Chapter 5 Lead Acid batteries

5-1. Introduction

5-2. Composition

5-3. Chemistry

5-4. Manufacture

5-5. Performance/characteristics

5-6. Applications, advantages and disadvantages

5-7. Failure analysis

5-8. Self discharge

5-9. Improvement of the grid material

5-10. Other improvement of Lead acid batteries

5-11. Types of starting, lighting, and ignition (S.L.I.) batteries

5-12. Maintenance
5-1. Introduction

1. Lead acid battery is the first secondary battery developed in 1859 by French physicist Gaston Plante.

2. After more than 150 years, lead acid battery is still most widely know and used.

3. Despite having the second lowest energy density (next to the nickel-iron battery), their ability to supply
high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large power-to-weight ratio. These features,
along with their low cost, make them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current
required by automobile starter motors.

4. Nickel-iron alkaline battery was the second rechargeable battery introduced by Edison in 1908 as a
power source for the early EV. But it was shorted-lived.

5. The pocket-plate Ni-Cd battery was developed in 1909 and was used mainly for heavy industrial
applications. However, the sintered-plate process did not invent until 1950s. NiMH(nickel metal hydride
batteries were developed in 1980s and Li-ions batteries are in 1990s).

6. Lead-acid batteries are completely recyclable, relatively inexpensive, and can be made to provide
reliable power to almost any application.

7. In lead-acid battery, lead dioxide is the active material in positive electrode and metal lead is the active
material in negative electrode. Typically, a charged lead oxide has two structures, α (orthorhombic) and β
(tetragonal) forms. The α - PbO2 has a higher equilibrium potential than β - PbO2 by 0.01V. In actual
composition, both forms are non-stoichiometric expressed as PbOx with x = 1.85 – 2.05.

Physical and chemical properties of lead and lead oxides

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Property Lead α - PbO2 β - PbO2

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Molecular weight 207.2 239.19 239.19

M.p (oC) 327.4

Structure fcc rhombic tetragonal

Density (g/cc) 11.34 9.1-9.4 9.1-9.4

Heat capacity 6.80 14.87 14.87

(cal/deg.mol)

Elec. Resistivity 20 ~ 10 5
(μΩ/cm at 20oC)

Eo(V), 31.8oC 0.356 ~1.709 ~1.692

(in 4.4 M H2SO4)
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5-2. Cell Composition

Positive electrode : PbO2 (PbOx , α + β form)

Negative electrode : Pb (PbO2 pasted grid plates in the beginning)

Electrolyte : 5M H2SO4 aqueous solution.

Current collector : Lead alloy grids (perforated sheet or mesh cloth)

Separator: porous fiberglass mat., PVC , PE. PP, nylon, etc. (0.2 to 3mm thickness)

Notes: A separator is not just an insulator between positive and negative electrodes. It is
important to have another properties: (1)good acid resistance, (2) uniform thickness, (3)absorb
enough electrolyte, (4)high volume porosity, (5)enough tensile strengthen both in machine
direction and cross direction, (6)good compression ability to ensure the high plate group
pressure, (7) supply the channels for hydrogen and oxygen free passing to react, (8) prevent
the active materials from falling off, slow the creation of lead crystal, and (9) reduce the loss
of electrolyte in charge & loss maintenance.

Battery separator is supplied in rolls or pieces.

5-3. Chemistry

A. Discharge mode

(-) Anode : Pb + SO42-  PbSO4 + 2e- Eo = 0.36V

(+) Cathode: PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e-  PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo = 1.69V

• Over all : PbO2 + Pb + 4H+ + 2SO42-  2PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo = 2.05V

B. Recharge mode:

(+) Anode : PbSO4 + 2H2O  PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e- Eo = -1.69V

(-) Cathode : PbSO4 + 2e-  Pb + SO42- Eo = - 0.36V

Over all : 2PbSO4 + 2H2O  Pb + PbO2 + 4H+ + 2SO42- Eo = - 2.05V

C. Over-discharge (positive limit case):

(-) Anode: Pb + SO42-  PbSO4 + 2e- Eo = 0.36V

(+) Cathode: 2H+ + 2e-  H2 ↑ Eo = 0

D. Over-discharge (negative limit case)

(-) Anode: 2H2O  4H+ + O2 ↑ + 4e-

(+) Cathode: PbO2 + 4H+ + SO42- + 2e-  PbSO4 + 2H2O Eo = 1.69V

E. Full charge and Overcharge (positive limit case)

(+) Anode: 2H2O  4H+ + O2 ↑ + 4e-

 (-) Cathode
PbSO4 + 2e-  Pb + SO42-

4H+ + 4e-  2H2 ↑

over all rx.: 2H2O  O2 ↑ + 2H2 ↑

- in a non-sealed cell, it leads to the loss of water.

