Sujetos: El Estado – soberanía

1. ¿Qué es el reconocimiento de Estados?

Acto unilateral de un Estado en el que reconoce a otro que cumple con lo requerimientos para ser un
Estado. En este sentido queda obligado a tratarlo como tal. NO se puede reconocer a un Estado que no
cumple con los requisitos para ser. Un Estado no está obligado a reconocer a otro pero debe tratarlo como
tal.
Recognition of states is an optional political unilateral act by which one state acknowledges that another
one accomplishes with the requirements to be a state.
Según la resolución de bruselas en 1936 asigna al reconocimiento de Estado un valor declarativo como el
acto libre por el cual uno o varios Estados constatan la existencia sobe un territorio determinado de una
sociedad organizada políticamente.
La teoria declarativa: recognition of new States is a political act which is in principle independent of the
existence of the new State as a full subject of international law." In Charpentier's terminology, statehood
is opposable to non-recognizing States.? This position has the merit of avoiding the logical and practical
difficulties involved in constitutive theory, while still accepting a role for recognition in modern practice.
the recognition of a State is not constitutive but merely declaratory. The State exists by itself and the
recognition is nothing else than a declaration of this existence, recognized by the States from which it
emanates
iRecognition, as a public act of state, is an optional and political act and there is no legal duty in this
regard. However, in a deeper sense, if an entity bears the marks of statehood, other states put themselves
at risk legally, if they ignore the basic obligations of state relations. I Moreover, States do not in practice
regard unrecognized States as exempt from international law.>and they do in fact carry on a certain, often
quite considerable, amount of informal intercourse, extending even to joint membership of the various
inter-State organizations." Recognition is increasingly intended and taken as an act, if not of political
approval, at least of political accommodation.

El aspecto constitutivo en la medida en que bien si el nuevo Estado es sujeto de DI desde que nace, no
puede ejercitar plenamente derechos hasta que sida reconocido. the legal existence of a state . . . has a
relative character. A state exists legally only in its relations to other states. There is no such thing as
absolute existence.
Recognition is a unilateral act of a state and one that has international legal consequences
A state is not subject to a duty to recognize another state

2. ¿Cuáles son los elementos del Estado? ¿Donde se pueden encontrar? ¿Cuál es su fuente?

Según el convenio de Montevideo (1933) los elementos del estado son:

1. Territorio (competencia territorial): las competencias estatales se ejercen sobre un territorio que
tiene una triple dimensión:
a. Territorio terrestre
b. Espacio marítimo
i. Mar territorial
ii. Zona contigua
iii. Zona de Exclusividad Económica
 iv. Plataforma continental
c. Espacio aéreo
2. Población (competencia personal): es el poder de actuar sobre sus nacionales.
a. Nacionales y extranjeros: el estado tiene derecho a proteger a sus nacionales que hayan
sido víctimas de la violencia en el extranjero (protección diplomática).
b. Pueblos y minorías
3. Estructura político-administrativa (gobierno): los Estados tienen una estructura de gobierno que debe
asegurar el control efectivo de su territorio y población.
4. Capacidad de entrar en relación con los demás estados: tiene que ver con el reconocimiento. Allí se
encuentra la teoría declarativa y constitutiva.
+ RECONOCIMIENTO: declarativa (declaraciones unilaterales) y constitutiva.
+ PRINCIPIO DE NO INTERVENCIÓN: Doctrina de Monroe
+ IGUALDAD DE LOS ESTADOS (JURÍDICA) diferente a desigualdad real (poder militar, territorio,
dinero y biodiversidad).
+PRINCIPIO DE AUTODETERMINACIÓN DE LOS PUEBLOS

3. ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre reconocimiento de Estados y gobiernos?

Recognition of a government is often effected by sending and receiving diplomatic representatives, but
one government may recognize another yet refrain from assuming diplomatic relations with it. Breaking
off relations does not constitutte derecognition or terminate relations with each other to express
disapproval, or from practical considerations, such as the absence of sufficient interests to warrant such
relations.
¨we maintain diplomatic relations with many governments of which we do not necessarily aprove.
Without relations, we forfeitopportunities to trasnmit our valies and communicate our policies. Isolation
may well bring out the worst in the new government.

1. Tu reconocer al estado una vez y a los gobiernos cada vez que cambian
2. No puede haber dos reconocimientos de estado pero si puede haber 2 reconocimientos de
gobiernos
3. Un gobierno puede seguir funcionando sin que lo reconozcan

Definición reconocimiento de gobierno: Acto libre mediante el cual uno o varios Estados verifican que
una persona o un grupo de personas están en condiciones de obligar al Estado que pretenden representar y
expresar su voluntad,

The State has to exist in order for there to be a government to recognize, the latter can be illegitimate and
therefore not recognized, but that doesn't imply the denial of the factual existence of a State

4. ¿El reconocimiento es esencial para la existencia del Estado? ¿Por qué sí o por qué no?

According to the constitutive theory, recognition is essential for the existence of states. However, in
contemporary International Law - and based in the Montevideo Convention - the existence of states is
only determined by:
 - Permanent population
- Defined territory
- Effective Government
- Capacity to enter in relations with other states
The view that recognition is constitutive of a State personality derives historically from the positive
theory of international obligation. However, this view does not correspond to State practice, nor is it
adopted by most modern writers.
- Early view of recognition: sovereignty, understood as the supreme power within a territorial unit,
necessarily came from within and did not need the recognition of other States. It would entail an
injury for that sovereignty to be called in question by a foreigner. The doubtful point was whether
recognition by a parent State of a new State was necessary.
- Positivism and recognition:The obligation to obey international law derives from the consent of
individual States, therefore consent is required to the creation of the State or to its being subjected
to international law so as far as other states were concerned.
- 19th century: States were not necessarily members of the society of nations. Recognition,
express or implied made them members and bound them to obey international law. On the other
hand, those States who were not recognized as such existed, but were not bounded by
international law, protected or had rights under such.

