Physical Features Of India

The mainland comprises four regions, namely, the great mountain zone, plains of the
Ganga and the Indus, the desert region and the southern peninsula.

The Himalayas comprise three almost parallel ranges interspersed with large plateaus and
valleys, some of which, like the Kashmir and Kullu valleys, are fertile, extensive and of
great scenic beauty. Some of the highest peaks in the world are found in these ranges.
The high altitudes admit travel only to a few passes, notably the Jelep La and Nathu La
on the main Indo-Tibet trade route through the Chumbi Valley, north-east of Darjeeling
and Shipki La in the Satluj valley, north-east of Kalpa (Kinnaur). The mountain wall
extends over a distance of about 2,400 km with a varying depth of 240 to 320 km. In the
east, between India and Myanmar and India and Bangladesh, hill ranges are much lower.
Garo, Khasi, Jaintia and Naga Hills, running almost east-west, join the chain to Mizo and
Rkhine Hills running north-south.

The plains of the Ganga and the Indus, about 2,400 km long and 240 to 320 km broad,
are formed by basins of three distinct river systems - the Indus, the Ganga and the
Brahmaputra. They are one of the world's greatest stretches of flat alluvium and also one
of the most densely populated areas on the earth. Between the Yamuna at Delhi and the
Bay of Bengal, nearly 1,600 km away, there is a drop of only 200 metres in elevation.

The desert region can be divided into two parts - the great desert and the little desert. The
great desert extends from the edge of the Rann of Kuchch beyond the Luni River
northward. The whole of the Rajasthan-Sind frontier runs through this. The little desert
extends from the Luni between Jaisalmer and Jodhpur up to the northern wastes. Between
the great and the little deserts lies a zone of absolutely sterile country, consisting of rocky
land cut up by limestone ridges.

The Peninsular Plateau is marked off from the plains of the Ganga and the Indus by a
mass of mountain and hill ranges varying from 460 to 1,220 metres in height. Prominent
among these are the Aravalli, Vindhya, Satpura, Maikala and Ajanta. The Peninsula is
flanked on the one side by the Eastern Ghats where average elevation is about 610 metres
and on the other by the Western Ghats where it is generally from 915 to 1,220 metres,
rising in places to over 2,440 metres. Between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea
lies a narrow coastal strip, while between Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal there is a
broader coastal area. The southern point of plateau is formed by the Nilgiri Hills where
the Eastern and the Western Ghats meet. The Cardamom Hills lying beyond may be
regarded as a continuation of the Western Ghats
Geological Structure
The geological regions broadly follow the physical features, and may be grouped into
three regions: the Himalayas and their associated group of mountains, the Indo-Ganga
Plain, and the Peninsular Shield.

The Himalayan mountain belt to the north and the Naga-Lushai mountain in the east, are
the regions of mountain-building movement. Most of this area, now presenting some of
the most magnificent mountain scenery in the world, was under marine conditions about
600 million years ago. In a series of mountain-building movements commencing about
70 million years ago, the sediments and the basement rocks rose to great heights. The
weathering and erosive agencies worked on these to produce the relief seen today. The
Indo-Ganga plains are a great alluvial tract that separates the Himalayas in the north from
the Peninsula in the south.

The Peninsula is a region of relative stability and occasional seismic disturbances. Highly
metamorphosed rocks of the earliest periods, dating back as far as 380 crore years, occur
in the area; the rest being covered by the coastal-bearing Gondwana formations, lava
flows belonging to the Deccan Trap formation and younger sediments.

Rivers
The rivers of India can be classified into four groups viz., Himalayan rivers, Deccan
rivers, Coastal rivers, and Rivers of the inland drainage basin.

The Himalayan Rivers are formed by melting snow and glaciers and therefore,
continuously flow throughout the year. During the monsoon months, Himalayas receive
very heavy rainfall and rivers swell, causing frequent floods. The Deccan Rivers on the
other hand are rain fed and therefore fluctuate in volume. Many of these are non-
perennial. The Coastal streams, especially on the west coast are short in length and have
limited catchment's areas. Most of them are non-perennial. The streams of inland
drainage basin of western Rajasthan are few. Most of them are of an ephemeral character.

