determine early on if you
are including all of the information that you need to. To help you be as complete
as you need to be, ask yourself who, what, where, when, why, and how. “Who
am I writing to?” “What is my purpose?” And so on. Though you will not always
need to answer all of these questions in your documents, you will probably want
to include information to answer most of them most of the time.
In your introduction, tell the reader the purpose of your document and what you
want him or her to do. In subsequent paragraphs, group related information
together, and generally include only one key point in each paragraph or
section. When listing information in paragraph format, use first, second, third, and
so forth, or use a bulleted list, in order to help your reader easily follow the
organization of your document.
For longer works, also use headings and subheadings to indicate the sections of
your document. Such visible structure allows readers to find the information that
they need quickly and easily.
In your conclusion, restate the main purpose of your document, and tell the
reader what you want her or him to do with the information you are providing,
whether that be to buy a product or service, change or adopt a company
policy, give you a promotion, etc.

Identify the Benefits to the Reader

Especially for advertising, sales copy, and other documents meant to persuade,
identify and emphasize the benefits of a product, service, or policy, for example,
rather than just its features.

72
Drafting and Revising Documents

Your first draft of a document will probably not be your final or finishes version. It
is considered a rough draft. Your goal in preparing the rough draft is to record your
ideas. Do not try to make each sentence perfect. You will refine your document
during the editing and proofreading stages. To help focus your writing as you develop
your document, ask yourself these:

What is your purpose in writing?

What is your message?
Who and where is your audience?
What response do you want from the reader?

Many business documents are changed one or more times between the rough
draft and the final document. This process of making changes to refine the document
is known as editing or revising. The primary purpose of editing is to make certain the
message is accurate and says what the writer intends. In the editing stage of preparing
your document, focus on the details of your writing. Read your draft carefully and
consider the five C’s of effective documents. Editing is your chance to polish your
writing by making changes in response to these questions:

Can you improve word choice?

Are your transitions smooth, flowing logically from one topic to another?
Should the order of your points be changed?
Are there inconsistencies in your writing that need to be corrected?

Editing and Proofreader’s Mark

To make editing changes that can be understood easily by others, writers often
use standard proofreaders’ mark. Once the changes are indentified and marked, you
can make the changes quickly using the editing features of your word processing
software. Proofreading is the reading of a galley proof or an electronic copy of a
publication to detect and correct production errors of text or art. Proofreaders are
expected to be consistently accurate by default because they occupy the last stage
of typographic production before publication.

73
Business Letters, Memos and E-mail

A business letter is a written message to a person(s) or an organization. Letters

are usually written to someone outside the company. As the writer of a business letter,
you are your company’s representative. Your letter helps the reader form an opinion
about your company. Letters provide a long-lasting record of your message. It can be
read many times and can serve different purposes. Reasons for writing business letters
include:

74
 Requesting information or an action
Giving information or fulfilling a request
Being courteous or maintaining goodwill
Explaining or stating a position or persuading the reader
Selling goods or services.

The primary purpose of a business letter is to convey a message. However, even

before the message is read, the reader makes a judgment about the letter and its
sender. An attractively presented letter on quality paper will encourage the recipient
to read the message with care. On the other hand, a carelessly presented letter on
smudged paper may fail to get close attention. A letter makes a good first impression if
it has the following characteristic;

The margins and spacing are pleasing to the eye

Each letter part is correctly place within the letter
Appropriate stationery is used
There are no obvious errors
The print is neat and clear
There are no smudges of fingerprints.

Business letters represent a form of communication within the business world that
follows a standard protocol. That is, those who receive business letters expect to see
them written using certain letter parts.

 Standard letter parts

Printed letterhead
Date
Letter Address
Salutation
Body
Complimentary close
Signature, printed name, and title

 Optional letter parts

Mailing notations
Attention line
Subject line
Enclosure notation
Separate cover notation
Copy notation
Postscript
Reference Initials

75
 There are four basic business letter formats.

Letter Format Features

Full Block All letter parts begin at the left margin.

Date, signature, and closing begin at the horizontal

Indented Paragraphs center of the page. All body paragraphs are
indented.
Modified
Block
Date, signature, and closing begin at the horizontal
Blocked Paragraphs center of the page. All body paragraphs begin at
the left margin.

All letter parts begin at the left margin. This format

Simplified includes a subject line but omits the salutation and
signature.

76
Types of Business Letters

Enquiry Letters. In the opening tell your supplier what kind of organization you
are; if applicable, state the references. You can ask for catalogues, price lists,
brochures, samples, patterns and demonstrations; point out any particular items
you are interested in. When asking for goods or services, be specific and state
exactly what you want. Quote the reference (catalogue, brochure,
advertisement). A company may write circular letters to several suppliers,
inviting offers to do a certain job or supply a certain item. The closing of an
enquiry is usually a simple »thank you«. You may mention that a prompt reply
would be appreciated or indicate further business.

Quotation Letters. In the quotation, the following subjects should be covered:

 Prices: say if the price includes the costs of transport, insurance and
 purchase tax , e.g. VAT (gross price) or none of them (net price);
 State if the price is firm or subject to change.
 Transport and insurance costs: state the terms exactly, so that the
 Customer knows which price was stated to him.
 Discounts: state the possible discounts – trade discounts to sellers in
 Similar trades, quantity discounts, cash discounts, loyalty discounts.
 Methods of payment: require or suggest the method of payment, e.g.
 Letter of credit, bill of exchange.
 Delivery date: confirm the proposed delivery date or suggest an
 Alternative date which you will be able to meet.

Order Letters. Orders are usually written on a company's official order form,
accompanied by a covering letter where the following points should be
mentioned:
 In the opening mention that an order is enclosed;
 Confirm the terms of payment;
 Confirm the agreed discounts;

77
  Confirm the delivery date;
 Advise the company on how you want the goods packed and sent;
 Close with a promise for further orders.

Complaint Letters. A letter must be used for large and more serious complaints
whereas a fax or an e-mail may suffice for minor ones. Write the complaint as
soon as you notice the mistake. The letter of complaint should include the
following items:
 State the mistake; it should be explained politely;
 If you think you know how the mistake was made, politely point this out to
your supplier
 If you know how the mistake could be corrected, let your supplier know.

Memos

A memo is an informal document. It is typically used to communicate with

people within an organization. A memo is more formally called a memorandum.
Memos are useful for giving the same information to several people. They can be used
to give instructions or explain procedures. A memo may be printed on memo
stationery. Plain paper with the company name and headings as part of the
document can also be used. Memo can be created using a memo template or wizard
available in word processing software. Each memo you write makes an impression on
the receiver. If the memo is prepared well, the reader forms a positive image of you as
an employee. When preparing a memo, follow the five C’s effective writing and use a
positive tone.

Headings

Body
Copy notation

Attachment notation
Initials

78
E-mail

It is message sent electronically. Local and wide area networks can provide e-
mail service to their users. Users who are connected to the Internet can send and
receive messages all over the world. Workers use e-mail for routine messages with
people inside and outside the company. E-mail is appropriate for short, informal
correspondence. Files containing more information may be attached to an e-mail. E-
mail is inexpensive, fast, and easy to use for workers at all levels in a company.

Repetitive Letters

Writing in the business office often involves preparing similar messages that are
used again and again. The same letters may be sent to hundreds of people. If you
prepare such documents, you may want to use form letters and features of your
software to speed the preparation. Standard text can be combined with other data to
form a finished document. The writer assembles the document by using custom text
(the person’s name and address) with selected standard paragraphs. Once the
document is assembled, it is printed and saved in the same manner as other
documents.

79
Business Envelopes

Most business letters are written to individuals outside the company. They require
an envelope for mailing. The receiver begins forming an opinion of the document
when he or she views the envelope. For this reason, the same care should be used in
preparing envelopes as in preparing letters. The letterhead stationery and the
envelope stationery should be the same quality and coulor. The print should be clear,
and the envelope should be free of smudges.

2 Inches

Mr.
4 Inches John Becker
BECKER INTERNATIONAL SERVICES
105 High Street
Columbus, OH 3838478

Commercial Documents

The commercial document or source document is essential to the bookkeeping

and accounting process. A source document describes all the basic facts of the
transaction such as the amount of the transaction, to which the transaction was made,
the purpose of the transaction, and the date of the transaction.

Here are some examples of common source documents:

o canceled check
o invoice
o cash register receipt
o computer-generated receipt
o credit memo for a customer refund
o deposit slip
o purchase order
o checks

The source document should be recorded in the appropriate accounting journal

as soon as possible after the transaction. After recording, all source documents should

80
be filed away in some sort of system where they can be retrieved if and when they are
needed.

Invoices, Purchases and Sales Orders

An invoice is a detailed bill left by vendors and outside suppliers for goods or
services rendered to a company. Typically, it lists the quantity of each item, prices,
billable hours, a service description, and a contact address for payment. While some
expenses may be paid out of a general fund or petty cash account, an invoice is
usually paid through an accounts payable department by the posted due date.

As a legal document, an
invoice can be used as evidence of
an incurred debt. The recipient of the
goods or services can challenge the
legitimacy of individual charges, but
the document itself is considered a
bona fide debt. Sometimes, a vendor
or serviceperson cannot collect on a
bill immediately, so the company will
send a bill at a later date for payment.
In other cases, the actual daily
expense of a service may be so low
that a company will simply wait until
the charges have accumulated to a
certain point, and send a bill to cover
all of the costs at once. Vending
machine attendants and bottled
water providers, for example, may only
send one invoice a month instead of
billing the company a few dollars a
day for supplies. The use of an invoice
as evidence of a legitimate debt can
sometimes be abused.

Purchase Order

A purchase order (PO) is a commercial document and first official offer issued by
a buyer to a seller, indicating types, quantities, and agreed prices for products or
services. Acceptance of a purchase order by a seller forms a contract between the
buyer and seller, so no contract exists until the purchase order is accepted. It is used to
control the purchasing of products and services from external suppliers. Companies use
purchase orders for several reasons:

81
 Purchase orders allow buyers
to clearly and explicitly
communicate their intentions
to sellers.
Sellers are protected in case
of a buyer's refusal to pay for
goods or services.
Purchase orders help a
purchasing agent to manage
incoming orders and pending
orders.
Purchase orders provide
economies in that they
streamline the purchasing
process to a standard
procedure.

Sales Order

The Sales Order, sometimes

abbreviated as SO, is an order issued
by a business to a customer. A sales order may be for products and/or services. A sales
order is an internal document of the company, meaning it is generated by the
company itself. A sales order should record the customer's originating purchase
order which is an external document. Rather than using the customer's purchase order
document, an internal sales order form
allows the internal audit control of
completeness to be monitored as a
sequential sales order number can be
used by the company for its sales order
documents. The customer's PO is the
originating document which triggers
the creation of the sales order. A sales
order, being an internal document,
can therefore contain many customer
purchase orders under it. In a
manufacturing environment, a sales
order can be converted into a work
order to show that work is about to
begin to manufacture, build or
engineer the products the customer
wants.