In conclusion, recognition is not essential for the existence of a State because it is a matter of fact and not
of law, the criterion for statehood is not legitimacy but effectiveness. Nevertheless, the binding force of
international law is derived from this process of seeking recognition and acceptance. Recognition is
declaratory and not constitutive, and its denial does not imply tha faculty of other states to intervene in its
affairs or ignore its nationality.

5. What is sovereign equality? How does it contrast regarding the material inequality in the
international order?
Sovereign equality is the concept in which every sovereign state possesses the same legal rights as any
other sovereign state in international law. International law is based on the concept of state and the state
in its turn lies upon the foundation of sovereignty, which expresses internally the supremacy of the
governmental institutions and externally the supremacy of the state as a legal person.[2] It follows that
sovereignty itself is founded upon the concept of territory and without territory a legal person cannot be a
state, since there has not been an exclusive exercise of power over the territory

6. Why is the content of the decision in Nicaragua v USA important for the case for the issue
of sovereignty?
- Showed a clear example of sovereign equality as even if in real life the United States holds more
power in the international stage, the decision proved that a small country as Nicaragua could still
maintain its sovereignty

7. ¿Consideras que el principio de libertad para escoger sistema político o económico de cada
Estado aplica a la realidad internacional actual?
Sovereignty is the exclusive right to exercise supreme political authority over a defined territory (land,
airspace and certain maritime areas such as the territorial sea) and the people within that territory. No
other State can have formal political authority within that State. Therefore, sovereignty is closely
associated with the concept of political independence. Also, for the international law it is conceived as the
“totality of rights and duties recognized by international law as residing in an independent territorial unit
(a State), and it is one of the main principles to be respected in the international community. Economical
self determination is also a component of said sovereignty, but since the world is going through a constant
transition to globalization, States usually have to adapt their policies to the needs of the international
markets if they want to maintain a viable economic development.

In spite of the mentioned doctrine, it is not rare to the history of relationships between states to see
evident influence between a State over another one. Usually the domain comes from strong powerful
States to weak or poor ones, that depend on the first one on a crucial matter. Such was the case of many
States during the cold war, were Russia and the United States fought each other’s political system through
other states as Korea or Vietnam. Since then this practice seems to have disappeared, but in fact it's only
moved to more subtle ways of coercement, such as economic incentives or international political status.

Hay presiones internacionales que no permiten el libre desarrollo del estado y la expresion de eso son los
castigos que le hacen los otros paises cuando no estan de acuwrdo en la forma como manejan su pais

8. What is the relation of the principle of non-intervention and the issue of sovereignty?

No intervencionismo política exterior que indica la obligación de los Estados de abstenerse a intervenir,
ya sea directa o indirectamente, en los asuntos internos de otro Estado con la intención de afectar su
voluntad y obtener su subordinación. Se deriva de un principio del derecho internacional público, el
principio de no intervención que establece la independencia de las naciones y el derecho de
autodeterminación de los pueblos. Este principio de no intervención prácticamente equivale al de no
injerencia en los asuntos internos de otro país. El no intervencionismo es una política sólo en el gobierno,
por lo que no excluye la intervención no gubernamental por organizaciones como Amnistía Internacional.
Issue of sovereignty: Sovereignty means that one state cannot demand that another state take any
particular internal action. No state has the authority to tell another state how to control its internal affairs.
Sovereignty both grants and limits power: it gives states complete control over their own territory while
restricting the influence that states have on one another. In this example, sovereignty gives the power to
Brazil to ultimately decide what to do with its rainforest resources and limits the power of Canada to
impact this decisionState sovereignty is the concept that states are in complete and exclusive control of all
the people and property within their territory. State sovereignty also includes the idea that all states are
equal as states. In other words, despite their different land masses, population sizes, or financial
capabilities, all states, ranging from tiny islands of Micronesia to vast expanse of Russia, have an equal
right to function as a state and make decisions about what occurs within their own borders. Since all states
are equal in this sense, one state does not have the right to interfere with the internal affairs of another
state.

9. What is sovereign equality? How does it contrast regarding the material inequality in the
international order?
Sovereign equality is the concept in which every sovereign state possesses the same legal rights as any
other sovereign state in international law. International law is based on the concept of state and the state
in its turn lies upon the foundation of sovereignty, which expresses internally the supremacy of the
governmental institutions and externally the supremacy of the state as a legal person.[2] It follows that
sovereignty itself is founded upon the concept of territory and without territory a legal person cannot be a
state, since there has not been an exclusive exercise of power over the territory. Todos los estados son
igual de soberanos y tienen el mismo derecho de ejercer su soberanía sobre su territorio y ciudadanos y
frente al derecho internacional todos tienen el mismo voto

Igual material: no todos los países son iguales porque hay países que tienen más fuerza y a veces la
soberanía se viola cuando un país interviene en otro

Los estado son jurídicamente iguales.

Asamblea general: un estado, un voto.
OJO: IGUALDAD REAL ES DIFERENTE
● Tema económico
● Tema militar
● Territorio
● Población
Hay desigualdad real.
Consejo de Seguridad es la viva representación de la desigualdad real (EEUU, Rusia, China, Reino Unido
y Francia) 5 miembros permanentes con poder de veto.