The main Himalayan river systems are those of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra-
Meghna system. The Indus, which is one of the great rivers of the world, rises near
Mansarovar in Tibet and flows through India, and thereafter through Pakistan, and finally
falls in the Arabian Sea near Karachi. Its important tributaries flowing in Indian Territory
are the Sutlej (originating in Tibet), the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab, and the Jhelum. The
Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna is another important system of which the principal sub-
basins are those of Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda, which join at Dev Prayag to form the
Ganga. It traverses through Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. Below
Rajmahal hills, the Bhagirathi, which used to be the main course in the past, takes off,
while the Padma continues eastward and enters Bangladesh. The Yamuna, the Ramganga,
the Ghaghra, the Gandak, the Kosi, the Mahananda and the Sone are the important
tributaries of the Ganga. Rivers Chambal and Betwa are the important sub-tributaries,
which join Yamuna before it meets the Ganga. The Padma and the Brahmaputra join
inside Bangladesh, and continue to flow as the Padma or Ganga. The Brahmaputra rises
in Tibet, where it is known as Tsangpo and runs a long distance till it crosses over into
India in Arunachal Pradesh under the name of Dihang. Near Passighat, the Debang and
Lohit join the river Brahmaputra and the combined river runs all along the Assam in a
narrow valley. It crosses into Bangladesh downstream of Dhubri.

The principal tributaries of Brahmaputra in India are the Subansiri, Jia Bhareli, Dhansiri,
Puthimari, Pagladiya and the Manas. The Brahmaputra in Bangladesh receives the flow
of Tista, etc., and finally falls into Ganga. The Barak River, the Head stream of Meghna,
rises in the hills in Manipur. The important tributaries of the river are Makku, Trang,
Tuivai, Jiri, Sonai, Rukni, Katakhal, Dhaleswari, Langachini, Maduva and Jatinga. Barak
continues in Bangladesh till the combined Ganga-Brahmaputra join it near Bhairab
Bazar.

In the Deccan region, most of the major river systems flowing generally in east direction
fall into Bay of Bengal. The major east flowing rivers are Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery,
Mahanadi, etc. Narmada and Tapti are major West flowing rivers.

The Godavari in the southern Peninsula has the second largest river basin covering 10 per
cent of the area of India. Next to it is the Krishna basin in the region, while the Mahanadi
has the third largest basin. The basin of the Narmada in the uplands of the Deccan,
flowing to the Arabian Sea, and of the Kaveri in the south, falling into the Bay of Bengal
are about the same size, though with different character and shape.

There are numerous coastal rivers, which are comparatively small. While only handful of
such rivers drain into the sea near the delta of east cost, there are as many as 600 such
rivers on the west coast.

A few rivers in Rajasthan do not drain into the sea. They drain into salt lakes and get lost
in sand with no outlet to sea. Besides these, there are the Desert Rivers which flow for
some distance and are lost in the desert. These are Luni and others such as, Machhu,
Rupen, Saraswati, Banas and Ghaggar.

Climate
The climate of India may be broadly described as tropical monsoon type.

There are four seasons:

1. winter (January-February),
2. hot weather summer (March-May);
3. rainy southwestern monsoon (June-September) and
4. post-monsoon, also known as northeast monsoon in the southern Peninsula
(October-December).
India's climate is affected by two seasonal winds - the northeast monsoon and the
southwest monsoon. The north-east monsoon, commonly known as winter monsoon
blows from land to sea, whereas south-west monsoon, known as summer monsoon blows
from sea to land after crossing the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea, and the Bay of Bengal.
The south-west monsoon brings most of the rainfall during a year in the country.

Flora
With a wide range of climatic conditions from the torrid to the arctic, India has a rich and
varied vegetation, which only a few countries of comparable size possess. India can be
divided into eight distinct-floristic-regions, namely, the western Himalayas, the eastern
Himalayas, Assam, the Indus plain, the Ganga plain, the Deccan, Malabar and the
Andamans.

The Western Himalayan region extends from Kashmir to Kumaon. Its temperate zone is
rich in forests of chir, pine, other conifers and broad-leaved temperate trees. Higher up,
forests of deodar, blue pine, spruce and silver fir occur. The alpine zone extends from the
upper limit of the temperate zone of about 4,750 metres or even higher. The characteristic
trees of this zone are high-level silver fir, silver birch and junipers. The eastern
Himalayan region extends from Sikkim eastwards and embraces Darjeeling, Kurseong
and the adjacent tract. The temperate zone has forests of oaks, laurels, maples,
rhododendrons, alder and birch. Many conifers, junipers and dwarf willows also occur
here. The Assam region comprises the Brahmaputra and the Surma valleys with
evergreen forests, occasional thick clumps of bamboos and tall grasses. The Indus plain
region comprises the plains of Punjab, western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat. It is dry
and hot and supports natural vegetation. The Ganga plain region covers the area which is
alluvial plain and is under cultivation for wheat, sugarcane and rice. Only small areas
support forests of widely differing types. The Deccan region comprises the entire
tableland of the Indian Peninsula and supports vegetation of various kinds from scrub
jungles to mixed deciduous forests. The Malabar region covers the excessively humid
belt of mountain country parallel to the west coast of the Peninsula. Besides being rich in
forest vegetation, this region produces important commercial crops, such as coconut,
betel nut, pepper, coffee and tea, rubber and cashew nut. The Andaman region abounds in
evergreen, mangrove, beach and diluvia forests. The Himalayan region extending from
Kashmir to Arunachal Pradesh through Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Meghalaya and Nagaland
and the Deccan Peninsula is rich in endemic flora, with a large number of plants which
are not found elsewhere.