Requisition Order

Requisition Order or Purchase

Request is a precise document
generated by an internal or external organization to notify the purchasing department

82
of items it needs to order, their quantity, and the time frame that will be given in the
future. It may also contain the authorization to proceed with the purchase. It is also
called Purchase Order Request.

As part of an organization's internal financial controls, the accounting

department may institute a purchase requisition process to help manage requests for
purchases. Requests for the creation of purchase of goods and services are
documented and routed for approval
within the organization and then
delivered to the accounting group. A
purchase requisition is a request sent
to the purchasing department to
procure goods or services. It is
originated and approved by the
department requiring the goods or
services. Typically, it contains a
description and quantity of the goods
or services to be purchased, preferred
make, a required delivery date,
account number and the amount of
money that the purchasing
department is authorized to spend for
the goods or services. Often, the
names of suggested supply sources
are also included.

A purchase requisition is owned

by the originating department and
should not be changed by the
purchasing department without
obtaining approval from the originating department. This important distinction (e.g.
essential control) is not clearly defined in some of the more popular integrated
procurement software systems on the market today.

Receipts

A receipt is a written
acknowledgment that a specified
article or sum of money has been
received. A receipt records the
purchase of goods or service. It is
not the same as an invoice. A
receipt is a document which
shows proof of payment. It is used
to obtain refunds in retail establishments, to
prove payment in disputes arising between businesses, or between

83
individuals and businesses, or between individuals, and also to prove ownership in
disputed cases of possession. When you purchase anything, whether it is groceries,
clothing, or whatever, the standard practice is for the purchaser to receive a receipt
from the seller, or their representative, which is a written record of the transaction.

Check and Stud Checks

A written order instructing a bank to pay upon its presentation to the person
designated in it, or to the person possessing it, a certain sum of money from the
account of the person who draws it. A check must contain the phrase "pay to the
order of." A check differs from a draft in that a check is always drawn on a bank, while
a draft is an order for payment drawn on anyone, including a bank, a person, or a
trading account with a company.

A cheque (or check in American English) is a document that orders a payment

of money from a bank account. The person writing the cheque, the drawer, has
a transaction banking account (often called a current, cheque, chequing or checking
account) where their money is held. The drawer writes the various details including
the monetary amount, date, and a payee on the cheque, and signs it, ordering their
bank, known as the drawer, to pay that person or company the amount of money
stated.

The four main items on a cheque are

Drawer, the person or entity who makes the cheque
Payee, the recipient of the money
Drawee, the bank or other financial institution where the cheque can be
presented for payment
Amount, the currency amount.

For change or receive money from a check, people should prepared an

endorsement. The three types of check endorsements are blank, restrictive and

84
special. Blank endorsements contain only a signature. Restrictive endorsements have
an added restriction such as 'for deposit only'. Special endorsements contain the next
holder’s name and require a second signature.

A part of a check that is kept for record keeping purposes. For example,
the stub is the part of a payroll check that includes information about
the current paycheck as well as payments to date. The check stub can also be
a carbon copy of a check that is made when the original check is written and the stub
and check are both printed with the same serial number.

85
Planning and Preparing a Presentation

Regardless of your job, you will need to express yourself clearly to others at work.
Presentations may not be a part of your daily work. Occasionally, however, you may
need to present information to others. The situation may require you to speak to a small
group of your peers or to a large audience.

When you have an opportunity to prepare a presentation, I will likely be for one
of two purposes. You will either want to motivate and influence your listeners, or you will
want to inform and educate them. The message of your presentation will include the
main ideas and supporting details you want o to present. When you are speaking to
motivate or influence, your message needs to be persuasive. Your purpose is to get
your listeners to take a course of action. When you are speaking to inform, your
message should be clear and concise. Your purpose is to communicate the
information so your listeners can understand and use the information. Identifying the
overall purpose of the presentation and the specific goals you want to accomplish is
the first step in preparing a good presentation.

Your message must be important to your audiences if you are to hold their
attention. Developing a profile of your listeners is the next step in preparing a
presentation. You must determine your listeners’ interests or needs. Also, you can
include in your presentation visuals and audio media, bullets, colors and motion
(transitions), handouts or brochure.

Filing and Managing Records

Management is the process of using an organization’s resources to achieve

specific goals through the functions of planning, organizing, leading and controlling.
Information is an important and valuable business resource. To survive, businesses and
organizations must have up-to-date information in the right form, at the right time, and
in the right place to make management decisions. Record management is the
systematic control of all records from their creation or receipt, through their processing,

86
distribution, organization, storage, and retrieval, to their ultimate disposition. Because
information is such an important resource to organization, the records management
function also includes information management.

Records Management is not new. Records management has been taking place
in organizations for many years. ISO is a worldwide federation of national standards
organizations; ISO 15489 is a standard for records management policies and
procedures. The purpose of this standard is to ensure that appropriate attention and
protection applies to all records, and that the evidence and information they contain
can be retrieved efficiently and effectively using standard practices and procedures.
These international standards help the records management function of an
organization clarify its purpose and prove its value by managing important information.
Traditional records management is being transformed because of changes in
technology.

The term record has specific meaning in records management. ARMA

International defines a record as stored information, regardless of media or
characteristics, made or received by an organization that is evidence of its operations
and has value requiring its retention for a specific period of time.

Filing Systems

The most important reason for having a filing system is to locate information quickly.
Filing systems should be developed according to the way records are called for, the
way they are used.

Alphabetic Name Files

Since most business records are referred to by

the name of a firm, these names determine
the type of filing system that will be used. This
system of filing, known as an alphabetic name
file, is the most widely used in business.

Alphabetic Subject Files

This system is used in the yellow pages of a

telephone directory which are arranged in
alphabetic subject file order.

Geographic Files

A geographic file may be set up alphabetically according to the name of a

state and then be further subdivides by the sales territories within the state, or by
cities, towns, or countries.

87
 Numeric Files

Since some business papers are identified by number rather than by name,
numeric files are frequently used. Life Insurance companies file their policies by
the policy number.

Chronological Files

A file maintained in the order of time according to the year, month, and day.
These files are kept for daily appointments, conferences, and other important
business engagements.

Filing Equipment and Supplies

Good tools are necessary to make your filing system

work for you. In large offices filing equipment is usually
ordered through the purchasing department, and filing
supplies are available from the supply room. Proper
storage of records is necessary in all businesses. The size of
the material to be filed is the first factor to be considered;
the number of items to be filed each day is second.

Standard filing cabinets are available for storing the

two most common sizes of business records: letter size (8 1/2”
x 11”) and legal size (8 1/2” x13” or 8 1/2 x 14”). There are
vertical files, lateral and shelf files.

Each drawer in a correspondence file contains two

different kinds of filing supplies –guides and file folders-. The
guides in an alphabetic correspondence file divide the
drawer into alphabetic sections and serve as signposts for
quick reference. They also provide support for the folders and their contents. File
folders hold the papers in an upright position in the file drawer. They are made of
heavy paper stock and serve as a container to keep papers together.

Filing Rules

Every filing method makes use of filing

rules. Only if you know the standard rules for
filing, and apply them the same way every
time. The filing rules are published by ARMA
International. Alphabetic filing procedures
involve inspecting, indexing, coding, cross-
referencing, sorting, and storing documents.

Indexing is the mental process of

determining the filing segment (or name) by
which a record is to be stored and the

88
 placing or listening of items in an order that follows a particular system. The filing
segment is the name by which a record is stored and requested. In alphabetic
storage, the process of indexing means determining the name that is to be used
in filing. The name is usually easily recognized. The key unit is the first unit of a
filing segment. It is the part of the segment considered first when determining
where the record will be stored.

Filing
Segment

Coding is the act of assigning a file designation to records as they are classified.
For paper records, coding is marking a record to indicate the filing segment
(name, number, or subject) by which it is to be stored and indicating the
indexing units. Coding is a physical act, as contrasted with indexing, which is a
mental determination.

Indexing rules are the written procedures that describe how the filing segments
are ordered. The indexing rules that follow give you a good start in following
appropriate alphabetic storage procedures. When working with paper documents, the
next step in the filing process is sorting. Sorting is arranging records in the sequence in
which they are to be stored (placed in filing cabinets or other storage containers.

89
Rule No. 1 Names of Individuals

When indexing the name of an individual, arrange the units in this order: last
name as Unit 1, first name or initial as Unit 2, and middle name or initial as Unit 3. When
two names in Unit 1 begin with the same letter, you consider the next or second letter in
arranging for alphabetical order. If both the first and second letters are the same,
consider the third letter, and so on until the letters are different. A unit consisting of just
an initial precedes a unit that consists of a complete name beginning with the
same letter. Punctuation, such as a period or apostrophe, is omitted.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3

Rebecca P. Adams ADAMS REBECCA P
Susan B. Anderson ANDERSON SUSAN B
Terri Anderson ANDERSON TERRI
William Ken Jackson JACKSON WILLIAM KEN
William Johnson JOHNSON WILLIAM
Wilma Johnson JOHNSON WILMA
Frank Shields SHIELDS FRANK
Frank B. Shields SHIELDS FRANK B
Debbie Shirley SHIRLEY DEBBIE
Ann Marie Williams WILLIAMS ANN MARIE
Anna Williams WILLIAMS ANNA
David Williamson WILLIAMSON DAVID

Rule No. 2 Personal Names with Prefixes – Articles and Particles

Prefixes, such as Mc in McAdams are considered as part of the name it

precedes. Ignore any apostrophe or space that may appear within or after the prefix.
Commonly used prefixes are a, la, d’ D’ de, De, Del, De la, Di, Du, El, Fitz, La, Le, Lo, Los,
M’, Mac, Mc, O’, Saint, St., Ste., Te, Ter, Van, Van de, Van der, Von, and Von der.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3

Olivia DuBerry DUBERRY OLIVIA
Paul Duberry DUBERRY PAUL
Anna L’Aubourne LAUBORNE ANNA
Chuck B. Launders LAUNDERS CHUCK B
Jerry A. Mcdonald MCDONALD JERRY A
Terri C. McDonald MCDONALD TERRI C
Celeste Van Ivan VANIVAN CELESTE

Rule No. 3 Hyphenated Personal Names

Consider a hyphenated first, middle, or last name as one unit. Do not include the
hyphen in the unit name.

90
 NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3
Valerie Anderson-Smith ANDERSONSMITH VALERIE
Jason DeTemple DETEMPLE JASON
Tammy DeTemple-Jones DETEMPLEJONES TAMMY
Gary Shawn Lee LEE GARY SHAWN
Alison Shawn-Lee SHAWNLEE ALISON
Kay-Lu S. Shuttle SHUTTLE KAYLU S

Rule No. 4 Single Letters and Abbreviations of Personal Names

Initials in personal names (J.D., A.J.) are considered separate indexing units.
Abbreviations of personal names (Wm., Jos.) and nicknames (Bill, Rick, Ali) are indexed
as they are written.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3

A. J. Anderson ANDERSON A J
Liz Billings BILLINGS LIZ
Lou Chandler CHANDLER LOU
Wm. Danielson DANIELSON WM
T. J. Sampson SAMPSON T J
Geo. T. Vickory VICKORY GEO T

Rule No. 5 Personal Names With Titles and Suffixes.