F. In the seal cells, the formation of O2 and H2 is not good for safety. Therefore, a method to have the
recombination to prevent the hydrogen evolution is necessary .

Under positive pressure in seal cell, oxygen recombination could occurs in the negative electrode

O2 + 2H2  2H2O

5-4. Manufacture

1. Paste (slurry) preparation

(1) Pb + PbO2 + additives (red lead Pb3O4 which is more conductive than PbO2 may
be added to PbO2 mix, additional agent such as inert fiber may also be added to
improve mechanic property.

(2) PbO2 mix dry powder is placed into a mixer, then add water, then sulfuric acid
solution.

(3) As mixing proceeds, the paste viscosity will increases first and then decreases due to the reaction
between PbO2 and H2SO4 . The temperature will increases as well and should be controlled by
cooling jackets and/or by the evaporation of water. The viscosity and therefore the density of the
paste depend on the type of applications (i.e. the batteries). For SLI plates, the PbO 2 : H2SO4 ratio
is generally low, while for the deep cycling plates, the PbO 2 : H2SO4 ratio is high. The more the
acid is used, the lower the plate density will be.

(4) The final paste mixture is controlled by the specification of density or the viscosity.

Note A: The weight distribution of Lead acid batteries

(1) In a lead-acid battery, the weight of active components < ½ of the total weight.

(2) The weight distribution of typical lead-acid batteries

a) SLI battery

Active materials = 36%

Electrolyte = 27.5%
Grids = 21.5%
Top lead = 4.7%
Container, lid,separator, vent plugs = 10.3%

b) Flat-plate tractor battery

 Active materials = 40.1% (positive 20.8%, negative 19.3%)
Electrolyte = 18.6%%
Grids = 17.3% (positive 15.9%, negative 11.4%)
Top lead = 5.8%
Container, lid, separator, vent plugs = 8.2%.

Note B: In lead acid batteries, both the positive electrode and negative electrodes (plates) are using
paste process. The paste process for both electrodes are essentially the same. The difference is that for
negative plate, dry paste additives such as expanders are added and premixed into Pb + PbO2 before water
and sulfuric acid addition to make paste. The expanders are to prevent the formation of larger Pb crystal
grains and maintain the porosity and high surface area of negative electrode in operation.

Blanc fixe (barium sulfate) and lignosulfonate are useful additives. Dispersed barium sulfate in the
paste acts as a seed crystal for the formation of the porous non-passivating PbSO4 layer.

The lignosulfonate (water-soluble anionic polyelectrolyte polymers, contains the hydroxyl and sulfonic
acid groups. In aqueous solutions the hydrophobic parts of the molecules bind to the dispersed particle,
while the hydrophilic part bind towards water and thus the particle is kept in solution. Lignosulfonate used
in lead batteries (in some tenth of a percent) acts on crystallisation of the lead sulphate, and prevents the
negative plate from forming a solid mass of lead sulfate during the discharge cycle. It enables the formation
of long needle like crystals. The long crystals have more surface area and are easily converted back to the
original state on charging. So that the battery gets a much longer life-time.

Various proprietary additives are either to ease processing or to improve the battery performance.

Note C. Positive electrodes also are made in other two forms: Plante’ plates and tubular plates. Both
are not popular due to low capacity, high cost, heavy, .. etc..

Note D. Grid is very important to the performance of cells. It is designed to ensure a low internal
resistance, minimize the shedding of active material on cycling. Shedding reduces the capacity and cause
shorting.

2. Pasting process

The process is placing the paste onto the holes of grid structure (perforate / expanded /mesh) via a
pasting machine. During pasting, a certain length of the grid roll is used. The specifications of width and
the thickness of paste depend on the type of batteries to be made. This process also includes quick drying
and/or cutting for stacking and/or racking.