India is rich in flora. Available data place India in the tenth position in the world and
fourth in Asia in plant diversity. From about 70 per cent geographical area surveyed so
far, 47,000 species of plants have been described by the Botanical Survey of India (BSI),
Kolkata. The vascular flora, which forms the conspicuous vegetation cover, comprises
15,000 species. Of these, more than 35 per cent is endemic and has so far not been
reported anywhere in the world. The flora of the country is being studied by the BSI and
its nine circle/field offices located throughout the country along with certain universities
and research institutions.
Fauna
The Zoological Survey of India (ZSI), with its headquarters in Kolkata and 16 regional
stations is responsible for surveying the faunal resources of India. Possessing a
tremendous diversity of climate and physical conditions, India has great variety of fauna,
numbering 89,451 species, which include protista, mollusca, anthropoda, amphibia,
mammalia, reptilia, members of protochordata, pisces, aves and other invertebrates.

The mammals include the majestic elephant, the gaur or Indian bison - the largest of
existing bovines, the great Indian rhinoceros, the gigantic wild sheep of the Himalayas,
the swamp deer, the thamin spotted deer, nilgai, the four-horned antelope, the Indian
antelope or black-buck - the only representatives of these genera. Among the cats, the
tiger and lion are the most magnificent of all; other splendid creatures such as the clouded
leopard, the snow leopard, the marbled cat, etc., are also found. Many other species of
mammals are remarkable for their beauty, colouring, grace and uniqueness. Several birds,
like pheasants, geese, ducks, mynahs, parakeets, pigeons, cranes, hornbills and sun birds
inhabit forests and wetlands.

Rivers and lakes harbour crocodiles and gharials, the latter being the only representative
of crocodilian order in the world. The salt-water crocodile is found along the eastern
coast and in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. A project for breeding crocodiles, started
in 1974, has been instrumental in saving the crocodile from extinction.

The great Himalayan range has a very interesting variety of fauna that includes the wild
sheep and goats, markhor, ibex, shrew and tapir. The panda and the snow leopard are
found in the upper reaches of the mountains.

Depletion of vegetative cover due to expansion of agriculture, habitat destruction, over-

exploitation, pollution, introduction of toxic imbalance in community structure,
epidemics, floods, droughts and cyclones, contribute to the loss of flora and fauna. More
than 39 species of mammals, 72 species of birds, 17 species of reptiles, three species of
amphibians, two species of fish, and a large number of butterflies, moth, and beetles are
considered vulnerable and endangered.

Northern Plains
The Northern Plains of India are composed up of the excellent silt called alluvium.
The rivers bring it down from the Himalayas in the north and the peninsular plateau
in the south. Such a plain is called an alluvial plain. If one takes a look at the delta of
the Ganga-Brahmaputra, one will find that this act of deposition is still in the
process. The Northern Plains are divided into two river systems- the Indus in the
west and the Ganga-Brahmaputra in the east. Even on the contour map of India one
can scarcely find any relief characteristic playing a potential water divide between
the two river systems.

The Indus basin - Less than one-third of the Indus basin is located in India (Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Punjab). The Indus is approximately 2900 km
long. Its primary tributaries include the Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum. One
can take a look at the map to witness how these rivers unite together one by one
before they eventually merge into the Indus. The slope of the Indus plain is pretty
mild. The plain extends over 1200 km between the Arabian Sea in the south-west
and foothills of the Western Himalaya in the north-east. Over this entire distance,
the total descend of the plain is barely 300 metres. The rivers have turned the plain
pretty productive and it now has one of the densest systems of canals for irrigation.