Sujetos con estatus internacional limitado

Pueblos, compañías multinacionales, ONG’s

10. ¿Por qué se afirma que hay ciertos sujetos que tienen personalidad restringida en derecho
internacional?
Una entidad tiene personalidad internacional si tiene derechos y deberes bajo la ley internacional.
Caracteristicas:
● Derechos y obligaciones bajo derecho internacional
● Capacidad de hacer tratados
● Capacidad de hacer reclamos internacionales
● Disfrutar privilegios e inmunidades de las jurisdicciones nacionales
Estos también se conocen como índices de personalidad internacional. En la práctica solo son los Estados
de ciertas organizaciones internacionales como la ONU que tiene todas estas capacidad en el grado
máximo.

Después de la segunda guerra mundial nuevos actores han emergido en el plano internacional como
organizaciones publicas internacionales, ONGs, multinacionales y personales naturales. Estas tienen
personalidad internacional limitada
Todos los estados poseen personalidad legal internacional como resultado de igualdad de soberania.
Algunas oirganizaciones internacional gubernamnetales poseen PIL
Los individuos tienen una forma limitada de personalidad internacional en algunas situaciones

11. ¿Qué son los pueblos en derecho internacional?

People under international law consists on the title given to certain communities seeking self-governance,
in order to ensure their protection and respect. In this way, the protection of human rights and
fundamental freedoms of the individuals within the community is safeguarded.
- Usually referred to communities in process of decolonization
- The Charter of the United Nations 1945 started calling the trend upon member states to observe
human rights and fundamental freedoms of individuals and peoples.
- All people have the right of self-determination.
- Little formal elaboration of the definition of peoples>> unambiguous
Examples:
- Quebeçois within Canada
- African colonies
- Indigenous peoples
- Colonial and oppressed communities may be defined as peoples

12. ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre un Estado y un pueblo?

Peoples is the name given to certain communities that may include only a portion of the population of an
existing state, meaning the reference to “people” does not necessarily mean the entirety of a state’s
population.

13. ¿Qué es el derecho de autodeterminación de los pueblos?

The right of peoples to freely determine their political status and to pursue their economic, social and
cultural development within the framework of an existing state,without external interference. General
principle of international law regarded as jus cogens and binding, as such, on the United Nations as
authoritative interpretation of the Charter's norms.
- Every state has the duty to respect the right, according to the Charter
- Has developed largely as a human right
- Every state has the duty to promote the realization of the principle of equal rights and self-
determination of peoples
- Criteria for determining non-self-governing territories are under article XI of the Charter.
- There may be division among nations when it comes to whether nor not a state has satisfied the
criteria. (Ex., Germany during the Cold War)
- Not clear whether the right applies outside the decolonization context, and how to define peoples
entitled to exercise the right.

External aspect: determine their international political status.

Internal aspect:
1. Be the masters of their own territory
2. Freely choose their political institutions, representatives, etc. → Government.
14. ¿Qué es una ONG internacional? ¿Cuál es su diferencia con una Organización Internacional?
¿Cuál es la relación entre ONG y OI?

NGO's
Non-governmental organizations are
bodies established under domestic law
that are essentially providers of
information, lobbyists or pressure
groups.
Have played important roles in
developing contemporary law and
practice in the areas of human rights,
the environment, and international
humanitarian law.
-Set up individuals or groups
- Governed by the law of the country
where the NGO is the incorporated
● Ex. Amnestry International,
Greenpeace
- States are not usually parties of
NGOs
- Do not have international juridical
personality
- Cannot make treaties
- Cannot bring cases to the ICJ
(International Court of Justice)
- Cannot have a formal membership in
an IGO
● Examples: Amnesty
International, Human Rights
Watch
-The International Committee of the
Red Cross (ICRC) has a rather special
status
IGO's
Intergovernmental organizations work as
organizations with an international membership,
scope, or presence. Meaning it creates, enforces and
supervises international law
- Have limited international personality:
● Have power to conclude binding
international agreements
● May appear as plaintiffs or defendants
before international tribunals
● May be able to claim immunity from legal
process for defined categories of their
officials
- Have global Governance: guide and control the
activities of both stat and non state actors in the
international system
- Have levels of international institutions
● Constitutional: legitimated institutions
which constitute parameters of legitimate
statehood and international relations
○ Ex. Sovereignty
● Fundamental: provide basic rules and
practices that shape how states solve and
cooperate problems
○ Ex. International law,
multilateralism
● Issue-specific (regimes): fundamental
institutional practices in a particular domain
of international relations
○ Ex. Law of the sea, Geneva
convention

15. Relacion entre ONGs y OI

Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are set up by individuals or groups, governed by the law of the
country where the NGO is incorporated- Ex.: Amnesty International, Greenpeace. States are usually not
parties of NGOs.
Mixed Organizations: NGOs entrusted with functions typical of States. Ex.: ICRC, IUCN.
NGOs act as observers in some IO. They move the debate, provide information and facilitate
investigations.

Otras diferencias entre las Organizaciones Internacionales y ONG´S

Miembros :
OI´S: Estados
ONG: Individuos

Que la constituye:
OI`S: Tratados constitutivos
ONG: Derecho Nacional- organizaciones sin ánimo de lucro, fundaciones.

Representantes + oficinas:
OI`S: Tienen Inmunidades diplomáticas.
ONG: ---

De donde vienen los recursos:

OI´S: Cuotas =MÁS O MENOS= PIB
ONG: Donaciones (EXCPECION DE LOS ESTADOS NORDICOS).