3. Curing

It is to make the past into porous plates and to have strong mechanical bond between paste and grid.

Two types if curing were used. (a) low temperature (25 – 40oC) and low humidity for 1 – 3 days. (b)
high temperature (65 – 90oC) and high humidity.

At the end of curing, the free lead in the paste plate should be less than 4%. If the paste is not cured
enough, it is pale in color, is “soft”, mechanically (bending strength) weak and easily broken.

Cured plates are stored until use.

4. Assembly
The simplest cell consists of one positive, one negative and one separator in between. Practical cells
contain at least 3 plates with separators in between. In use, separators can be in individual pieces (“leaf”)
or in “envelop” pieces. The typical pore sizes of separators are 5 – 30 micrometers. Heavy duty batteries
use small pore size separators and are wrapped with several layerdof gass mat to help retain the active
material during cycles to have a longer life.

Plates and separators are stacked either manually or by an assembly machine which will do stacking,
wilding, putting in battery case, short testing, adding electrolyte, and cover sealing.
5. Formation

(1) Tank formation : Plate formation before assembly, or (2) Case formation: Cell formation after
assembly but before final assembly in the battery case. The procedures are to convert the positive and
negative electrodes into fully charged condition using controlled currents/voltages, time and temperatures
in proper H2SO4 wt.% aqueous solution (see Table below). At the end of fully charged, the specific gravity
of cell is 1.26 – 1.29 (up to 1.32 for golf EV cart). In tropical climate, it is 1.21 -1.24 for SLI batteries and
1.255 for golf cart, 1.275 for aircraft.

Plates or assembled groups can be charged and discharged cycles in a slotted plastic formation tank before
being placed into the case. During this formation process, the positive and negative electrodes are
“charged” first in a controlled condition. The PbSO4 in positive electrode is oxidized to form PbO2 , while
the PbSO4 in negative electrode is reduced to pure metal lead. The grid plate is forming a high porous
sponge network consisting of a mass of tiny lead crystals. That gives a high surface area and good contact
with the electrolyte. In order to reduce and or prevent the formation of large crystals from small grains of
lead crystals (and therefore maintain the high surface area as well as reduce the passivation due to PbSO 4
formation), some additives such as fine BaSO4 are added to the PbO2 paste. This will enhance the
formation of fine and porous, non passivation layer of PbSO 4. Typically, there are one or two charge-
discharge cycles in the formation process.

(2) Alternatively, once dry, the plates are then stacked together with suitable separators and inserted in the
battery container. An odd number of plates is usually used, with one more positive plate than negative.
Each alternate plate is connected together. After the acid has been added to the cell, the cell is given its first
forming charge. The positive plates gradually turn the chocolate brown color of lead dioxide, and the
negative turn the slate gray of 'spongy' lead. Such a cell is ready to be used.

Modern manufacturing methods invariably produce the positive and negative plates ready formed, so that it
is only necessary to add the sulfuric acid and the battery is ready for use.

Formation Condition of Electrolyte

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Typical application SLI (one shot) All others (two shot)

H2SO4 concentration
Initial (sp.gr) 1.20 1.005 - 1.15
Final (sp.gr) 1.28 1.15 - 1.23

Subsequent processing None Dump and refill with 1.28 to

1.33 sp.gr. electrolyte and charge
for several hours.
_________________________________________________________________________

Note: After formation, the cells generally are stored in “dry charge” state to avoid self discharge during
storage, i.e., the electrolyte is removed and inert gas is filled. After tank formation and before assembly,
the electrodes can also be stored in “dry charge”. However, the formed electrodes have to be protected in
a container under inert gas atmosphere.

Dry-charged batteries must be filled with electrolyte or "activated" and then boosted before being placed in
service. The battery's plates are pre-charged so they become activated after the electrolyte is added. The
advantage of dry-charged batteries is long, indefinite shelf life before electrolyte is added.
5-5. Performance/characteristics

1. Theoretical capacity of lead acid cell is:

PbO = 239g/mole, Pb = 207g/mole, H2SO4 = 98g/mole

Total weight = 642gm

Capacity = 26.8Ah x 2 / 642 = 0.0835 Ah/g = 83.5 mAh/g

Energy density = -nFEo/wt. = - 2 x 26.8 Ah x 2.05 V/642g = - 0.171 wh/g

= -171 wh/kg

2. The nominal voltage of the cells is 2 V. During discharge, the cell potential is decreasing due to the
formation of PbSO4, reducing the conductivity and polarization. The cut off potential is ~1.75V.