The Ganga basin - The Ganga has two primary origins in the Himalaya- the
Bhagirathi and the Alaknanda. Both merge in Devprayag and flow as the Ganga
subsequently. It enters the Northern Plains at Hardwar. The Yamuna joins it in
Allahabad. Chambal, Sind, Betwa and Ken in turn join the Yamuna. They all stream
through the Malwa plateau before entering into the plains. The Son is the only big
river to join the Ganga straightaway from the southern plateau. Further east, the
Damodar, irrigating the Chotanagpur plateau, joins the Hughli, a distributary of the
Ganga. The big Himalayan Rivers uniting with the Ganga downstream of Allahabad
from west to east comprise the Gomati, Ghaghara, Gandak and Kosi. The Ganga
river system waters most of Haryana, southeast Rajasthan, northern Madhya
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and most parts of West Bengal. Ambala is located on
the water divide between the Indus and the Ganga river systems. The plains from
Ambala in the northwest to Sundarbans in the east extend over almost 1800 km.
During its total broadening from Haryana to Bangladesh; there is a descend of barely
300 metres in its slope. The zig-zag or winding courses of the rivers prove how level
the plains are. The Ganga is over 2500 km long.

The Brahmaputra valley - The Brahmaputra initiates in Tibet near the source of
the Indus and Satluj. It transports a remarkable volume of water. The river is
somewhat longer compared to the Indus, but most of its course lies in Tibet. It
streams parallel to the Himalayan Mountains in Tibet, where it is called Tsangpo.
When it takes a hairpin bend around Namcha Barwa (7757m), the undercutting done
by this dominant river, is of the order of 5,500 metres. Here and in Arunachal
Pradesh it is called Dihang. After the convergence of the Lohit, Dihang and Dibang, it
is named the Brahmaputra. Leaving a huge volume of water, it also transports a
gigantic amount of silt with it. In northern Bangladesh it is called Jamuna. In the
central part after uniting with the Ganga, it is called Padma. Further south, the
Meghna meets the main stream and the common stream is also called Meghna.

The Ganga-Brahmaputra delta - It is the largest and the fastest growing delta of
the world. This is not only well-watered, but is also the most productive. Ganga and
Brahmaputra divide into several distributaries in their lower courses. Due to the mild
slope or gradient, the rivers become slow, and islands of silt and mud expand in their
channel. To evade these obstacles, the rivers generally divide into a number of
channels. The process is recurred various times to build up a classical delta. The
lower part of the delta goes sloppy, where fresh water and sea water gets blended,
because of high and low tides.

Great Indian Peninsular Plateau

It is a prehistoric structure, believed to have been responsible for the creation of the
Himalayas.

After examining the young and folded mountains of the north and much younger
plains to their south, one can move down further south. It is the oldest structure of
the Indian subcontinent. As a matter of fact, the slow but stable progress of this
landmass towards north and north-east is accountable for the construction of the
Himalayas and the Northern Plains instead of the Tethys of geological times. The
peninsular plateau is further split up into the Central Highlands and the Deccan
Plateau.

The Central Highlands- The northern part of the peninsular block is called the
Central Highlands, though they are not truly towering. It is created from solid
igneous and metamorphic rocks. The block comprises two parts, delimited by the
west-flowing Narmada. Vindhyas and its eastern elongations border the one lying to
the north on one side. Towards the north-west it is lined by the Aravallis. The
plateau stretches further west, but is cut across by the sandy and rocky desert of
Rajasthan. These are pretty old fold mountains. On the third side, this plateau unites
progressively in the Gangetic Plains of the north. This is known as the Malwa Plateau.
It is reasonably wide in the west and becomes tapered in the east. The eastern part
is known as Bundelkhand and Baghelkhand in southern Uttar Pradesh. In South Bihar
it is called Chotanagpur plateau. The southern tributaries of the Yamuna and Ganga
irrigate the plateau.

The Deccan plateau- The Deccan Plateau stretches from the Vindhyas to the
southern tip of the peninsula. This triangular plateau is at its broadest in the north.
The Vindhyan Range and its eastern elongations viz. Mahadev Hills, Kaimur Hills and
Maikal Range form its northern edge. Towards the west, the plateau has still pretty
exorbitant edge, formed by the Western Ghats. This mountain range runs from north
to south, nearly parallel to the Arabian Sea. The Western Ghats are recognised by
various local names. In Maharashtra and Karnataka they are called Sahyadri. Down
south, they are called the Nilgiris in Tamil Nadu. Still further south, along the Kerala
and Tamil Nadu border, they are known as Anaimalai and Cardamom Hills. The
Deccan Plateau is the highest along its western periphery and lightly inclines towards
the Bay of Bengal in the east. The Western Ghats are comparatively elevated in their
southern part. Anai Mudi, the highest peak, is 2,695 metres above sea level.
Udagamandalam is a renowned hill station of the south, located in Tamil Nadu.