16. ¿Pueden los pueblos, ONG’s o corporaciones multinacionales participar en tratados?

NO
Individuals
● After WW2, Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948)
● Individuals can act without the representation of their State under IL in 1948 thanks to regional
tribunals if human rights
○ Example: European Court of Human Rights, Interamerican Court of Human Rights…)
○ Obliged to respect human rights (responsible under IL/International Penal Court for war
crimes, ethnic cleansing, crimes against humanity and genocide.) Example: Nuremberg
trials, special tribunals of Ruanda, Yugoslavia…

17. ¿Qué es una organización internacional? ¿Cuáles son sus componentes?

Una organización internacional es toda asociación formada normalmente por sujetos de Derecho
Internacional Público y regulada por un conjunto de normas propias, con miembros, alcance, o presencia
internacional y unos fines comunes. En el uso cotidiano, el término es generalmente reservado para las
organizaciones intergubernamentales como las Naciones Unidas, el Consejo de Europa, o la Organización
Mundial del Comercio, cuyos miembros son Estados soberanos o de otras organizaciones
intergubernamentales. Sin embargo, ante la evolución y como producto de la globalización existe una
distinción reciente entre:
● Organización internacional pública, u organización intergubernamental (OIG).
● Organización internacional privada, u organización no gubernamental (ONG).
Cabe destacar que no todas las organizaciones internacionales buscan la cooperación e integración
económica, política y social.
18. ¿Cuáles son las diferencias entre una organización internacional y un Estado?¿Entre una
organización internacional y una ONG?
Según Michel Virally, una OIG es una asociación de estados, establecida por un acuerdo entre sus
miembros y dotada de un aparato permanente de órganos, encargado de perseguir la realización de
objetivos de interés común por medio de una cooperación entre ellos. 3
Características[editar]
● Carácter interestatal: asociación de Estados. 4
● Base voluntaria: se crean por un tratado entre Estados, que es llamado tratado instituyente. 4
● Sistema permanente de órganos: la permanencia de la organización tiene un valor político de
primera magnitud en cuanto contribuye a firmar su independencia frente a los Estados miembros. 4
● Voluntad autónoma: el proceso de adopción de decisión por sus órganos le permite expresar una
voluntad jurídicamente distinta de la de los Estados miembros. 4
● Competencia propia: competencias de atribución, es decir, las asignadas de manera expresa o
implícita en el tratado instituyente.4
● Cooperación internacional institucionalizada: constituyen el instrumento para alcanzar un
objetivo que no es otro que la satisfacción de intereses comunes a los Estados. 4

Organización internacional privada, u organización no gubernamental (ONG)[editar]

Son organizaciones que no son parte de las esferas gubernamentales ni son empresas cuyo fin
fundamental es el lucro. Por lo general son conformadas y se encuentran a cargo de ciudadanos comunes
que comparten una visión y misión común, pudiendo obtener financiación del Gobierno, de otras ONG
(como fundaciones), o de individuos o empresas particulares. 5
A State is a forced and involuntary political organization constituted by stable bureaucratic and
administrative institutions, such as the police, the military, etc., through which it exercises the monopoly
of the legal use of physical force (sovereignty) applied to a population within some territorial limits
established. It is at the same time the personification of the nation exercised through the Government. In
the other hand, International Organizations (IOs) are entities created by the States with the purpose of
permanently and institutionally managing their relations of cooperation in a field of matters defined in the
founding treaty of each organization. Ex: EU, IMF. Finally, a Non governmental organization NGO are
usually non-profit and sometimes international organizations independent of governments and
international governmental organizations (though often funded by governments) that are active in
humanitarian, educational, health care, public policy, social, human rights, environmental, and other areas
to affect changes according to their objectives. They are thus a subgroup of all organizations founded by
citizens, which include clubs and other associations that provide services, benefits, and premises only to
members.

19. ¿Quiénes pueden ser miembros de una organización internacional? ¿De que forma pueden
participar los no miembros?
States and non states.

20. ¿Cuáles son los órganos de una organización internacional?

Depende de lo que la organizacion establezca para regirse

21. ¿Cuáles son los órganos de la ONU? Los resaltados son los principales
- Security Council: 5 permanent members (China, US, Russia, France, UK) + 10 non permanent
members
- ECOSOC
- General Asemmbly (193 members)
- ICJ
- Secretariat
- Trusteeship Council → ya no existe (murió en 1994)

22. ¿Es la Corte Internacional de Justicia una organización internacional?

Is not international organizations per se. They have no separate personality from the UN

23. ¿Cómo se puede acceder a la Corte Internacional de Justicia?

Puertas de entradas para la jurisdicción de la Corte:

1. La primera puerta se abre si el Estado hace parte del Estatuto de la corte. El estatuto es un tratado.
Puede ser por varias vías:
a. Cláusula compromisoria: en un artículo de un tratado cualquiera, diferente al del estatuto,
se reconoce la jurisdicción. Ejemplos: Pacto de Bogotá (1948), Caso de Nicaragua vs.
Colombia (2012).
2. Compromis (en español compromiso): dos o más partes que tengan una disputa de derecho
internacional pueden, de manera voluntaria, someter la resolución del conflicto a la Corte
Internacional de Justicia.
3. Declaración unilateral de los Estados fundadores de las Naciones Unidas. Cualquier estado puede
hacer una declaración unilateral. Lo anterior, se puede hacer a través de un acto público.
4. De manera implícita. Ej: Contestar demandas sin estar bajo la jurisdicción de la Corte.

24. ¿Cuál es la “fuente de Fuentes”?