3. The specific gravity of electrolyte is 1.28 in full charge, and 1.21 at the end of
discharge. The decrease in the electrolyte density is due to the loss of H2SO4 to
form more water.

specific gravity of electrolyte

State of charge SLI battery a stationary battery

100% 1.265 1.225

75 1.225 1.185
50 1.190 1.150
25 1.155 1.115
0 1.120 (43.8wt%) 1.080_________
 E = 2.05 + (RT/F) ln {a (H2SO4)/a (H2O)}

E = 2.05 + 0.059 log {a (H2SO4)/a (H2O)} (at 25oC)

4. State of charge for a 12V lead-acid battery

State of charge SLI battery a 6V battery

100% 12.6 V 6.3

75 12.4 6.2
50 12.2 6.1
25 12.0 6.0
0 11.8 5.9
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5. Rate capability

6. Temperature effect on discharge

Lead acid batteries are able to operate from -76°F to 140°F (-60°C to 60°C).

7. Cycle life

Over time, battery capacity degrades due to sulfation of the battery and shedding of
active material. The degradation of battery capacity depends most strongly on:

 the charging/discharging regime (current, temperature, overcharge, undercharge

etc);
 the DOD of the battery over its life;
 its exposure to prolonged periods of low discharge; and
  the average temperature of the battery over its lifetime.

8. During the charge-discharge cycles, (1) α - PbO2 is easier to be covered an d isolated by PbSO4 due
to the same crystalline structure (isomorphic). So their utilization is less than β - PbO2 . (2) β -
PbO2 is more stable than α - PbO2 , the transformation of α - PbO2 to β - PbO2 may occur resulting
in the improvement of performance of the battery.

9. Charging efficiency

Lead acid batteries typically have coulombic efficiencies of 85% and energy efficiencies of ~ 70%.

5-6. Applications, advantages and disadvantages

A. Applications

1. SLI (start, lighting, and ignition, up to 100Wh) for cars, light trucks, etc.
2. Industrial (traction and stationary, ~40MWh) power source.
3. Small electronics (small portable sizes, ~2Wh),
4. UPS, golf cars, marine, lawn and garden, standby power source.
5. Electrical power system, Railway signal ,Telecommunication equipment, Emergency lighting, Fire
control and alarming system,Generator starting, electrical car and motor-cycle,valve-regulated,solar wind
power.

B. Advantages

• 1. Popular,
• 2. Low cost,
• 3. High OCV,
• 4. Good cycle life in shallow charge- discharge cycles.

C. Disadvantages
• 1. Heavy,
• 2. Low power and energy densities,
• 3. Poor cycle life in deep cycles.
• 4. Poor charge retention,
• 5. Sulfation problem for long term storage in a discharge state,
• 6. Hydrogen evolution safety during full to overcharge,
• 7. no easy to make small size, and
• 8. Environmental problem.
5-7. Failure analysis

1. Corrosion

During the operation, antimony in lead-antimony alloy grid dissolves and migrates to the negative plates
where it redeposits and reduces the performance of the cells. (portion just above the electrolyte and tiny
spaces inside were corrode).

2. Shorting

Portion of grid in the electrolyte were not corroded but have a dendritic microstructure, with metallic
antimony dispersed throughout the lead phase, local cell reactions between Sb and Pb occur in corroding
areas, resulting in the evolution of hydrogen gas leading to shedding of active material. The dendrite and
accumulation peeling off active material often result in the shorting between positive and negative
electrodes.

3. Water loss: The Sb migration process and gassing during overcharge or discharge increases water
consumption especially the battery is aging.