When used with a person’s name, a title or a suffix is the last indexing unit when
needed to distinguish between two or more identical names. A title appears before a
name (Capt., Dr., Miss, Mr., Mrs., Ms., Prof., Sgt.). Suffixes appear after a name and
include seniority terms (II, III, Jr., Sr.) and professional designations (CPA, CRM, CMA, MD,
Ph.D.). Some terms may appear either before or after the name (Senator, Mayor). If a
name contains both a title and a suffix, the title is the last unit. Royal and religious titles
(King, Queen, Prince, Princess, Father, and Sister) are considered professional
designation suffixes unless they are followed by either a given name or a surname only
(Father John, Princess Anna) in which case, they are indexed as written.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 Unit 4

Susan Bilderson, CPA BILDERSON SUSAN CPA
Father John FATHER JOHN
Mrs. Anna Jones JONES ANNA MRS
King Abdula KING ABDULA
Mrs. Judy Lenderman LENDERMAN JUDY MRS
Ms. Judy Lenderman LENDERMAN JUDY MS
Sister Mary Smith SMITH MARY SISTER
Peter K Teasdale III TEASDALE PETER K III
Mr. Joshua Wade, Jr. WADE JOSHUA JR MR
Dr. Frank Williams WILLIAMS FRANK DR

Rule No. 6 Names of Businesses and Organizations

Business names are indexed as written using the letterhead or trademark as a

guide. If the letterhead is not available, use sources such as directories (phone, Internet)

91
and advertisements. Each word in a business name is a separate unit. Exception:
When The is the first word of the business name, it is treated as the last unit. Business
names containing personal names are indexed as written. Hyphenated names
and names with prefixes are considered one unit.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4

Betty’s Boutique BETTYS BOUTIQUE
The Bottom Dollar Store BOTTOM DOLLAR STORE THE
Computers and Such COMPUTERS AND SUCH
Computers Are Us COMPUTERS ARE US
Cpt. John’s Seafood House CPT JOHNS SEAFOOD HOUSE
Doug Tevor Hauling DOUG TREVOR HAULING
Dr. Allen’s Tree Repair DR ALLENS TREE REPAIR
El Amigo Mexican Restaurant ELAMIGO MEXICAN RESTAURANT
EZ Travel Agency EZ TRAVEL AGENCY
St. Paul Lawn Care STPAUL LAWN CARE
The Worthington Coat Factory WORTHINGTON COAT FACTORY THE
Zachery Grey Daily News ZACHERY GREY DAILY NEWS

Rule No. 7 Letters and Abbreviations in Business and Organization Names

Single letters in business and organization names are indexed as written. If single
letters are separated by spaces, index each letter as a separate unit. An acronym
(word formed from the first few letters of several words, such as ARMA and F.I.C.A,) is
indexed as one unit regardless of punctuation or spacing.

Abbreviated words (Mfg, Co., Corp., Inc.) and names (IBM, GE) are indexed as
written and as one unit regardless of punctuation or spacing. Radio and television
station call letters (WBCO, ABC) are also indexed as written and as one unit.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4

A K Electric A K ELECTRIC
A OK Restaurant A OK RESTAURANT
ACE Repair Co. ACE REPAIR CO
KKRS Radio Station KKRS RADIO STATION
L A N Industries L A N INDUSTRIES
LAN, Inc LAN INC
Regal Mfg. Corp. REGAL MFG CORP
US Bank US BANK
USA Today USA TODAY

Rule No. 8 Punctuation and Possessives in Business and Organization Names

All punctuation is ignored when indexing business and organization names.

Commas, periods, hyphens, apostrophes, dashes, exclamation points, question marks,
quotation marks, and diagonals (/) are disregarded and names are indexed as written.

92
 NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4
All-in-One Pawn Shop ALLINONE PAWN SHOP
Bob’s Rent-a-Car BOBS RENTACAR
The Crow’s Nest CROWS NEST THE
How Much? Thrift Store HOW MUCH THRIFT STORE
Inside/Outside Glass INSIDEOUTSIDE GLASS
Jack-N-Jerry Catering JACKNJERRY CATERING
The Pepper! PEPPER THE

Rule No. 9 Numbers in Business and Organization Names

Arabic numbers written in digits (1,15,189) and Roman numerals (II, IV, IX) are
considered one unit and are filed in numeric order before alphabetic characters with
Arabic numbers preceding Roman numerals (2, 156, III, XIV).

Numbers spelled out (ONE, TWELVE, FORTY) are filed alphabetically and appear
after numbers written in digits or Roman numerals. Names with numbers included are
filed in ascending order (lowest to highest number) before alphabetic names (B4 SHOP,
B12 VITAMIN CLUB, BATTING A THOUSAND SPORTING GOODS). Names with numbers
appearing in other than the firsts units are filed alphabetically and immediately before
a similar name without a number (PIER 28 IMPORTS, PIER AND PORT RESTAURANT). The
letters st, d, and th following an Arabic number are ignored (1st is indexed as 1, 2nd as 2,
5th as 5 and so on). Inclusive or hyphenated numbers (7-11 Grocery Store) are indexed
according to the number before the hyphen and the number after the hyphen is
ignored (7 GROCERY STORE). Hyphenated numbers that are spelled out (Thirty-one
Flavors) are considered one unit and the hyphen is ignored (THIRTYONE FLAVORS). An
Arabic number followed by a hyphen and a word (7-Gables) is considered one unit
(7GABLES) and the hyphen is ignored.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4

1-2-3 Easy Shopping 1 EASY SHOPPING
1 Stop Shopping Center 1 STOP SHOPPING CENTER
4th Street Market 4 STREET MARKET
7-Days Extended Inn 7DAYS EXTENDED INN
XXI Movie Theatre XXI MOVIE THEATRE
Annie’s Buffet ANNIES BUFFET
Gary’s 9-Way Service Co. GARYS 9WAY SERVICE CO
Gary’s Auto Repair GARYS AUTO REPAIR
Twenty Mile Steak House TWENTY MILE STEAK HOUSE
Twenty-First Street Photo TWENTYFIRST STREET PHOTO

Rule No. 10 Symbols in Business and Organization Names

If a symbol is part of a name, the symbol is indexed as if spelled out. When a

symbol is used with a number without spacing between ($5, #1), it is considered one
unit and the symbol is spelled out (5DOLLAR, NUMBER1).

93
 SYMBOL INDEXED AS
& AND
¢ CENT
$ DOLLAR or DOLLARS
# NUMBER, POUND, or POUNDS
% PERCENT

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4

50¢ Burger Den 50CENT BURGER DEN
D & B Bargain D AND B BARGAIN
Dan’s Donut Shop DANS DONUT SHOP
$ Days Hotel DOLLAR DAYS HOTEL
The Dollar Smart Shop DOLLAR SMART SHOP THE
Just Good ¢ Store JUST GOOD CENTS STORE

Rule No. 11 Government Names

Government names are indexed first by the name of the government unit –
country, state, county, or city. Next, index the distinctive name of the department,
bureau, office, or board. The words "Office of", "Department of", "Bureau of", etc. are
separate indexing units when they are part of the official name.

State and local government names are indexed first by the name of the state,
providence, county, city, or town that has jurisdiction over that government agency.
The distinctive name of the agency is considered next. For example, a city will have
jurisdiction over a board of education, so the city would be indexed first, then the
board of education. The words "State of", "County of", "City of’, "Department of", etc.
are added only if needed for clarity and if it is in the official name.

NAME JURISDICTION INDEXED NAME

Court House, Evans County EVANS COUNTY
County COURT HOUSE
Hazard, Kentucky HAZARD KENTUCKY
Board of Education, City FREEMONT
Freemont, MO EDUCATION BOARD OF
FREEMONT MISSOURI
Banking Office, State TEXAS
Dept. of Commerce, COMMERCE
Dallas, TX DEPT OF
BANKING OFFICE
DALLAS TEXAS

94
 NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4 UNIT 5 UNIT 6 UNIT 7 UNIT 8
Court House, EVANS COUNTY COURT HOUSE HAZARD KENTUCKY
Evans County
Hazard,
Kentucky

Board of FREEMONT EDUCATION BOARD OF FREEMONT MISSOURI

Education,
Freemont, MO

Banking Office TEXAS COMMERCE DEPT OF BANKING OFFICE* DALLAS TEXAS

Dept. of
Commerce
Dallas, TX

UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3

UNITED STATE GOVERNMENT
NAME

UNIT 4 UNIT 5 UNIT 6 UNIT 7 UNIT 8

U.S. Department of AGRICULTURE DEPARTMENT OF FOREST SERVICE
Agriculture
Forest Service

U.S. Department of Labor LABOR DEPARTMENT OF EMPLOYMENT STANDARDS

Employment Standards

Bureau of Prisons JUSTICE DEPARTMENT PRISONS BUREAU OF

Justice Department

U.S. Treasury Department TREASURY DEPARTMENT CUSTOMS SERVICE

Customs Service

Foreign Government Names

Foreign government names are indexed first by the name of the country, then by the
name of the distinctive department, bureau, or board. The words "Department of",
"Bureau of", "Ministry of, etc. follow if it is part of the official name.

NAME UNIT 1 UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4 UNIT 5

Republic of India INDA REPUBLIC OF

Federal Republic of Germany GERMANY FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF

Consulate General
Peru PERU CONSULATE GENERAL
Department of Human TUNISIA HUMAN RESOURCES DEPARTMENT OF
Resources
Tunisia

95
Rule No. 12 Addresses

When personal names and names of businesses and organizations are otherwise
identical, the filing order is determined by the address. The elements of the address are
considered in the following order: City, State (spelled out in full), Street Name, Quadrant
(NE, NW, SE, and SW), House or Building Number.

NOTE: Because space is limited in example below, Unit 1 is displayed above and
indexing begins with Unit 2.

UNIT 1
COMPUTERWORLD

NAME UNIT 2 UNIT 3 UNIT 4 UNIT 5 UNIT 6

ComputerWorld AKRON OHIO AVENUE NE 12
12th Avenue NE
Akron, Ohio
ComputerWorld AKRON OHIO ELM STREET 86
86 Elm Street
Akron, Ohio
ComputerWorld COLUMBUS OHIO WARNER AVE 600
600 Warner Ave
Columbus, Ohio
ComputerWorld PORTLAND OREGON AND MAIN 7
7TH & Main
Portland, Oregon
ComputerWorld PORTLAND OREGON AVENUE SW 7
7TH Avenue SW
Portland, Oregon
ComputerWorld PORTLAND TEXAS NORRIS DRIVE 257
257 Norris Drive
Portland, Texas

Accounting and Other Financial Activities

The spreadsheet is, in effect, a computerized worksheet –a series of columns and

rows that the user fills with report headings, financial data, and computational formulas.
Spreadsheets are used to generate various types of reports in addition to computerized
accounting reports such as budgets and depreciation schedule. Spreadsheets are
especially helpful in performing “what if” analysis. Popular spreadsheet software used
by businesses today includes Excel, Lotus 1-2-3 and Quattro pro. With these
spreadsheets you can prepare:

Balance Sheet
Income Statement
Capital Statement
Stockholder Statement
Banking Procedures (Account Statement, Bank Reconciliation, Petty Cash Fund)
Statistics, etc.