Ius cogens, es una locución latina empleada en el ámbito del Derecho internacional público para hacer
referencia a aquellas normas de Derecho imperativo o perentorio, esto es, que no admiten ni la exclusión
ni la alteración de su contenido, de tal modo que cualquier acto que sea contrario al mismo será declarado
como nulo. No puede ser positivisado porque los estdos pueden decidir no ratidficado o limitarse a un
tratado

25. ¿Hay alguna jerarquía o prioridad en las Fuentes de derecho internacional mencionadas en el
artículo 38 del Estatuto de la CIJ?
Las fuentes de derecho son iguales entre todas y no hay jerarquia

26. ¿Qué otras Fuentes de derecho internacional existen que no estén en el artículo 38?
 Actos unilaterales:
Resoluciones del consejo de seguridad o de OI
Soft law: voluntad política que después es convertida en costumbre o tratados.
Tratados
27. ¿Qué es un Tratado?
Un acuerdo internacional celebrado por escrito entre Estados y regido por el derecho internacional, ya
conste en un instrumento único o en dos o más instrumentos conexos y cualquiera que sea su
denominación particular;
international agreement concluded between states in written form ad governed by international law, only
states can make treaties-VCCLT. individuals aren't full subjects of international law. central principle:
consent to be bound.
- 3 characteristics
- 1. international agreement between states
- 2. Written agreement
- 3. Governed by IL
- include obligation of IL
the object and purpose of the treaty is found in the preambule.
steps of treaty: negotiation, adoption, authentication, when you sign the treaty you are only bound by
object and purpose of the treaty, then the next step is the ratification: internal procedure that the country
does to accept a treaty. reservation: that the country only accepts certain articles of the treaty to be
binding. then comes the entry into force.

28. ¿Los efectos de un Tratado sobre un sujeto de DI que no ha ratificado son los mismos que los de
un objetor persistente de costumbre?
No. El sujeto que no ha ratificado pero sí ha firmado debe cumplir con el objeto y fin del tratado.
El objetor persistente se opone a la costumbre desde su creación, luego no le es ni exigible ni aplicable.

29. ¿Qué pasa cuando un Estado ratifica Tratados que son mutuamente incompatibles?
Se sigue la regla del tratado ulterior. El anterior queda suspendido o terminado.

30. ¿Cómo puede invalidarse un Tratado?

When there is a Specific restrictions on authority to express the consent of a State
Error
Fraud
Corruption of a representative of a State
Termination or suspension of the operation of a treaty as a consequence of its breach
Fundamental change of circumstances

31. ¿Qué es el ius cogens? ¿Qué relación tiene con los Tratados?
Ius cogens: Peremptory norm that has been recognized by international community. It is mandatory -
binding and cannot be derogated or reservated, only changed by another ius cogens.

Relation with treaties:

 1. A treaty can never oppose a jus cogens norm
2. Jus cogens norms are not positivized in treaties because: 1. States could not ratify them or could
present reservations to justify their breach 2. jus cogens norms would be limited by the definition
given in the treaties.

32. ¿Qué son los trabajos preparatorios? ¿Cuándo pueden llegar a ser relevantes?
The travaux préparatoires (French: "preparatory works", in the plural) are the official record of a
negotiation. Sometimes published, the "travaux" are often useful in clarifying the intentions of a
treaty or other instrument, as is reflected in Article 32 of the Vienna Convention on the Law of
Treaties (VCLT).

33. ¿Cómo es el procedimiento de creación de Tratados?

1. Negotiate
2. Adopt the text
3. Authenticate
4. Express consent
5. Ratification express of consent

34. ¿Quién puede negociar, ratificar o firmar un Tratado?

from the competent authority of a State designating a person or persons to represent the State for
negotiating, adopting or authenticating the text of a treaty, for expressing the consent of the State to be
bound by a treaty, or for accomplishing any other act with respect to a treaty;
1. Ministry of foreign affairs
2. Head of state
3. Head of diplomatic nations

35. ¿Qué es una reserva?

A "reservation" means a unilateral declaration, whatever its statement or denomination, made by a State
when signing, ratifying, accepting or approving a treaty or adhere to it, in order to exclude or modify the
legal effects of certain provisions of the treaty in its application to that State.

36. ¿Cómo se interpreta un Tratado?

VCIT
1. Object + purpose of treaty →found in the preamble. (According to the ICJ it can be also inferred
in the whole body of the treaty).
2. To act in good faith: in accordance to the object and purpose. Not defeat it.
3. Ordinary meaning → regular context of the words
**ICJ: Evolutive interpretation: words are in constant change.
4. There shall be taken into account, together with the context:
(a) any subsequent agreement between the parties regarding the interpretation of the treaty or the
application of its provisions;
(b) any subsequent practice in the application of the treaty which establishes the agreement of the
parties regarding its interpretation;
(c) any relevant rules of international law applicable in the relations between the parties.
5. A special meaning shall be given to a term if it is established that the parties so intended

37. ¿Cómo se puede terminar, suspender o invalidar un Tratado?

The termination of a treaty or the withdrawal of a party may take place:
a) in accordance with the provisions of the treaty, or
b) at any time, by consent of all parties after consulting the other Contracting States.

The application of a treaty may be suspended with respect to all the parties or a specific party:
a) in accordance with the provisions of the treaty, or
b) at any time, by consent of all parties after consultation with the other Contracting States.

The validity of a treaty or consent of a State to be bound by a treaty can not be challenged but through the
application of this Convention.
The termination of a treaty, its denunciation or the withdrawal of a party may not take place but as a result
of the application of the provisions of the treaty or of this
Convention. The same rule will apply to the suspension of the application of a treaty.