Contrasting the western border, the eastern limit of the Deccan plateau is less steep.
It is in fact extensively broken into small hills by the rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari,
Krishna and Kaveri. The Eastern Ghats are locally identified by several names.

The north-western part of the Deccan Plateau deserves special mention. It is

constructed of igneous rocks of volcanic origin. From the earths extremely roiling
interior, lava exudates through enormous clefts or crevices in the earth`s crust. It
took millions of years and it is judged that the volume of lava flow had outperformed
the volume of the Himalayas. Geologists consider that this activity was intimately
related to the birth of the Himalayas.

While all the key rivers of the peninsular block flow into the Bay of Bengal, the
Narmada and Tapi are the only two rivers streaming in the opposite direction, to fall
into the Arabian Sea. These long rivers flow by very tapered lengthened valleys. The
Vindhyas in the north and the Satpuras in the south gird the Narmada valley. To the
south of the Satpura lies the Tapi River. These two rivers alleys are believed to be
prehistoric rift valleys. The two rivers unite into the sea through constricted
estuaries.
Thar Desert

¤ The Great Thar Desert of India

Also known as the Great Indian Desert, Thar Desert is located in Western
India and South Eastern Pakistan. The landforms of Thar Desert is divided
into three major regions - Sand Covered Thar, Plains and Hills. The Great
Thar Desert spreads across the state of Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat in
western India. Covering about 2,59,000sq km, the desert is interspersed
with hillocks, gravel, salt marshes and some lakes.
The

However, the dexterous people of Rajasthan have transformed this

scrubland into what is popularly known as ‘the most colourful desert in the
world’, making Rajasthan the No.1 destination in India for tourism.

The only river that crosses these sands is the Luni, which joins the Arabian Sea through the
Rann of Kutch. In 1996, discoveries made by paleontologists indicated that dinosaurs and their
ancestors stalked the desert as long back as 300 million years.

Quick bytes

Total Area: 446000 sq kms

Area Occupied In
208110 sq kms
India :

States : Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjab and Haryana

Predominant Cities : Bikaner, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer

¤ Desert Circuit

Jaisalmer, Bikaner, and Jodhpur are three main cities of Rajasthan. They all are entangled in
such a way that they form an excellent desert circuit. The desert circuit trail gives an
unforgettable experience to everybody who come here from all across the world.

¤ Desert Safari

Safaris are considered the best way to explore Thar Desert. Desert Safari can be divided into
two Jeep Safari and Camel Safari. Jeep Safari is a beautiful way to experience the beauty of
Thar Desert. The state is rich in forts and havelis. Desert Jeep Safari is one of the most
adventurous and rewarding of all the safaris which you would have undertaken.

¤ Villages in Thar Desert

You would be able to locate number of villages along the desert. These villages reflect the rich
cultural heritage of the state. These villages profoundly carries the heritage of the bygone era.
The people residing in these villages have two major occupation - Livestock and Cattle.

Coastal Plains

Eastern coastal plains

The Eastern Coastal Plains refer to a wide stretch of landmass of India, lying between
the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to
West Bengal in the north. Its average width is 120 km.

Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi,
Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the
Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between
1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to
130 km (62 to 80 miles) [1].

It is locally known as Northern Circars between Mahanadi and Krishna rivers and
Carnatic between Krishna and Kaveri rivers.

Divisions

It has three broad divisions:-

(i) Utkal Plains:- It is the coastal track of Orissa and includes Mahanadi delta. Most
prominent feature is Chilka Lake to the south of Mahanadi Delta. It is the largest lake in
India.

(ii) Andhra Plains:- It extends from Utkal Plains in the North of the Pulicat Lake in
south (Sriharikota Island is in this lake). Its most important feature is the delta formation
of R. Godavari and R. Kaveri. It also has Lakana Lake.

(iii) Tamil Nadu Plains:- It extends from Pulicat Lake to Kanyakumari. Most important
feature is Kaveri delta whose fertile soil and irrigation facilities make it a granary of
South India where rice is the major crop.

These plains can also be divided into seven regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern
Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; lier coast; Coromandel Coast and
Sandy littoral.
Western Coastal Plains
The Western Coastal Plains is a thin strip of coastal plain 50 kilometres (31 mi) in
width between the west coast of India and the Western Ghats hills. The plains begin at
Gujarat in the north and end at Kerala in the south. It also includes the states of
Maharashtra, Goa and Karnataka.