96
5
Personal and Career
Development

97
Planning and Advancing your Career

Whatever your present plans for employment or further education, you should
consider your long-term career goals. You might wonder why someone who is
considering a first job should be thinking beyond that job. Thinking ahead may help
you choose a first job that is closely related to long-term interests. Thinking ahead to
what you see as a career goal and planning realistic steps to meet that goal is known
as a career strategy. With a career
goal in mind, you can evaluate
beginning job offer in relation to that
goal. Career planning is not a once-in-
a-lifetime task. As you gain experience,
you will become better acquainted with
jobs that match your interests and
talents.

An Effective Job Search

Whether you have specific

career goals or not, you can effectively
plan your search for a full-time job. Your
success in meeting job requirements need not
be related to whether or not you have a career
goal. Common steps in a job search include
the following:

Become acquainted with the types of

jobs you wish to consider
Explore job opportunities related to these
jobs
Prepare a résumé
Prepare a letter of application when you
find a job for which you are qualified
Send résumés and letters of application
to companies considering candidates
for jobs
Accept interviews with companies that wish to talk with you about available jobs
Follow up all job interviews
Accept a job.

The job search begins with research –collecting, compiling, and analyzing
information- in order to assess you marketability. The key accomplishments that surface
from this thoughtful analysis will be the main ideas touted in a résumé or an interview.
The research phase of the job search involves the following steps:

98
 Traditional means of location a job include printed sources, networks, career
services centers, employers’ offices, employment agencies and contractors, and
professional organizations.

Preparing Résumés and Application Messages

In order to match your interests and qualifications with available jobs, you’ll need
an effective résumé. To win a job interview in today’s tight market where job seekers
outnumber positions; you need more than a general résumé that documents your
education and work history. The powerful wording of a targeted résumé reflects the
requirements of a specific job listing that you have identified through traditional and
electronic job search models.

The goal of the résumé is to get an interview, so ask you this question: “Does
including this information increase my chances of getting an interview?”. When
selecting information to be included, you must also be wary of the temptation to inflate
your résumé to increase your chances of being hired. The standard parts of a résumé
are:

Identification is to provide information that will allow the interviewee to reach

you. Include your name, current address including your e-mail, telephone and
cell phone numbers.
Job and/or Career Objective must be specific enough to be meaningful yet
general enough to apply to a variety of jobs. Your career objective may limit
your job opportunities. Your objective should be obvious from your qualifications.

99
 Career Summary, this part is considered like a synopsis of your key qualifications,
communicate why you should be hired. A high-impact career summary, once
considered optional, has become a standard section of résumés in today’s fast-
paced information age.
Qualifications, this part is divided in two labels, the first one is for your education
and work experience. Education should begin with the most recent, list the
degree, major, school, and graduation date. It could also include a list special
skills and abilities such as foreign language and computer competency. Also,
you can include any courses, workshops or educational experiences that are not
usual requirements. Work experience provides information about your
employment history. For each job held, list the job title, company name, dates of
employment, primary responsibilities, and key accomplishments. The jobs may
be listed in reverse chronological order, beginning with the most recent.
Honors and Activities, prepare a list of information that qualify you for the job, like
Activities, Leadership Activities or Memberships.
References include people who have agreed to supply information about you
when requested; it is an important component of your employment credentials.
Listing names, addresses, telephone numbers and e-mail addresses.

Identification
Career
Objective

Career Summary

Education

Related
Experience

Skills and Abilities

Honors and
Activities References

There are two additional tools for communicating your qualifications and abilities
are called the portfolio and the employment video. The professional portfolio also
called the electronic or e-portfolio when present a digital format can be used to
illustrated past activities projects, and accomplishments. A video recording may be
used to extend the impact of the printed résumé visually. A video can capture your

100
stage presence and ability to speak effectively and add a human dimension to the
written process. It can record into a CD or DVD.

Composing application messages

Writing a letter of application. A letter of application introduces you to a

prospective employer and requests an interview. A letter of application that
accompanies a résumé should be an original, not a photocopy. The tone of the
letter should appeal to the reader. Its content should be concise and
informative. These guidelines will aid you in writing a letter of application:

 When submitting a hard copy letter, address the letter to a person, no to a

department or position. If you do not have the name of the person to
whom your letter should be addressed, call the company to ask for the
name and title.
 Explain in the first paragraph the reason for the letter. State specifically
the position in which you are interested.
 Briefly indicate why you believe you are qualified for the position. Refer to
specific classes, work experience, and/or interests you have that you
believe are related to the position.
 In a final paragraph, request an interview.
 Limit your letter to a single printed page.

An application or cover message. A mailed paper résumé should be

accompanied by an application message. It is placed on top or before of the
résumé so it can be read first by the
employer. The application message
is persuasive, so it should be written
inductively. To gain attention, begin
the message by identifying the job
sought and describing how your
qualifications fit the job requirements.
This information will provide instant
confirmation that you are a qualified
applicant for a position open in that
company.

Interviewing for a Job

Companies may interview several

candidates before hiring someone for a
position. Successful interviewing is a critical
step in securing a job. Prepare carefully for
each interview you accept. Consider how
you will present your qualifications and
interests to the interviewer. Anticipate

101
questions and think about how you will respond to them. Learn about the company.

At an interview, you usually do not know the person who will interview you. Your
appearance and manner will influence the interviewer’s first impression of you. Consider
dressing in clothes that are appropriate and at the same time comfortable. Your
manner should be polite and professional. Be friendly, but not overly familiar with
people you meet at the company. Other tips that you should know for your interview
are:
Anticipate questions of interviewer
Prepare questions
Arrive on time
Complete an application form
Participate attentively.

Common courtesies and confident body language can contribute to a

favorable first impression in the early few seconds when you have not yet had an
opportunity to talk about your qualifications:

Use the interviewer’s name and pronounce it correctly

Apply a firm handshake
Wait to the interviewer to ask you to be seated
Maintain appropriate eye contact, and use your body language to convey
confidence
Be conscious of nonverbal messages.

The interviewer will provide cues indicating that the interview is completed by
rising or making a comment about the nest step to be taken. At that point, do not
prolong the interview needlessly. Simply rise, accept the handshake, than the
interviewer for the opportunity to meet, and close by saying you look forward to
hearing form the company. The tact with which you close the interview may be almost
as important as the first impression you
made. Be enthusiastic. If you really want
the job, you might ask for it.

102
Part. II
Tourism Business
Operations

103
1
Tourism Career and
Hotel’s Operations

104
Your Tourism Future Career

According to the World Travel and Tourism Council, travel and tourism accounts
for 8% of the world's jobs and has the highest potential for growth of any industry.
International travel alone accounts for more than 840 million tourists annually. The
economic, social and environmental impact of tourism is significant and vital to
creating sustainable jobs and quality of life. Hospitality and tourism represents a broad
range of career opportunities in industries that include:

hotels and resorts

restaurants and commercial food service
meeting and event Planning
tourism destinations and attractions
leisure, recreation and sports management
airlines, cruises and other transportation
environmentally sustainable and cultural tourism development
spa and wellness management.

As a vast, dynamic and growing industry, hospitality and tourism provides

tremendous opportunity for ambitious students who enjoy working with people. The
hospitality and tourism industry operates in a highly competitive environment. It is
important that those seeking careers as successful professionals develop a strong
business foundation and customer service skills. Graduates of hospitality and tourism
management programs are well rounded with a combination of business and life skills
that are in high demand with employers.

While hospitality and tourism has traditionally been an industry that emphasized
hands-on experience, the competitive nature of the business now requires a
combination of experience and higher education to build a successful management
career. To meet the needs of the industry, hospitality and tourism programs offered by
colleges and universities have grown rapidly in the United States. Today programs are
offered by a variety of vocational schools, community colleges and both public and
private universities. Options range from short-term skills-oriented certificates to post-
graduate degree programs.

The hospitality and tourism industry offers abundant opportunity for students
seeking careers in a dynamic, international industry. If you possess strong
communication skills and a desire to provide excellent service to others this fast-paced
industry may be for you.

The success of the tourism and hospitality sector is based on the continually
evolving challenge of “selling the intangible”. Thus, the human factor is of an increased
importance. If we look, for instance, at destinations and companies selling tourism
services, they are struggling to differentiate themselves beyond just the physical
product. In other words, it is the human element that creates their competitive
advantage and what makes or breaks a tourism experience.

105
 Nevertheless, due to the large human resource needs of the tourism industry,
there is often a lack of qualified employees available to the industry. Destinations that
want to consolidate their positions in the future world travel market should then work
hard on upgrading their workforce. This can be achieved by:

Developing a sustainable workforce, either through education and training of

their own workforce, or through migration policies.
Implementing appropriate educational policies for all tourism organizations
(hotels, amusement parks, restaurants, bars, etc.). These policies should be
designed and developed by relevant tourism entities within the government
and not by other entities, as in some instances, educational policies are set by
the ministry of education!
Creating human resource councils that address the needs of the tourism sector
at a local, regional or national level and aiming at reducing the gap between
what is offered and what is needed, and focusing on quality control and related
issues.

Your Tourism Future Studies at University

Planning for a career in any area of tourism is an excellent investment in your

future. As the fastest growing industry in the world, new job opportunities are being
created and the diversity of skills needed to fill these positions span a wide range of
interests and abilities. Your future is only limited by your ambition and the Hospitality and
Tourism Training Programme is an excellent way to get started.

If interested, you can find a career in this dynamic industry, full of opportunities
for mobility, creativity, and diversity. Career choices can be found in its many different
sectors that include: accommodation; attractions; food & beverage; transportation;
adventure tourism; events & conferences; tourism services; and the travel trade.

Hospitality and hotel Industry: These make up a vastly diversified segment of the
tourism Industry. Most hotels and resorts offer far more than just accommodation and
the positions available in them can range from hotel management and front desk staff
to house cleaning, food and beverage, catering and banquet staff, restaurant
personnel and even grounds maintenance crews.

Many resorts and hotels are part of a worldwide chain which can often afford an
employee the ability to travel the world by transferring from one hotel location to
another.

The potential for job opportunities within the hospitality and hotel Industry is not
only diversified but the chances for advancement are excellent.

Cruise ships: Another diversified segment of the tourism Industry is the

cruise line business. This exciting and often glamorous industry is growing
by leaps and bounds and newer and larger vessels are being built each
year to meet the increased demands of cruise line travelers. These ships

106
 are nothing short of floating hotels and require people to fill positions for all
of the same types of jobs that would traditionally be associated with any
hotel or resort.

Airline industry: This has the reputation of being the "glamour" segment of
the tourism Industry. The jet-set life style of airline pilots and flight
attendants immediately captures the imagination of many young people
seeking a career in tourism. But the diverse opportunities throughout the
airline industry cover a vast array of jobs that are often overlooked,
working for a major airline in its reservation centre or as a ticket agent at
the airport for instance. Baggage handlers and airline mechanics or air
traffic controllers are other possibilities. In the private sector many
helicopter or fixed wing tour businesses provide excellent opportunities for
airline industry jobs.