38. ¿Cuándo entra un Tratado en vigor?

treaties and other agreements that had not expired on the date of publication, had not been repudiated by
the parties, had not been replaced by other agreements, or had not otherwise been terminated.

A treaty entries into force:

1. A treaty shall enter into force in the manner and on the date it is available or agreed by the negotiating
States.
2. In the absence of such provision or agreement, the treaty shall enter into force as soon as proof of the
consent of all negotiating States to be bound by the treaty.
3. When the consent of a State to be bound by a treaty is recorded in a date subsequent to the date of entry
into force of said treaty, this will enter into force with
relationship to that State on that date, unless the treaty provides otherwise.
4. The provisions of a treaty that regulate the authenticity of its text, the constancy
of the consent of the States to be bound by the treaty, the manner or date of their
entry into force, reservations, the functions of the depositary and other issues that
necessarily arise before the entry into effect of the treaty shall apply from the
moment of the adoption of its text.

39. ¿Qué es pacta sunt servanda?

Principle according to which every treaty in force binds the parties and must be fulfilled by them in good
faith.
“agreements must be kept” is arguably the oldest principle of international law. Without such a rule, no
international agreement would be binding or enforceable. Pacta sunt servanda is directly referred to in
many international agreements governing treaties, including the Vienna Convention

40. ¿Qué es la costumbre internacional? ¿Cuáles son sus elementos?

Custom: Is one of the sources of International Law established in art 38 of the ICJ statute - “evidence of a
general practice accepted as a law”.
- An objective element: state practice - The actions or omissions by the state must support the
custom
- A subjective element: opinio iuris - States when performing a custom must do so because they
accept that they are legally bound to perform the custom à they are convinced that they are
obliged.
Es una práctica seguida por los sujetos internacionales y generalmente aceptada por éstos como derecho,
según se deduce de la letra y del espíritu del apartado.

41. ¿Cuál es la diferencia entre el elemento objetivo y el subjetivo de la costumbre?

The objective: para que se de este elemento, la costumbre debe reunir los siguiente:
- Ser uniforme: que el hecho o comportamiento tenga siempre las mismas carateriticas
- Ser constante que se lleve a cabo sin interrupciones
- Largo uso: que se practque por un peiodo de tiempo mas o menos prolongado
- Generalidad: que el hecho sea practicado por toda la comunidad o por la mayoria de ella
- Publicidad: que el hecho sea conocido por todos

Subjetivo: se da cuando existe la firme creencia por parte de las comunidades de que el hecho practicando
es una necesidad juridica, y que, por tanto, es obligatorio.

The subjective one is the belief that those actions depend on a legal obligation: Opinio iuris

42. ¿Dónde se puede encontrar la práctica estatal? ¿Qué práctica estatal es relevante?
1. Actions performed by the State (acts/omissions)
2. Statements made by authorized representatives in the international floor
3. national laws and judicial decisions that deal with international relations.

→ “State practice” that is necessary for the formation of a CIL must be (1) consistent and uniform; (2)
generally accepted by States; and (3) of a certain duration.

43. ¿Cómo se prueba la costumbre?

- Treaties: it can be proved from the fact that a multilateral treaty has many parties or through
many bilateral treaties that apply the same principle. Even if a State is not party to a treaty, a
treaty may serve as evidence of customary international law. Article 38 of the VCLT recognizes
this “back-door” means by which a treaty may become binding on non-parties. However, some
 provisions of a treaty – for example, many provisions of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention --
may reflect or codify customary international law, while other parts do not.
- Resolutions, declarations and statements of principle of the UN General Assembly
- Reports of the International Law Commission
- Decisions of International tribunals (PCIJ, ICJ)
- National decisions and legislation – a list of national decisions and legislation in your favor can
support a rule of custom
- Diplomatic correspondence
Showing that there are some “norms” that even if they are not written, it is a regular conduct between
states (general or regional) and that conduct is not due to political issues but because there is a legal
conviction that States are obliged to do it.

44. ¿Qué ha dicho la CIJ sobre costumbre regional o bilateral?

In regional or bilateral custom obligations are inter partes, it is binding only to a reduce number of actors.
It is necessary to prove that there is a consent between the two (or more) states for that practice, and here
again to prove opinio iuris.

45. ¿Quién tiene la carga de la prueba de la costumbre?

The State that invokes custom has the onus probandi of it.

46. ¿Puede haber costumbre negativa, entendida como la práctica generalizada de no hacer algo?
Although is not common to recognize negative practices as custom, the Court has taken them into
account. For instance, the Lotus Case France alleged that jurisdictional questions on collision cases are
rarely heard in criminal cases because States tend to prosecute only before the flag State. In its
compliment, the Court said:

“States had often, in practice, abstained from instituting criminal proceedings, and not that they
recognized themselves as being obliged to do so; for only if such abstention were based on their being
conscious of having a duty to abstain would it be possible to speak of an international custom.”

47. ¿Qué relación puede haber entre costumbre y tratados?

1) Custom may crystalize into a Treaty.
Example: Vienna Convention of the Law of the Treaties (1969)
2) A Treaty may become custom.
Example: Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty.

48. ¿Qué es un objetor persistente?