4. Sulfate formation (sulfation)

Sulfation is a crystallized lead sulfate (PbSO4) which coats the electrode plates and eventually causes
premature battery failure. Lead sulfate (PbSO4) is created at both the positive and negative electrode
plates during a discharge. In principle, during the charging period, 100% of the lead sulfate transforms to
the positive plate (lead dioxide), the negative plate (lead) and sulfuric acid. However, in real life, when
PbSO4 (lead sulfate) is left in the battery for a period of time (2~3 days is said to be enough.), it crystallizes
and becomes a hard sulfate that coats the surface of the electrode plates. This phenomenon is called
sulfation. Because hard lead sulfate is a non-conductive material, when it coats the electrode plates, it
causes a reduction in the surface area needed for the electro-chemical reactions. It also reduces the batteries'
active materials needed to maintain a high capacity.

There are three types of lead sulfate. One is soft lead sulfate that decomposes with a regular charge. The
second is hard lead sulfate that only decomposes during an equalization charge (controlled over-charge
done in industrial battery maintenance). The last is a very hard lead sulfate that fails to decompose even
equalization charging.

5. Self discharge

Self discharge leads to sulfation which in turn results in overdischarge, poor charging efficiency, ..etc.
And the decrease of capacity, power and cycle life.

6. Un-equal cell voltage/ state of charge

7. Others.
 Summary of Failure Modes of Lead-Acid SLI Batteries

1. Fundamental failure

Poor plates: Grid corrosion, paste adhesion, paste sulfation, pasted underformed

Short: plates to plate (plate or separator fault, dendrite, sediment), plate to strap, vibration.

Worn: water loss, undercharge, low electrolyte, terminal corrosion

2. Mechanical failure
open circuit: terminal, cell to terminal, cell to cell, broken strap.
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5-8. Self discharge

1. The self discharge rate of lead-acid is fairly rapid.

1) lead and lead oxide are thermodynamically unstable in sulfuric acid solutions.
They react with the electrolyte H2SO4 when the cell is on open circuit. .
2) The reactions are:

(+) PbO2 + H2SO4  PbSO4 + H2O + ½ O2

(-) Pb + H2SO4  PbSO4 + H2

Oxygen evolves at the positive electrode and hydrogen evolution occurs at the
negative electrode. The rate depends on the concentration of sulfuric acid
solution, overpotential and temperature.

2. The solubility rate of PbO2 in the electrolyte H2SO4 solution is slow (0.5% per
day) at ambient temperature, but the self discharge rate in negative electrode Pb
is fast, especially if the electrolyte contains impurities such as antimony (Sb)
ions.

3. When the batteries with lead-antimony positive grids, the self discharge rate is
about 1% per day. If a battery with high Sb is aging, the self discharge rate
accelerates.

4. Temperatures higher than 30oC promote the self discharge rate.

5-9. Improvement of the grid material

1) Lead is soft. In lead-acid batteries, it can be used in” jelly roll” type cylindrical
batteries, and in the thick pasted-plate batteries. However, it is not good to use
as a grid material for batteries like SLI type cells. There are elements that have
been added to lead to improve the grid as well as positive electrode.

2) The pure lead can be hardened by adding other element(s) to form alloys.
Add antimony (Sb) in 5 to 12 wt.% to do the job. Sb is improving castability
and hardness. also helping to form fine lead oxide particles and increasing the
conductivity of the oxides,

However, the greater the concentration of antimony in the grid alloy, the greater
the rate of water loss and self-discharge.

3) To reduce the content of Sb in the range of 1.5% to 3% to further improve the

cells, additional elements are added aiming to:

a) reduce the lead grain size (grain refiner).

b) improve the castability, reducing grid fabrication defects, preventing grid
brittleness.
c) improve corrosion resistance.
d) improve cell performance

4) Elements such as S, Cu, As, selenium), Se, Te (tellurium) are the grain refiners.

5)Calcium (0.03 – 0.10wt.%) lead alloys, including multi-element calcium-

strontium-tin-lead grid alloy exhibit a finer grain structure, higher hardness,
improve castability and superior corrosion resistance, self-discharge, less gassing
and the water loss .

6) Addition of tin (Sn), silver (Ag) or cobolt (Co) into the calcium-lead alloy. This
new ternary alloys improve corrosion resistance to lengthen battery life, also
improve the shelf life and rate capability.