Service & Tourism Industry: Tourism is first and foremost a service industry.
Dealing with the public and providing customer service is an integral part
of any tourism industry job, no matter what segment it might fall into.

Restaurant and Food & Beverage: This segment of the tourism industry is
often referred to simply as service and provides many job opportunities for
those seeking work in this field.

The list of jobs related to the tourism industry is endless, travel agents, activity
provider companies, tour operators, retail store businesses, tourism bureau operations,
ferries, rail and bus lines, cruise ships, car hire companies and caravan parks to name
only a few.

Hotel Structure

A hotel organizational structure is a

comprehensive plan by a hotel owner to define
departmental activities and responsibilities. This
structure brings order to every aspect of hotel
operation from the front desk and room service to the
human resources department. Hotel organizational
structures are necessary to ensure maximum
profitability from each room, restaurant and bar on a
daily basis. Your hotel can run efficiently if it creates an
organizational structure that is easy to understand.

1. Front Office

Front office has been described as the hub or nerve

center of the hotel. It is the department that makes a
first impression on the guest and one that the guest

107
relies on throughout his or her stay for information and service. Its duty is to enhance
guest services by constantly developing services to meet guest needs. The function of
front office are the followings:

To sell and up-sell rooms

The front office will hand over all the expected arrivals and available rooms after
reservations office closed at 6:00p.m. The front office will try to sell out all the
remaining rooms to call-in or walk-in guests to ensure 100%occupancy. Also, it
should apply the yield management that is up selling the features of a larger
room, a higher floor or a better view in higher price for someone booking a room
with shortly notice when the demand of room is high.

To maintain balanced
guest account
The office should make use of
the property management
systems (PMS) and point-of-sale
terminals (POS) to open a guest
account for each customer and
post all charges from the
departments. This means that
guest charges from the various
outlets are directly debited to
the guest’s account and
payment can be received on
guest check out or transferred to
the city ledger.

To offer service such as handing mails, faxes, messages and hotel information
Customers always approach the front desk with questions so the front desk
employees should have enough knowledge about the hotel. The front desk is
staffed throughout the twenty-four hours by three shifts to provide service. Ever
shift has different duties to do. Most likely, the front desk need to note things and
check on the log book to see if there is some guests request for room switches,
check on the room status, number of expected checkouts still to leave in order
to update the forecast of the night’s occupancy and handle guest check-ins
and take reservations.

2. Reservations

The reservation department is one first contact to the guest making the
reservation for room. Since some guests may be shopping for the best value, it is
essential to sell the hotel by emphasizing the hotel’s advantages. It’s main responsibility
is to sell all of the hotel rooms for the maximum dollars and avoid guest resentment of
being overcharged. The reservation can be done by a variety of sources such as
telephone, corporate 1-800 numbers, travel agents, internet and walk-in. The central

108
reservations system interfaces with the hotel’s inventory and simultaneously allows
reservations by individual hotel reservation personnel. There are two types of reservation
that the department needs to consider.
Confirmed reservation. It is a reservation made with sufficient time for a
confirmation slip including confirmed dates, types of room booked, number of
guests and so on. It is to return to the guests by mail or fax so that they can bring
the slip to the hotel to verify the booking. If the guest arrives late, the hotel may
have the right to cancel his or her reservation and sell
the room to others.

Guaranteed reservation. The hotel will take the

credit card number of the guest to ensure the
payment of the room. The guest chooses to have
guaranteed reservation has the promise from the hotel
to provide room even if the guest arrives late.
However, if the guest does not show-up, the hotel will
charge him for one night accommodation
automatically.

3. Housekeeping

The four major areas of responsibilities for the executive housekeeper are as
follows:
Leadership of people, equipment, and supplies
Cleanliness and servicing the guest rooms and public areas
Operating the department according to financial guidelines prescribed by
the general manager
Keeping records of supplies and equipment to control inventory

4. Concierge

The concierge is a support department from the front office room clerks and
cashiers. Concierges serve to elevate a property’s marketable value and its image.
They provide the special touch services that can cater to a guest’s precise needs. They
should not only have a detailed knowledge of the hotel and its service, but also of the
city and even the international details. Also, they can speak several languages. They
will assist the guests with a board range of service, such as restaurant reservation,
advice on local activities, tickets to show or VIP’s messages and special request.

5. Guest service

The guest service department is responsible to give the guest positive first
impressions. The staff consists of door attendant, bell person and concierge.
Door attendants are dressed in impressive uniforms. They greet guests at the hotel front
door, assist in opening or closing automobile doors, removing luggage from the trunk,
hailing taxis, keeping the door entrance clear of vehicles and giving guest information
about the hotel and the local area in a courteous and friendly way. Bell person is
mainly to escort guests and transport luggage to their rooms. They also need to explain

109
the service of the hotel and points out the features of the room to the guest. For
example, the lighting, TV, air-conditioning, room service etc.

6. Security

Security department is providing guest protection and loss prevention. And it

includes four elements.
 Security officers make regular rounds of the hotel premises, observing the suspicious
behavior and taking appropriate action, investigating incidents and cooperating
with local law enforcement agencies.
 Equipment includes two-way radios, closed-circuit television cameras, smoke
detectors, fire alarms and electronic key cards etc. which can provide the guest
more safeguard.
 Safety procedures are some guidelines for the staffs and the guests to ensure their
safety. For example, security officers should be able to gain access to guest room,
store room and office all the times.
 Identification procedure is to offer identification cards with photographs to all
employees. The guests can contact with name-tagged employees that not only
project a friendly image for the property, but also useful for security reasons.

7. Communication

The communication department will manage the in-house communication,

guest communication and also the emergency center by CBX or PBX technologies. For
example, the call billing system will charge the customer if the customer make a long-
distance call placed from the guest room. Also, communication department is a profit
center. It is because hotels generally add a 50 percent charge to all long-distance
phone calls.

8. Sales & Marketing

Handle advertisement and promotions for various departments in the hotel.

Create and design brochures, menus, wine list and so on. Responsible for increasing
sales through attracting new and repeat business and responsible for room and
banquet sales.

Guest Cycle

Most likely, the guest cycle consists of four main stages:

pre-arrival
arrival
occupancy and services charges
Departure

These stages are work in a cycle so these are known as guest cycle in whole.

Pre-arrival in other words is reservation. It is the stage where the guest

chooses the hotel and makes the reservation. Important information is

110
 gathered at this stage, which allows the next stage to run smoothly. Normal
reservation, confirm reservation and guarantee reservation are the three
types of reservation in this stage. Normal reservation means the guest have
book the room only. Confirm reservation is that the customer will receive a
confirmation number from the hotel regarding to the booking for a room at a
particular date, and the guest do not need to pay at this stage. Guarantee
reservation will charge the guest for the first room night even if they didn’t
occupy the room; however they will guarantee to have a room at all stage.

The arrival stage is when the guest actually arrives and registers at the hotel
(check-in). Here the guest verifies the information gathered previously at the
reservation stage, confirms method of payment, signs the registration card,
and collects the key. The guest will classify for their room type first, then the
hotel will reserve a room from the whole; and hence, after deducting credit
limits from their credit card, the guest will collect the key.

The occupancy stage deals with security of the guest along with the
coordination of guest services to ensure guest satisfaction and try to
encourage repeat guests. The front desk plays an important part at this stage
as this is the area where guests will make their requests or raise their problems,
to which the front desk staffs need to respond in a timely and accurate
manner. At this stage the front desk need to keep guest accounts up-to-date
so that the final stage of the cycle runs smoothly.

Departure is the moment when the guest is ready to check out. The main
objective here is to settle the guest account, check if there is more guest
charges after checking the room, update room status information, and
create a guest history record. In an attempt to ensure repeat guests, it is
important to find out if the guest has enjoyed their stay at this point.

Guest Documents

Reservation Card

Requested arrangement in which a hotel keeps a room waiting for

a guest arriving late in evening or night, on the condition that if guest fails to arrive the
hotel will charge the customer's credit card for one night's rate. Each reservation
department shall prepare a reservation record, which depicts the various personal and
financial data of guests, for each reservation transaction. The aim is to identify guests
and their occupancy needs before guest’s arrival. Moreover, the hotel can personalize
or customize guest services and better schedule staff accordingly

In order to create a reservation record, the following items are needed:

Guest name (and group name, if applicable)

Guest’s home or billing address
Guest’s telephone number, including area code

111
 Name, address, and telephone number of guest’s company, if appropriate
Name of and pertinent information about the person making the reservation,
if not the guest
Number of people in the group, and perhaps ages of any children
Arrival date and time
Number of nights required or expected departure date, depending on how
the system is programmed
Reservation type [Guaranteed versus Non-guaranteed]
Special requirements [i.e. infant, disabled guest, or no-smoking
accommodation]
Additional information, if needed [i.e. late arrival, method of transportation,
flight number, room preferences…]

At the reservation process, reservation agents shall keep in mind that a rate
quoted and confirmed must be honored. Moreover, reservation clerks should be aware
of the following:

Supplementary
charges for extra
services or amenities
Minimum stay
requirements in effect
for dates requested
Special promotions in
effect for dates
requested
Applicable currency
exchange rates, if
quoting rates to an
international tourist
Applicable room tax
percentages
Applicable service
charges or gratuities.

112
 Guest Folio

It is considered as the master bill in the hotel which is also known as Guest
Account Card. A guest folio contain all transactions of both cash and credit
occurred by each resident guests. In manual system folios are maintained manually
and kept in the folio rack at the front office cash. In computerized system the folio
are kept in the computer and only printed out at the time of a guest check-out.

Food and Beverage

Hospitality is probably the most diverse but specialized industry in the world. It is
certainly one of the largest, employing millions of people in a bewildering array of jobs
around the globe. Sectors range from the glamorous five-star resort to the less
fashionable, but arguably more specialized, institutional areas such as hospitals,
industrial outfits, schools and colleges. Yet of these many different sectors, catering has
to be the most challenging.

Whatever the size of the catering operation, the variety of opportunities

available is endless. “The sky is the limit with catering”. The food service industry
(catering industry in British English) encompasses those places, institutions and
companies that provide meals eaten away from home. This industry includes
restaurants, schools and hospital cafeterias, catering operations, and many other
formats, including ‘on-premises’ and ‘off-premises’ caterings.

113
 Catering is a multifaceted segment of the food service industry. There is a niche
for all types of catering businesses within the segment of catering. The food service
industry is divided into three general classifications: commercial segment,
noncommercial segment, and military segment. Catering management may be
defined as the task of planning, organizing, controlling and executing. Each activity
influences the preparation and delivery of food, beverage, and related services at a
competitive, yet profitable price. These activities work together to meet and exceed
the customer’s perception of value for his money.