No obstante, un Estado podrá eludir el cumplimiento de una costumbre de este tipo cuando se hubiere
opuesto de un modo determinante e inequívoco a la misma durante su periodo de formación (regla de la
objeción persistente).
Con todo ello, en caso de que se sobrevenga un litigio internacional, recae en el Estado contrario a la
aplicación de una costumbre la carga de la prueba; es decir, es él quien ha de probar que durante el
proceso de consolidación de la norma consuetudinaria se opuso ella.
49. ¿Las resoluciones de Asamblea General pueden evidenciar costumbre?
Traditionally, United States courts have not considered United Nations General Assembly Resolutions to
be authoritative sources of international law, unless the Resolution merely restated legal principles that
could be verified by reference to recognized sources such as customary international law, treaties, and
judicial decisions.
Recently, however, some courts have gone further and have given General Assembly Resolutions the
same weight as full-fledged sources of international law. Other courts have refused to take this step and
have preferred to treat Resolutions as mere evidence of international law.

The drafters of the ICJ Statute rejected a proposal that the Assembly be vested with legislative authority
to enact rules of international law. The Philippines proposed such a role for the General Assembly at the
San Francisco Conference in 1945, but the parties to the conference voted it down by an overwhelming
margin, granting the Assembly only the power to recommend and advise.

50. ¿Qué son principios generales del derecho? ¿Qué tipos de principios hay?
Axioma que plasma una determinada valoración de justicia constituida por doctrina o aforismos que
gozan de general y constante aceptación.
The scope of general principles of law, to which Article 38(1) of the Statute of the ICJ refers, is unclear
and controversial but may include such legal principles that are common to a large number of systems of
municipal law. Given the limits of treaties or custom as sources of international law, Article 38 may be
looked upon as a directive to the Court to fill any gap in the law and prevent a nonliquet by reference to
the general principles.
In earlier stages of the development of international law, rules were frequently drawn from municipal law.
In the 19th century, legal positivists rejected the idea that international law could come from any source
that did not involve state will or consent but were prepared to allow for the application of general
principles of law, provided that they had in some way been accepted by states as part of the legal order.
Thus Article 38(1)(c), for example, speaks of general principles "recognized" by states. An area that
demonstrates the adoption of municipal approaches is the law applied to the relationship between
international officials and their employing organizations, [26] although today the principles are regarded as
established international law.
In sum, a general principle of international law may be understood as:
Los enunciados normativos más generales que a pesar de no haber sido integrados formalmente en los
ordenamientos jurídicos particulares, recogen de manera abstracta el contenido de un grupo de ellos. Son
conceptos o proposiciones de naturaleza axiológica o técnica que informan la estructura, la forma de
operación y el contenido mismo de las normas, grupos normativos, conjuntos normativos y del propio
derecho como totalidad.
There are principles related to civil, punitive and administrative law. Some examples of it are: estoppel,
obligationes erga omnes, actori incumbit provandi, clean hands, exhaustion of local remedies, valid proof.

51. ¿Cómo se determinan? ¿Dónde podemos encontrarlos?

International Law Commission
General principles of law are determined and adopted by custom, because their practice fund their
applicability in the custom that makes them valid. However, the constant practice of a principle does not
permit or prohibit its applicabilty in all cases. There are several principles that do not need an explicit
demonstration of applicablity to be applied. One may infer that general principles of law are somehow
intrinsecal to the practice of law.

Traditional doctrine, developed before the creation of international organizations, naturally does not
consider the United Nations' potential role in creating international legal principles. When the United
Nations was founded in 1945, member nations codified the traditional doctrine for sources of
international law when they drafted the statute governing the authority of the International Court of
Justice (ICJ).

The applicability of a general principle of law is responsive to a globalization of law principles that have
historically been applied in nations subject of IL. The majority of them find theie origin in Roman Law.

52. ¿Cuáles son los medios subsidiarios para determinar el derecho internacional?
Art. 38 of the ICJ Statute.
1. The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such disputes as are
submitted to it, shall apply: (...)
d) subject to the provisions of Article 59, judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified
publicists of the various nations, as subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law.
In sum to HQP’s, judicial decisions may be taken into account as a subsidiary mechanism of IL.

judicial decisions and the teachings of the most highly qualified publicists of the various nations, as
subsidiary means for the determination of rules of law

53. ¿Qué utiliza generalmente la Corte como medio subsidiario?

Judicial Decisions and Legal Scholarship. Are considered “subsidiary means for the determination of
rules of law.” While these sources are not by themselves international law, when coupled with evidence
of international custom or general principles of law, they may help to prove the existence of a particular
rule of international law.

54. ¿Quién puede considerarse un publicista altamente calificado?

“HQP may be used as a subsidiary means for the determination of rules of customary international law
under Article 38(1)(d ) in the sameway as decisions of international courts and tribunals? There seems to
me to be no reason in principle not to include decisions of national courts within article 38(1)(d ) as it
relates to customary international law. Such landmark cases as the Paquete Habana and theMcLeod case
have contributed greatly to the law. But domestic cases have to be approached with great care, and in
context, since they may reflect national legal systems and approaches, not necessarily the position under
international law.

The role of writers (or “publicists”, to use the wording of the ICJ Statute) is clearly subsidiary in the sense
I have just explained, and nowadays in reality too (though domestic courts in a number of countries do
place a certain emphasis on writers). (The word “publicists” in the ICJ Statute is a curious one in English.
I understand that in French it refers to lawyers qualified in public law, as opposed to those who teach or
practice private law.)

There is understandable concern that writers from all regions and legal traditions should be taken into
account. This may at times be problematic, depending on the language in which they write. (The language
question is also a problem when ensuring that State practice and opinio juris from all regions is counted.)