7) Selenium lead alloy

By utilizing a proportion of selenium in the grid alloy, a dense fine grain structure is
produced. This alloy is extremely corrosion-resistant and virtually eliminates inter-
granular corrosion - one of the most common causes of cell failure. A lead selenium cell,
therefore, combines the advantages of both lead calcium and lead antimony cells while
exhibiting none of the disadvantages.

8) Harmful elements: Fe, Manganese (attack separator),

5-10. Other improvement of Lead acid batteries

Improvements in the manufactured have significantly contributed to longer life with more power-per-pound.
Advances in the oxide, pasting, cast-on-strap, assembly, acid filling, and formation process have all
contribute to the improved battery.

Lead-acid batteries have also advanced in the way they utilize electrolyte, making them completely
spillproof to reduce water loss.: (1) using gelled electrolyte, (2) pressurized venting system to help oxygen
recombination. (3) using highly non-woven absorbent separator to absorb and hold the acid like a sponge.
(called absorbed Glass Mat Batteries or AGM which also operate on the principle of oxygen
recombination.).

5-11. Types of starting, lighting, and ignition (S.L.I.) batteries

In general, as the name implies, Starter Batteries are meant to get combustion engines going. They have
many thin lead plates which allow them to discharge a lot of energy very quickly for a short amount of time.
However, they do not tolerate being discharged deeply, as the thin lead plates degrade quickly under deep
discharge and re-charging cycles. Most starter batteries will only tolerate being completely discharged a
few times before being irreversibly damaged.

There are 7 main categories of S.L.I. batteries, as follows.

1. Maintenance-Free Batteries

Maintenance-free batteries are designed to reduce water loss for longer service life. The calcium/calcium
construction reduces gassing and water loss, and, provides superior cranking performance. Other
advantages of calcium/calcium construction include prolonged shelf life, greater overcharge resistance and
reduced terminal corrosion and the elimination of overfilling or adding harmful impurities. Most Original
Equipment batteries for cars and light trucks today, utilize calcium/calcium construction.

2. Maintenance Accessible Batteries

Removable vent caps allow periodic addition of water to the electrolyte. Maintenance accessible batteries
may be found in applications such as marine, heavy duty/commercial and farm.

3. Hybrid Batteries

Hybrid batteries have one calcium and one low-antimony plate. They have a significantly higher water loss
rate than genuine calcium/calcium maintenance-free batteries. As a hybrid battery cycles, antimony
transfers from the positive to the negative plate. This antimony buildup actually decreases the voltage,
which causes the battery to gas, loose water and lose cranking capacity. Hybrid batteries may be referred to
as maintenance free, however, only calcium/calcium batteries are truly maintenance free. Hybrid batteries
are best suited to marine, heavy duty/commercial and farm applications. Hybrid batteries are maintenance
accessible.

4. Low-Antimony Batteries

Both positive and negative plates/grids are built with approximately 2.5% antimony content. These
batteries still have significant water loss and have a short shelf life - requiring repeated recharges. However,
low-antimony batteries are frequently used in deep cycle applications such as marine, wheelchair,
scrubber/sweepers, that require frequent discharge and recharge cycles. Low antimony batteries are
maintenance accessible.
5. Wet/Flooded Batteries

Batteries that are filled at the factory and shipped "ready to install." Wet/Flooded batteries are the most
widely used in automotive applications. They are usually less expensive than Gel or AGM batteries, but do
not provide the same cycle life and convenience. Some wet/flooded batteries require maintenance .

6. Sealed Valve-Regulated (SVR) Gel batteries

Unlike normal lead acid flooded cells with liquid acid electrolytes, the gel batteries are known as Sealed
Valve Regulated (SVR) batteries, - also called valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA). They contain a high
thixotropic gel electrolyte and are acid-starved cells. The gel electrolyte has the appearance of petroleum
jelly and essentially comprised of sulphuric acid, pure water, phosphoric acid and fumed silica which is a
gel-forming agent, between 6% and 15%, preferably between 8% and 12% of silicic acid obtained by
pyrogenic process and of which the particles have a size comprised between 0.01 and 0.1 micron,
preferably between 0.01 and 0.02 micron.