A restaurant is an establishment that serves the customers with prepared food

and beverages to order, to be consumed on the premises. The term covers a
multiplicity of venues and a diversity of styles of cuisine. Restaurants are sometimes also
a feature of a larger complex, typically a hotel, where the dining amenities are
provided for the convenience of the residents and for the hotel to maximize their
potential revenue. Such restaurants are often open to non-residents also. The term
restaurant (from the French word restaurer, to restore) first appeared in the 16th
century, meaning "a food which restores", and referred specifically to a rich, highly
flavored soup. The modern sense of the word was born around 1765 when a Parisian
soup-seller named Boulanger opened his establishment. Whilst inns and taverns were
known from antiquity, these were establishments aimed at travelers, and in general
locals would rarely eat there. The modern formal style of dining, where customers are
given a plate with the food already arranged on it, is known as service à la russe, as it is
said to have been introduced to
France by the Russian Prince
Kurakin in the 1810s, from where it
spread rapidly to England and
beyond.

Depending on local
customs and the policy of the
establishment, restaurants may or
may not serve alcoholic
beverages. Restaurants are often
prohibited from selling alcohol
without a meal by alcohol sale
laws; such sale is considered to
be activity for bars, which are
meant to have more severe
restrictions. Some restaurants are licensed to serve alcohol (‘fully licensed’), and/or
permit customers to ‘bring your own’ alcohol.

Cafeterias

A cafeteria is a restaurant serving mostly cooked ready to food arranged behind

a food-serving counter. There is little or no table service. Typically, a patron takes a tray
and pushes it along a track in front of the counter. Depending on the establishment,
servings may be ordered from attendants, selected as ready-made portions already on
plates, or self-serve of food of their own choice. In some establishments, a few items

114
such as steaks may be ordered specially prepared rare, medium and well done from
the attendants. The patron waits for those items to be prepared or is given a number
and they are brought to the table. Beverages may be filled from self-service dispensers
or ordered from the attendants. At the end of the line a cashier rings up the purchases.
At some self-service cafeterias, purchases are priced by weight, rather than by
individual item. The trays filled with selected items of food are taken to a table to eat.
Institutional cafeterias may have common tables, but upscale cafeterias provide
individual tables as in sit-down restaurants. Upscale cafeterias have traditional cutlery
and crockery, and some have servers to carry the trays from the line to the patrons'
tables, and/ or bus the empty trays and used dishes.

Fast-Food Restaurants

Fast-food restaurants emphasize speed of service and low cost over all other
considerations. A common feature of newer fast-food restaurants that distinguishes
them from traditional cafeteria is a lack of cutlery or crockery; the customer is expected
to eat the food directly from the disposable container it was served in using their fingers.
There are various types of fast-food restaurant:

one collects food from a counter and pays, then sits down and starts eating
(as in a self-service restaurant or cafeteria); sub-varieties:
one collects ready portions
one serves oneself from containers
one is served at the counter
a special procedure is that one first pays at the cash desk, collects a coupon
and then goes to the food counter, where one gets the food in exchange for
the coupon.
one orders at the counter; after preparation the food is brought to one's
table; paying may be on ordering or after eating.
a drive-through is a type of fast-food restaurant without seating; diners
receive their food in their cars and drive away to eat

Most fast-food restaurants offer take-out: ready-to-eat hot food in disposable

packaging for the customer to eat off-site.

Casual Restaurants

A casual dining restaurant is a restaurant that serves moderately-priced food in a

casual atmosphere. Except for buffet style restaurants, casual dining restaurants
typically provide table service. Casual dining comprises of a market segment between
fast food establishments and fine dining restaurants.

Fast Casual-Dining Restaurants

A fast casual restaurant is similar to a fast-food restaurant in that it does not offer
full table service, but promises a somewhat higher quality of food and atmosphere.
Average prices charged are higher than fast-food prices and non-disposable plates
and cutlery are usually offered. This category is a growing concept that fills the space

115
between fast food and casual dining. Counter service accompanied by handmade
food (often visible via an open kitchen) is typical. Alcohol may be served. Dishes like
steak, which require experience on the part of the cook to get it right, may be offered.
The menu is usually limited to an extended over-counter display, and options in the way
the food is prepared are emphasized.

Other Restaurants

Most of these establishments

can be considered subtypes of fast
casual-dining restaurants or casual-
dining restaurants.

Café. Cafés and coffee shops

are informal restaurants offering
a range of hot meals and made-
to-order sandwiches. Cafés offer
table service. Many cafés are
open for breakfast and serve full
hot breakfasts. In some areas,
cafés offer outdoor seating.

Coffeehouse. Coffeehouses are casual restaurants without table service that

emphasize coffee and other beverages; typically a limited selection of cold
foods such as pastries and perhaps sandwiches are offered as well. Their
distinguishing feature is that they allow patrons to relax and socialize on their
premises for long periods of time without pressure to leave promptly after eating.

Pub. A pub (short for public house) is a bar that serves simple food fare.
Traditionally, pubs were primarily drinking establishments with food in a decidedly
secondary position, whereas the modern pub business relies on food as well, to
the point where gastro pubs are known for their high-quality pub food. A typical
pub has a large selection of beers and ales on tap.

Bistros and Brasserie. A brasserie is a café doubling as a restaurant and serving

single dishes and other meals in a relaxed setting. A bistro is a familiar name for a
café serving moderately priced simple meals in an unpretentious setting.
Especially in Paris, bistros have become increasingly popular with tourists. When
used in English, the term bistro usually indicates either a fast casual-dining
restaurant with a European-influenced menu or a café with a larger menu of
food.

116
Services and Setting up the Table in the Restaurant

There are many types of restaurant service, from formal to casual, and from
quick service to fine dining. It is helpful to be able to identify and understand all of these
service styles and to know when and where to use elements of each of them. Most
styles of formal service originated in the great houses of European nobility and have
been modified over the years for restaurant usage. Many restaurants have taken
elements of one or more types of service and combined them to accommodate their
own style, menu or image.
Following, you will find an
overview of each type and a
description of basic serving
etiquette.

English Service. English

service is used
occasionally in a
private dining room of a
restaurant or at a club,
but most often is used
by service staff in a
private home. The food
is arranged on platters
brought to the table,
and placed with the heated plates in front of the host. The host then carves the
meat or entree, dishes out the vegetables and hands the plate to the server,
standing at his left, who then serves the guests — starting with the hostess, then
the guest of honour and finally all other guests. All sauces and side dishes are
placed on the table and are passed by the guests themselves.

American Service.
American service is less
formal than French,
Russian or English, and
is the style most
commonly used in
Canadian restaurants
today. The main
difference between
American service and
the other types is that
the food is plated in
the kitchen and served
to the table with most
of the food on the
entree plate. The food is served from the guests’ left and the beverages are
served from the guests’ right. All soiled dishes are removed from the guests’ right.
In this manner the server’s hand and arm are away from the guest.

117
 French Service. French service
is distinguished by the fact that the
food is cooked or completed
tableside in front of the guests. The
service is quite formal and very
elegant. The food is brought from the
kitchen on heavy silver platters or
chargers and placed on a tableside
cart called a “gueridón.” The food is
prepared on the gueridón, which has
a small burner for sauteing and
tabletop space for finishing the food.
Some familiar items prepared in this
manner are Steak au Poivre (Pepper
Steak), Caesar Salad and Flambéed
desserts. Once the food is prepared,
it is served to the guests on heated
plates from the gueridón. This type of
service is quite labour intensive and at
times can require two servers, however, guests usually love the show and it allows
the server to spend much more time one-on-one with each table. Usually, the
greater the skill level of the server providing the service, the greater the
appreciation of the guest, and the better the tip.

Russian Service. Russian service is similar to French service in many ways, as it is

also quite formal and elegant and the guest receives a great deal of one-on-
one time with the server. The main
difference between French and
Russian service is that all the food is
prepared and arranged on formal
or silver serving platters in the
kitchen. The server brings the
platters and heated dinner plates
to the dining room on a tray, which
is placed on a side stand. The
plates are placed in front of the
guests from the right, proceeding
around the table clockwise. Then
standing to the left of the guest,
the server presents the platter of
food and, using a large spoon and
fork, serves the desired portion to
each guest. The server moves
around the table counter-
clockwise. All un-served food is

118
 returned to the kitchen. This type of service allows the server to spend more time
at the table with the guests, as the service of the food is more formal and,
therefore, more leisurely.

Instructions for taking an order in the restaurant

Prepare your order pads. Some restaurants may have a pre-configured pad with
a sequential order of seats for all the tables at your station. If not, ensure that you
have your own method of order-taking such as a clockwise system or a coding
system based on the number of guests that assures everyone receives the
correct dish.
Greet the guests at the table with a smile as you make eye contact with each of
them. State the specials of the day and make several recommendations. Ask if
anyone has questions about an item on the menu.
Take the first order from the female guests, if applicable. If there are no women
at the table, take the order based on your restaurant's sequential system or from
the male guest who seems most ready to order. If your customer is trying to
decide among several menu items, provide assistance by explaining how each
dish is prepared.
Repeat the order back to every guest to ensure it is accurate. If someone orders
a dish that can be prepared several different ways -- such as a steak -- ask how
the guest would like the item cooked. Repeating the order also allows you to
ensure that you match each guest with the proper order.
Ask the diners if they would like to add anything to the order. Thank everyone,
collect the menus and state that the meal will arrive shortly.

Housekeeping Department

As the name suggests, housekeeping operations are related to the upkeep of

the hotel. Housekeeping is basically concerned with the smooth running of the place,
as it has to maintain the hotel from the lobby to the room to the restaurants and the
cleaning of the public areas. This Unit intends to introduce you with the housekeeping
activities and will also apprise you with the managerial aspects of the Housekeeping
Department. An attempt has also been made to establish its linkages and healthy
relationship with other departments of the hotel.

Within a hotel, the housekeeping department is normally the biggest department

with a large number of staff members. Hence, housekeeping department of every hotel
has an organized structure irrespective of its size. However, for smaller hotels
organisation of housekeeping departments can be done in the manner given:
Sr. Attendant (Linen Room) Helper

Head Room Room

Housekeepe Supervisor Housemen
Attendant Attendants
r

Head Housemen
Public Areas Housemen
119
Some of their prime duties can be summarized as:

Housekeeping Manager: Also known as the Head or Executive Housekeeper is

the one with ultimate accountability for the department in terms of staff
deployment and development, operational standards and profitability.
Delegation, community guidance and direction are key skills required in a
successful housekeeping manager. As a whole, it is the housekeeping manager
who owns the accountability for standards of cleanliness, maintenance and
financial performance within the housekeeping department.

Floor Supervisor: Also known as floor housekeepers, is in charge of a floor or a

specified number of
rooms. His/her main job is
to ensure the quality and
efficiency of the room
attendants. Once the
room is checked and
found to be up to mark it is
“handed” over to the front
desk for letting out to the
guest.

The floor supervisors also

impart training to the new
room attendants and re-
training for the existing
staff for corrective
measures. They are also responsible for the equipments and cost-control within
their area, and liaison with other department like maintenance and front office.
Management of linen, refuse and cleaning equipment is another duty of the
floor supervisor. Sending soiled linen for cleaning and procuring clean linen for
next day’s cleaning of rooms is very important. Also the exact count of the linen
needs to be maintained at all times in the linen closet.