55. ¿Cuál es el valor de los medios subsidiarios en relación con otras fuentes?
Medios auxiliares: solo ayudan a aclarar, interpretar o apoyar las fuentes principales (tratados, costumbres
internacionales y principios).
A. Decisiones judiciales
B. Doctrinas de los publicistas de mayor competencia

Soft law: variety of non-legally binding instruments used in contemporary international relations by
States and international organizations. It is different from hard law, which is always binding, vg: Security
Council declarations, treaties
Soft law is a type of social rather than legal norm. While there is no accepted d

*Soft Law and Custom

* Unilateral Acts and Estoppel

56. ¿Qué es “soft law” y qué valor tiene en relación a las fuentes de DI?
Soft law: variety of non-legally binding instruments used in contemporary international relations by
States and international organizations. It is different from hard law, which is always binding, vg: Security
Council declarations, treaties
Soft law is a type of social rather than legal norm. While there is no accepted definition of “soft law,” it
usually refers to any written international instrument, other than a treaty, containing principles, norms,
standards, or other statements of expected behavior. Soft law “expresses a preference and not an
obligation that state should act, or should refrain from acting, in a specified manner.” (Gold 1996: 301).
This “expressed preference” for certain behavior aims to achieve functional cooperation among states to
reach international goals .
Some scholars a also use the term “soft law” to normative statements contained in instruments that are not
legally-binding.
Soft law instruments are usually considered as non-binding agreements which nevertheless hold much
potential for morphing into "hard law" in the future. This "hardening" of soft law may happen in two
different ways. One is when declarations, recommendations, etc. are the first step towards a treaty-making
process, in which reference will be made to the principles already stated in the soft law instruments.
Another possibility is that non-treaty agreements are intended to have a direct influence on the practice of
states, and to the extent that they are successful in doing so, they may lead to the creation of customary
law. Soft law is a convenient option for negotiations that might otherwise stall if legally binding
commitments were sought at a time when it is not convenient for negotiating parties to make major
commitments at a certain point in time for political and/or economic reasons but still wish to negotiate
something in good faith in the meantime.

In the context of international law, the term "soft law" covers such elements as:
● Most Resolutions and Declarations of the UN General Assembly
● Elements such as statements, principles, code of practice etc.; often found as part of framework
treaties;
● Action plans (for example, Agenda 21, Financial Action Task Force Recommendations);
● Other non-treaty obligations

57. ¿Qué actos unilaterales son vinculantes?

1. PROTEST – unilateral declaration designed to object to an act or action performer by another State; its
purpose and legal effect is to show that the protesting State does not recognize, accept, or acquiesce in the
act or action; or preserves the right to challenge that act or action
2. RECOGNITION (of act or conduct) – unilateral transaction (or, in the case of tacit or implicit
recognition, conduct) aimed at considering as legitimate that situation or conduct its legal effect is to bar
the recognizing State from subsequently challenging what had been previously recognized
3. RENUNCIATION – willing unilateral abandonment of a right, which is deliarate and clear (although it
may be explicit or tacit)
4. NOTIFICATION - act by which State makes other States informed of a certain action it has performed
its legal effect is to preclude the other States from subsequently claiming that, not knowing the action
notified, they were entitled to behave differently
5. PROMISE – unilateral declaration by which a State undertakes to behave in a certain manner, it
establishes a new rule binding the promising State toward one or more States

58. ¿Qué son actos unilaterales? ¿Cuáles son los requisitos para ser obligatorios?
An unilateral act is an obligation of a state upon itself; a promise. If a state official makes a public
statement of a promise to be bound, such promise creates obligations towards the international
community.
*Must be promulgated by a state official in order to be valid.

59. ¿Qué es estoppel?

Explicacion Liliana: The idea that you cannot be inconsistent with your own claims. You cannot go back
and change a statement that created legal consequences. You cannot be inconsistent in order to protect
"seguridad juridica".

In public international law, the doctrine of estoppel protects legitimate expectations of States induced by
the conduct of another State. It is supported by the protection of good faith (bona fide) in the traditions of
civil law. The rationale behind estoppel is to prevent injustice owing to inconsistency or Fraud. There are
two general types of estoppel: equitable and legal.
estoppel is a rule of international law that bars a party from going back on its previous representations
when those representations have induced reliance or some detriment on the part of others.
 60. ¿Cuál es la relación entre: tratados y costumbre, “soft law” y costumbre, actos unilaterales y
estoppel?

Treaties Custom Soft Law Unilateral Acts Estoppel

Source of ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
International law

Legally-binding ✓ ✓ ✓

General Principle of ✓
IL

Non-treaty ✓
obligations

Notas monitoria
Principios statehood: soberania, no intervencion, igualdad y la capacdidad de comparecer ante una ICJ
solo si hay consentimiento del Estado. Formal (lo que esta en la ley y esta en las resoluciones de la ONU),
material (relaciones asimetricas y desiguales esto se ve en lo real)

Reconocimiento de estado y gobierno: teorias de reconocimiento es para los Estados y no para gobirno.
Hay constitutivo (la existencia del estado depende del reconocimiento) y declarativo (principio que
Montevideo ya que es un mero acto politico pero de eso no depende la erxistencia del estado, en
montevideo no querian que dependieramos de un reconocimiento de españa para no depender del
reconocimiento de los otros. La teoria del reconocimiento solo aplica para el estado y afecta la existencia
misma del estado, pero el reconocimiento del gobierno no afecta la existencia del estado, se puede
desconocer el gobierno pero no el estado.

Tratados: antinomias

Fuente de fuentes: normas ius cogens: es una norma perentoria que no se puede derogar a menos que
surja una norma posterior que tenga el mismo contenido. No esta escrita porque se limitaria a que alguien
no la recnozca (esclavitud, tortura, pirateria y genocidio)