One feature of thixotropic gels is that they possess a stable (normal) high viscous form at rest (normal
condition) but becoming thin, less viscous fluid (flow) when shaken, agitated or otherwise stressed, and
returning to a gel state when allowed to stand. In lead-acid batteries, the thixotropic gel is locked into each
group of plates when the gel is solidified. Liquefaction of the gel occurs (thixotropic action) during
charging due to this gas shearing effect, and it can take more than an hour to solidify again after charging
ceases.

The gel batteries are a recombinant battery. The oxygen generated from the positive plate is retained in the
cell by sealing vents and will recombine with the hydrogen produced by the negative plate to form water,
subsequently no water loss and no electrolyte replenishment is required. Therefore, the gel battery is more
starved, giving more protection to the plate; therefore, it is better suited for super-deep discharge
applications.

If the seal is broken, the recombination of the gasses will not take place, and the cell will dry out and not
perform. In addition, the valve must safely release any excess pressure that may be produced during
overcharging. Otherwise, the cell would be irreparably damaged.

Gel cell battery electrolytes have a high viscosity, and during cycles of charge and discharge, voids and
cracks can develop in the gel. The effect is a resistance to charging and a loss in capacity.

Overcharging is especially harmful to gel cells because of their sealed design. Overcharging dries out the
electrolyte by driving the oxygen and hydrogen out of the battery through the safety valves. Performance
and life are reduced.

If the plates of a gel battery are reinforced with calcium, it reduces the self-discharge rates (~ 1% per
month). The newer battery types use phosphoric acid to assist in retarding the plate sulfation hardening
rates, and grid designs are also undergoing change and improvement using copper calcium lead alloys. The
plates are relatively thin, which is to facilitate the gel diffusion into them, and this results in higher charge
acceptance rates than flooded cells, and so a more rapid charge rate is achievable.

A gel battery is a lead-acid electric storage battery that:

(1) is sealed valve-regulated (SVR) and the valve must never be opened.
(2) is completely maintenance-free.
(3) uses thixotropic gelled electrolyte.
(4) uses a recombination reaction to form water at negative electrode to reduce the loss of water
(particularly in deep cycle applications) - unless the battery is overcharged.
(5) has a very low self-discharge rate.
7. SVR Absorbed Glass Mat (AGM) batteries

SVR AGM batteries are also called valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) AGM batteries . The batteries
use special fine, highly porous, sponge-like matted micro-fiber glass separators absorb the electrolyte,
increasing efficiency by lowering internal resistance and boosting capacity. The batteries can be recharged
faster than conventional batteries, and better charging efficiency.

Like gel batteries, AGM batteries are "acid-starved." and are recombinant batteries. However, in contrast
to SVR Gel batteries, the SVR AGM excels in high current, high power applications, as well as auxiliary
power for dual-purpose applications.

Compare to gel batteries, AGM batteries excel for high current, high power applications and in extremely
cold environments. Also, gel battery power declines faster than an AGM battery's as the temperature drops
below 32ºF.

The shelf life of a SVR battery is seven times higher than the shelf life of a deep cycle antimony battery.

An AGM battery is a lead-acid electric storage battery that:

(1) is sealed using special pressure valves and must never be opened
(2) is completely maintenance-free
(3) has all of the electrolyte absorbed in the sponge-like matted glass fiber separators
(4) uses a recombination reaction to prevent the escape of hydrogen and oxygen gases normally lost in a
flooded lead-acid battery (particularly in deep cycle applications) - unless the battery is overcharged
(5) is non-spillable, vibration resistant, and therefore can be operated in virtually any position (upside-down
installation is not recommended)

5-10. Maintenance

Basic rule of maintenance

1. H2SO4 density = 1.265g/cc at fully charge

2. T = 16 – 35oC.

3. Wet batteries lose capacity and become permanently damaged if: (1) left in a discharged condition for
any length of time (due to sulfation). This is especially true of antimony and hybrid types. (2) continually
over-discharged, due to active material shedding. This is especially true of automotive starting types.
Recharge process, boost (charge) 12V battery at 15 amp up to the specific gravity of H2SO4 solution is
1.265 or higher (but not >1.30) at 16 – 35oC.

State of charge SLI battery appro. Charging time___

50A 30 20 10_______

100% 12.6 V - - - - - -- --
75 12.4 20 35 48 90 Min.
50 12.2 45 75 95 180
25 12.0 65 115 145 280
0 11.8 85 150 195 370
_____________________________________________________________
Do not overcharge. If gassing occurs, reduce the current. If the battery is too hot to touch, stop charge.