Room Attendants: Room attendants are also known as housekeeping assistants.

They are primarily responsible for maintaining the high standards of cleanliness in
each of the room assigned to them. Cleaning the room includes vacuuming the
rooms, cleaning the toilets, checking and replenishing the used toiletries,
changing the linens and towels and making sure that the general set-up of the
room is correct. Reporting of the maintenance problems to the concerned
department personnel is another key duty performed by the room attendants. At
times guests place their queries regarding the local amenities or about hotel

120
 facilities to the room attendants and while answering these queries they play their
role in customer relations. All these duties are required to be performed in a
specified time period as they are allotted fixed number of rooms to maintain.

As far as ideal number of personnel to be deployed in each section of

housekeeping is concerned following formula can be used as a sample:

Executive Housekeeper: 1 for 300 rooms

Assistant Executive Housekeeper : 2 for 300 rooms
Floor Supervisor : 1:30 Morning Shift
1:60 Night Shift
Public Area : 1 for every shift
Linen/Uniform Room Supervisor : 1 for every shift
Linen/Uniform Room Helper : 1 for every shift
Room Attendant : 1 for every fourteen rooms
Linen Attendant : 1 for every shift
Housemen : 1:60 rooms/per shift
Desk Attendant : 1 for every shift
Tailor : Subject to load
Horticulturist : One
Upholster : One
Head Gardner : 1 for every 20
Gardner : 1 for each 450 sq. ft. of landscape area

The extension of the housekeeping function outside the hotel bedroom normally
includes cleaning of the bedroom floors and may also include the staircases, public
cloakrooms and other public areas of the hotel. Many a times outside agencies are
involved in cleaning the public areas such as the lobby and the restaurant area as well
as the men’s and women’s restrooms. This activity is normally carried out at odd hours or
at the times when public is not around this area. The standard of the cleanliness needs
to be maintained and it’s the duty of the executive housekeeper to see that pre-
determined standards of cleanliness are maintained in all the areas of the hotel it be if
the fire-exit stairwells and goods lifts or any
other public area. To ensure this, the day of
executive housekeepers begin with a
round with assistant housekeeper of all such
areas which is visited by the public. For this
standards need to be set and once the
standards are approved, the department
shall strive hard to maintain them.

Room Status Terminology

During the guest’s stay, the

housekeeping status of the guestroom
changes several times. The various terms
defined are typical of the room status

121
terminology of the lodging industry. Not every room status will occur for each
guestroom during every stay.

Occupied: A guest is currently registered to the room.

Complimentary: The room is occupied, but the guest is assessed no charge for its
use.
Stay Over: The guest is not expected to check out today and will remain at least
one more night.
On-change: The guest has departed, but the room has not yet been cleaned
and readied for re-sale.
Do Not Disturb: The guest has requested not to be disturbed.
Sleep-out: A guest is registered to the room, but the bed has not been used.
Skipper: The guest has left the hotel without making arrangements to settle his or
her account.
Sleeper: The guest has settled his or her account and left the hotel, but the front
office staff has failed to properly update the room’s status.
Vacant and ready: The room has been cleaned and inspected and is ready for
an arriving guest.
Out-of-order: The room cannot be assigned to a guest. A room may be out-of-
order for a variety of reasons including the need for maintenance, refurbishing,
and extensive cleaning.
Double Lock: The guest room door is locked from inside and outside two times so
that no one can enter.
Lockout: The room has been locked so that the guest cannot re-enter until a
hotel official clears him or her.
DNCO (Did Not Check Out): The guest made arrangements to settle his or her
account (and thus is not a skipper), but has left without informing the front office.
Due out: The room is expected to become vacant after the following day’s
checkout time.
Do Not Paid: The guest is going to check out from the hotel today.
Checkout: The guest has settled his or her account, returned the room keys, and
left the hotel.
Late Check-out: The guest has requested and is being allowed to check out later
than the hotel’s standard check-out time.

Room Status Reconciliation

The review of guest rooms was important to conduct before introducing the next
section. Hotels monitor each and every guest room very closely. They are in business to
sell rooms, and that includes each room type, configuration, and designation. The most
important aspect of this monitoring process is discerning what guest rooms are
available for sale and when. This is to avoid the obvious embarrassment of checking
two guests into the same room, as well as to maximize room revenue by selling every
room as soon as it becomes available. The hotel industry assigns a status to every guest
room.

122
 Reconciling the guest room status is the way a hotel is able to manage
availability. Room status reconciliation is defined as ensuring that rooms are properly
designated by their current status, and assigned a new status as it changes. Both
housekeeping and the front desk maintain room status. Each coordinates with the other
to make sure that rooms are assigned, cleaned, and assigned again to maximize room
revenue, while avoiding a miss-assignment. Room status categories/designations are
grouped by the guest room’s state of occupancy, state of cleanliness, and state of
exception. The most commonly used room status codes are Occupied, Vacant, Dirty,
Clean, Ready, and Out of Order.

123
2
Travel Agencies and
Airlines Operations

124
Travel Agency Structure

A travel agency is a middleman—a business or person selling the travel industry’s

individual parts or a combination of the parts to the consumer. In marketing terms a
travel agent is an agent middleman, acting on behalf of the client, making
arrangements with suppliers of travel (airlines, hotels, tour operators), and receiving a
commission from the suppliers. In legal terms, a travel agency is an agent of the
principal—specifically, transportation companies.

The agency operates as a legally appointed agent, representing the principal in

a certain geographic area. The agency functions as a broker (bringing buyer and seller
together) for the other suppliers, such as hotels, car rentals, ground operators, and tour
companies. A travel agent is thus an expert, knowledgeable in schedules, routing,
lodging, currency, prices, regulations, destinations, and all other aspects of travel and
travel opportunities. In short, the travel agent is a specialist and counselor.

The main function of the travel agency is to sell the temporary use of transport
(air, rail, coach, and car), accommodation (hotel, motel, and lodge), tours (packages)
and other associated services (insurance, foreign exchange). This means that they are
involved in the planning, booking, organisation and documentation of travel
arrangements for their clients. Often, this also involves advising, reassuring, explaining
and encouraging the customer. Travel consultants (the people in a travel agency who
deal with the public) are expected to gather information on travel destinations and be
capable of giving advice on travel products. Travel consultants require good inter-
personal and organizational skills and the ability to deal with unexpected situations.

125
Tour Operator or Wholesaler Operations

The tour wholesaler (also called tour operator) puts together a tour and all of its
components and sells the tour through his or her own company, through retail outlets,
and/or through approved retail travel agencies. Wholesalers can offer vacation
packages to the traveling public at prices lower than an individual traveler can arrange
because wholesalers can buy services such as transportation, hotel rooms, sight-seeing
services, airport transfers, and meals in large quantities at discounted prices. Tour
wholesaling became an important segment of the U.S. travel industry after World War II.
It has expanded substantially since the 1960s, largely because air carriers wanted to fill
the increasing numbers of aircraft seats. The tour wholesale business consists primarily of
planning, preparing, and marketing a vacation tour, including making reservations and
consolidating transportation and ground services into a tour assembled for a departure
date to a specific destination. Tours are then sold to the public through retail outlets
such as travel agents and airline ticket offices.

The number of independent tour operators has grown dramatically over the past
decade and now numbers over two thousand. A large portion of the business,
however, is concentrated in the hands of a small number of large operators.
Independent tour wholesalers provide significant revenue to transportation and ground
service suppliers. They also provide the retailer and the public with a wide selection of

126
tours to a large number of destinations at varying costs, for varying durations, and in
various seasons. Furthermore, they supply advance notice and increased assurance of
future passenger volumes to suppliers. The independent tour wholesaler’s business is
characterized by relative ease of entry, high velocity of cash flow, low return on sales,
and the potential for high return on equity because the investment necessary to start
such a business is small.

Tour wholesaling businesses are usually one of four kinds: (1) the independent
tour wholesaler, (2) the airline working in close cooperation with a tour wholesaling
business, (3) the retail travel agent who packages tours for its clients, and (4) the
operator of motor coach tours. These four entities, along with incentive travel
companies and travel clubs, comprise the industry. The public or the consumer is the
driving force and can purchase travel services from a retail travel agent or directly from
the suppliers of travel services: the airlines, hotels, and other providers of destination
services. The tour wholesaler’s role is that of consolidating the services of airlines and
other carriers with the ground services needed into one package, which can be sold
through travel agents to the consuming public.

Retail Travel Agency Operations

A Retail Agent otherwise known as a Travel Agent was for many years the only
public face of the travel industry. They sold packages from brochures. Some travel
agents were tied or owned by a tour operator. Others were independent, sourcing
packages from tour operators and tour organizers.

127
 In many ways, travel agents are very similar to tour organizers. For me, the
difference is that a travel agent builds the business around their retail space,
traditionally selling standard packages. This is a different emphasis from a tour organizer

128
who is less likely to base the business around retail space and is more likely to tailor
packages to suit individual groups of customers. However, that said, a tour organizer
could be based around a shop, and a travel agent could concentrate on tailoring
package.

Becoming a travel agent requires access to package providers, the ability to run
marketing campaigns and a retail outlet. While the set up costs may well be higher
than a tour organizer, due to the cost of the retail space, it is a viable start up option.

Basically we can say that a travel agency operates as a broker, bringing buyer
and seller together, for the other suppliers of travel such as hotels, car rentals, ground
operators and tour companies. Travel agents can be categorized in several ways with
the usual distinction being drawn on the basis of size:

Multinationals with offices worldwide

National multiples with offices throughout a country
Regional multiples or maniples with a number of offices but concentrated in one
region of a country
Independents with anything from one to a handful of outlets

A travel agency may offer every possible service or specializes in a certain type
of business. In that sense travel agencies can be
divided into different types according to the
services they offer. Tours can be classified into a
number of categories:

Package tours. A
pre-arranged
combination of not
fewer than two of
the following tourism
services when sold or
offered for sale at an
inclusive price and
when the service
covers a period of
more than 24 hours
or includes overnight
accommodation:
 Transportation
– air, sea,
road, rail etc
to/from
destination

 Accommodation – hotels, guest houses, cottages etc.

129
  Other tourism services such as transfers between air/sea port and
accommodation at destination, accounting for a significant portion of
the tour package

Often package holiday can include the following additional elements:

 meals – breakfast, half board or full board (ep;b; hb; fb)

 Supplementary services – events, city sightseeing, theme evenings
 Entertainment – animation etc.
 Insurance – and other ancillary services

Escorted tours. This kind of tour is a group tour which uses the services of a
professional tour manager. The escorted tour is a structured programme of
sightseeing, meals, transportation and accommodation. The professional tour
manager is in charge of all arrangements.

All-inclusive tours. An all-inclusive tour includes the coverage of all costs in

the unit price except for personal items. This usually means the coverage of
all air and land arrangements such as transportation, accommodation, meals
and sightseeing.

Receptive Travel Agency Operations

A receptive travel agency is a local tour company that specializes in new tourism
experiences and manages products and services for incoming visitors most often
booked through international tour operators. Receptive travel agency plays an
important role in the packaged travel industry. When a tour operator is planning an
itinerary in a market they are unfamiliar with – they seek the expert cooperation of a
receptive tour operator.

Receptive travel agency purchases services such as hotel rooms and

transportation directly from suppliers and then packages
them to be sold to the wholesale tour operator who then
sells them to the travel agents. In other words, a receptive
is a broker of tourism products and
packages!

A good receptive travel agency

holds the key to a unique
packaged experience.
Knows the market inside out and
provides interesting and unique
itineraries
Has access to a well developed
network of resourceful hospitality
providers Carries detailed

130
 product information, including high resolution images
Uses trustworthy vendors that pay attention to detail
Ability to develop additional packages based on tour operator demand
Annually produces a listing of the products and packages and rates
Monitors quality and has in depth knowledge of supplier products
Provides accounting function for local suppliers for them not to incur currency
risks
Creates documentation for end user (ex. vouchers) to verify purchase of
products such as transportation, hotels, guide service, admissions to attractions,
planned meals.

Airlines Operations

An airline is a company that provides air transport

services for traveling passengers and freight.
Airlines lease or own their aircraft with which to supply
these services and may form partnerships or alliances with
other airlines for mutual benefit. Generally, airline
companies are recognized with an air operating
certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation

131
body. Airlines vary from those with a single aircraft carrying mail or cargo, through full-
service international airlines operating hundreds of aircraft. Airline services can be
categorized as being intercontinental, intra-continental, domestic, regional, or
international, and may be operated as scheduled services or charters.

International Regulatory Considerations

Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide

standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated
by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to
operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda
Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to
be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate
carriers to operate routes.

Bilateral agreements are based on the "freedoms of the air", a group of

generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom
to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known
as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to
designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide
continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while
carrying passengers from overseas.

In the 1990s, "open skies" agreements became more common. These

agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open
up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some
criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a
comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.

The airlines have revolutionized travel, and the range and speed of jet travel
have greatly expanded what tourists or business travelers could once accomplish with
the equivalent time and funds at their disposal. Today, for example, it is possible to fly
around the globe in
less time than it
takes to drive
across the United
States. The system is
also incredibly
efficient: You need
to make only one
call to an airline or
a travel agent to
purchase a ticket to
your desired
destination; then
under deregulation,
the airline industry

132
has undergone dramatic change. It is hard to believe that the twentieth anniversary of
U.S. airline deregulation has come and gone. Looking back we can see that it has led
to significant consolidation, hub systems, low airfares in competitive situations, and high
airfares where competition is lacking.

133
 The future holds more concentration as a wave of alliances has taken place and
more are proposed. Alliances now involve the six largest carriers in the United States.
These are United–Delta, American–US Airways, and Continental–Northwest.
International alliances have been debated since KLM and Northwest linked in 1992.
United has the Star Alliance (created in May 1997), which included Lufthansa, Air
Canada, Thai Airways, and SAS. Since then, United has added Brazil’s Varig, Air New
Zealand, All Nippon Airways, Austrian Airlines, BMI British Midland, Lauda Air, Mexicana,
Singapore Airlines, and Tyrolean Airways. American and British Airways have launched a
global alliance with Qantas, Cathay Pacific Airways, Aer Lingus, Iberia, LanChile, and
Finnair called one world. They also plan to expand the grouping. There are other
alliances and partners too numerous to mention, but the above alliances indicate the
high level of concentration present.

Rent a Car Operations

A car rental or car hire agency is a company that rents automobiles for short
periods of time (generally ranging from a few hours to a few weeks) for a fee. It is often
organized with numerous local branches (which allow a user to return a vehicle to a
different location), and primarily located near airports or busy city areas and often
complemented by a website allowing online reservations.

Car rental agencies primarily serve people who have a car that is temporarily
out of reach or out of service, for example travellers who are out of town or owners of
damaged or destroyed vehicles who are awaiting repair or insurance compensation.
Because of the variety of sizes of their
vehicles, car rental agencies may also
serve the self-moving industry needs, by
renting vans or trucks, and in certain
markets other types of vehicles such as
motorcycles or scooters may also be
offered.

Car rental companies operate by

purchasing or leasing a number of fleet
vehicles and renting them to their
customers for a fee. Rental fleets can be
structured in several ways – they can be
owned outright (these are known as ‘risk
vehicles’ because the car rental operator
is taking a risk on how much the vehicle will be sold for when it is removed from service),
they can be leased, or they can be owned under a guaranteed buy-back program
arranged directly through a manufacturer or manufacturer’s financial arm (these are
known as ‘repurchase vehicles’ because the manufacturer outlines the exact price of
original sale and of repurchase at the end of a defined term).

134
135
Cruise Operations

A cruise ship or cruise liner is a passenger ship used for pleasure voyages, where
the voyage itself and the ship's amenities are a part of the experience, as well as the
different destinations along the way. Transportation is not the prime purpose, as cruise
ships operate mostly on routes that return passengers to their originating port, so the
ports of call are usually in a specified region of a continent. There are even "cruises to
nowhere" or "nowhere voyages" where the ship makes 2-3 day round trips without any
ports of call. Cruise ships are organized much like floating hotels, with a complete
hospitality staff in addition to the usual ship's crew. It is not uncommon for the most
luxurious ships to have more
crew and staff than
passengers.

Operators of cruise
ships are known as cruise lines.
Cruise lines have a dual
character; they are partly in
the transportation business,
and partly in the leisure
entertainment business, a
duality that carries down into
the ships themselves, which
have both a crew headed by
the ship's captain, and a
hospitality staff headed by the
equivalent of a hotel
manager. Among cruise lines, some are direct descendants of the traditional passenger
shipping lines (such as Cunard), while others were founded from the 1960s specifically
for cruising.

The Caribbean cruising industry is one of the largest in the world, responsible for
over $2 billion in direct revenue to the Caribbean islands. Over 45,000 people from the
Caribbean are directly employed in the cruise industry. 17,457,600 cruise passengers
visited the islands. Cruise lines operating in the Caribbean include Royal Caribbean
International, Princess Cruises, Carnival Cruise Line, Celebrity Cruises, Disney Cruise
Line, Holland America, P&O, Cunard, Crystal Cruises, Pullmantur Cruises and Norwegian
Cruise Line. There are also smaller cruise lines that cater to a more intimate feeling
among their guests. The three largest cruise operators are Carnival Corporation, Royal
Caribbean International, and Star Cruises/Norwegian Cruise Lines.

136
137
3
Tourism Software’s:
Resigo Program,
Amadeus

138
Resigo Program

ResiGo is a modern Windows application

with a clear formulation of input masks. This
software includes room chart, guest history,
invoices and reports as well as a complete
overview of all reservations. This simplifies the
running of your hotel, guest house, hostel, or bed and breakfast, which enables you to
take more care of each guest.

The hotel software ResiGo enables you to manage your reservations and guest
register, provides you continuously with accommodation and sales statistics and
facilitates your correspondence. Hotel software should be designed to lighten the work
and give you more time to take care of your guests. The system provides you with stats
stay and turnover as well as the preparation of correspondence.

General information on ResiGo

The most modern Windows application, developed based net framework

User displays clear organization and extremely easy to use
Almost all functions can be
controlled directly from the state
graph Room
It has an information line at
the bottom , with the most
important information about the
host, inter alia, are the
observations of the host, arrival
time, phone number, or the
balance of the host company , the
date of option price overnight
Activation time desired by a
simple mouse click
Prices can be created according to season, time of fairs , length of stay , price
lists , numbers of people, different customer groups (framework agreement )
Indication of spa and resort fees
Assistance may live (live –Support-) directly via Internet
Automatic assignment of ZIP Code -> Location

Reservation

The desired reservation period is selected in the room chart by using the left
mouse button. Confirm in the navigation bar with the button “reserve “. If the client has
been a guest before, you will find him over the search function in the guest register. If
not, enter his correct address. Beware to enter a decent short name as this may exist
only once in the data base, eg: Smith-John, Smi-Calif. The country should also be
entered as this is important for the country statistic which must be handed over monthly.

139
The standard price of the room appears on the right field under daily charges. If
necessary a special rate may be entered. By double clicking on daily charges the item
search function appears where further charges such as full board or half board for the
time of stay may be chosen. The choice box, payer status, determines who pays the bill.
The possibilities are: Guest pays all, company pays all or extra´s are self –paid (company
pays lodging, guest pays
all extra´s).The company
address is indicated below
the companies’ data
page. A company
account as well as a guest
account is automatically
started in the file. The
charges are then booked
on the specific accounts.
More information to be
taken in the field
accounts.

Check-in

Select the desired guest with the left mouse button. Then go to check in on the
navigation bar.

140
Check-out

Click the check out button in the toolbar. Select the desired guests. The guests
will be checked out via check out. You will be asked if the guest invoice should be
printed. Otherwise the invoice can be drawn up later over the guest account or over
the tool bar button “invoice “.

Amadeus

Amadeus is a transaction processor for the global travel and tourism industry.
Acting as an international network, Amadeus provides search, pricing, booking,
ticketing and other processing services in real-time to travel providers and travel
agencies through
its Amadeus
CRS distribution business
area. Through its IT Solutions
business area, it also offers
travel companies software
systems which automate
processes such as
reservations, inventory
management and departu
re control.

Amadeus was
originally created as a
neutral global distribution
system (GDS) by Air
France, Iberia, Lufthansa a
nd SAS in 1987 in order to

141
connect providers' content with travel agencies and consumers in real time. The
creation of Amadeus was intended to offer a European alternative to Sabre, the
American GDS. The first Amadeus system was built from core reservation system code
coming from System One, an American GDS that competed with Sabre but went
bankrupt, and a copy of the Air France pricing engine.

These systems were respectively running under IBM TPF and Unisys. At the
beginning of Amadeus, the Amadeus systems were functionally dedicated to airline
reservation and centered on the PNR (Passenger Name Record), the passenger's travel
file. Throughout the years, the PNR was opened up to additional travel industries (hotels,
rail, cars, cruises, ferries, insurance, etc.). Although established initially as a private
partnership, Amadeus went public in October 1999, becoming listed on the Paris,
Frankfurt and Madrid stock exchanges. Progressively and in line with industry evolution,
Amadeus diversified its operations by focusing on information technologies (IT) to
deliver services spanning beyond sales and reservation functionalities, centered on
streamlining the operational and distribution requirements of its customer base.

Amadeus.net

Amadeus.net provides you with access to online travel agencies/ airlines that
use Amadeus online booking engine technology to allow you to make travel
reservations online. Through Amadeus.net (CRS) you will be able to search one of these
agencies/ airlines in any country in the world where there are travel agencies /airlines
associated with Amadeus.net. The whole amadeus.net reservation system is based on
the state-of-the-art booking engine technology of Amadeus and enables its partners to
offer a performant online booking service to the travellers. Note that all the details of
your reservation (ticket handling, reservation changes, cancellations, etc.) are handled
by the travel agent/airline you made the online reservation with. Please make sure to
always take good note of the contact details of the agency/airline you chose to make
your reservation with as well as to always print the reservation confirmation code and
details page.

142