4. Charging methods

1. Constant current, one-current rate.

2. Constant current, multiple decreasing -current rate.
3. Constant potential
4. Modified constant potential with a constant initial current and/or finish current.
5. Pulse charging,
6. Taper charging
7. Trickle charging
8. Floating charging.

5. After charge,

• (1) check the electrolyte level to the mark. Don’t over fill. If need, add distill water, not acid.
(unless the specific gravity is too low.

• (2) check OCV, the number: 12.9>OCV > 12.4V for the SLI battery.

It is critical that a charge be used that limits voltage to no more than 14.1 volts and no less than 13.8 volts
at 68°F. Batteries used in float service should be charged at 13.8 volts. For deep cycle service, a maximum
voltage of 14.1 volts should be used.

6. Voltage or state of charge equalization

(1) Over charge all the cells.

(2) A separate high voltage charging to save the weakest cells.

Equalization charge is a controlled over-charge to equalize the specific gravity among all of the cells. It is a
controlled high-voltage charge lasting for a duration of 5 to 7 hours. During this charge, the battery gases
out hydrogen and oxygen and creates heat. By performing this charge it is possible to damage the battery
plates by excessive gassing and heat, so it should be with the proper precautions. The benefit of an
equalization charge is removal of some sulfation layer buildup and correction the stratification of the acid
density by stirring the electrolyte using the rising gas bubbles. Stirring is necessary to avoid high acid
concentrations that can corrode the lower portion of the plate faster than the upper portion where the acid
density is lower.

7. Don’t leave batteries in rest and/or discharge over 80%

The worst sulfated battery can be created by just leaving a battery unattended for a long period of time.
Sulfation created in this period is quite possibly the worst kind. Sulfation layers form barrier coats on the
lead plates in batteries that inhibit their ability to store and dispense energy.

An automobile starter battery is constantly charged while the automobile is running, but in reality,
automobile batteries still sulfate. There are many conditions for car batteries to become sulfated. If a car is
not in use and the battery is naturally discharged, the battery sulfates. Also, in regular starter usage, it takes
about 4% of the battery capacity to start a car. If a car is taken on many short trips requiring the engine to
be started many times without getting fully recharged, the battery sulfates. If a car is equipped with many
electrical devices, it is more likely that the battery will sulfate. Then, when hard lead sulfate crystals form,
charging via the alternator would not be sufficient to decompose the hard sulfation crystals completely. The
starter battery begins to loose capacity.
Nanopulser will help decompose the hard sulfation crystals so the battery will last for its maximum life
with a constant high capacity.

For deep cycle batteries, it is recommended to perform equalization charges* every 4 to 6 cycles,
Nanopulser will help ensure the batteries last their maximum possible lifespan.

Avoid discharging batteries no more than 80% of their capacity and then charging them to 100%
immediately after the discharge. If drained lower than 80%, a quantity of lead sulfate will be created more
than desired. Also, hard lead sulfate will start forming within 2 days if batteries are left discharged. To
avoid sulfation buildup, the battery must be charged back to 100% right after discharge. Equalization
charge should take care of the hard sulfation, but there will be some sulfation left over that the equalization
charging misses.

8. SLI batteries are not designed to be discharged deeply (no more than 20% DOD). Engine starts are very
energy-intensive but the duration is very short. Do not discharging SLI batteries more than 50% before re-
charging them.

9. Important Charging Instructions for SVR batteries

Use a good constant potential, temperature-compensated, voltage-regulated charger. Constant current

chargers should never be used on SVR batteries.

10. Some "Marine" batteries are sold as dual-purpose batteries for starter and deep cycle applications.
However, the thin plates required for starting purposes inherently compromise deep-cycle performance.
Thus, such batteries should not be cycled deeply and should be avoided for deep-cycle applications unless
space/weight constraints dictate otherwise.

11. Deep Cycle batteries have thicker lead plates that make them tolerate deep discharges better. They
cannot dispense charge as quickly as a starter battery but can also be used to start combustion engines. One
would simply need a bigger deep-cycle battery than if one had used a dedicated starter type battery instead.
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