Traning Report - 01914803618 - Ansh Puri

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT
APPLIED 3D PRINTING
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements for the award of
Degree of Bachelors of Mechanical in Automation Engineering
Submitted By
Name: ANSH PURI
University Roll No. 01914803618
SUBMITTED TO
Department of Mechanical in Automation Engineering
MAHARAJ AGRASEN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
GGSIPU DELHI
1
DECLARATION
I hereby declare the Training Report entitled Applied 3D Printing is an authentic record of my
own work as requirements of 8 weeks Training during the period from 15th July 2020 to 15th
August 2020 for the award of degree of B.Tech (Mechanical in Automation Engineering),
GGSIPU, under the guidance of ________________.
ANSH PURI
01914803618
Date: ______________
Certified that the above statement made by the student is correct to the best of our knowledge
and belief.
Signatures
Examined by:
Head of Department
(Signature and Seal)
2
CERTIFICATE
3
4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Every Summer Internship Training, big or small, is successful largely due to the
efforts of wonderful people who have always given their valuable advice, and lend
a helping hand. I sincerely appreciate the efforts, inspiration, support, and guidance
of all those people who have helped me in making this Summer Internship Program
a success.
I am highly obliged to Curiosity 3D ™ for their guidance and constant supervision

as well as for providing necessary information regarding the Internship.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents, and members of curiosity

3D team community for their kind cooperation and encouragement which helped me
in completion of this course.
Ansh Puri
01914803618
B.Tech
Section : 5M2
5
ABOUT CURIOSITY 3D ™
At Curiosity3D, they are introducing 3D Printing technology in Indian education.

They are deeply passionate about 3D printing and how it is changing the world.
They are an education company with the mission to upskill India in 3D printing.
Their training programs are designed to be practical and skill oriented.

They believe in experimental learning and doing things by hand. They want
people to experience the power of converting your ideas into real objects.
Moreover, with the world looking at India as the new manufacturing hub (even
more post-Covid), They believe it is time we prepare to use futuristic tech.
Start learning and be prepared for the future.
6
About Course
3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three

dimensional solid objects from a digital file. The creation of a 3D
printed object is achieved using additive processes. In an additive
process an object is created by laying down successive layers of material
until the object is created. Each of these layers can be seen as a thinly
sliced horizontal cross-section of the eventual object. 3D printing is the
opposite of subtractive manufacturing which is cutting out / hollowing
out a piece of metal or plastic with for instance a milling machine. 3D
printing enables you to produce complex shapes using less material than
traditional manufacturing methods.
The course is actually 5 folds with two targets, first one Bing the
introduction to the 3D printing, hardware and software explanation,
troubleshooting and design thinking, machine and material and douts on
the collection day of the printer.
Course Contents
1. Introduction to 3D Printing - In the following session the

concept of 3D printing is introduced to the learner. How 3D
printing is considered as a very efficient manufacturing process in
certain scenarios. How 3D printing has revolutionized the industry
and is also considered the fourth revolution in industry after the
industrial revolution. It is also explained that how versatile 3D
printing actually is. What kind of tool is required what kind of
thinking any prerequisite knowledge of anything is also explained.
The usefulness of the skill and the ability of creating anything
7
comes in handy, whether you are working on projects that require a
lot of modification in a short amount of time or just a hobbyist or
just want custom parts to be built. 3D printing is the way to go.
2. Hardware & Software- In this face to face session the hardware

of the printer is thoroughly explained while going over the basic
details of the electrical, mechanical, extrusion, structural
component. All these points are explained from the very basic.
Which allows the learner to better understand the overall working
of the 3D printing hardware. It also allows then to understand
which parts are fragile and which parts are quite robust. A firm
understanding of the software (cura) & firmware (marlin) is
provided. Introduction to the G code that helps the machine to
know in which direction to proceed. How the software and the
hardware are tied together in this cohesive system to create the
marvelous machine with the only limits to what it can build is the
learner’s imagination.
3. Troubleshooting and design thinking - In this session the

different settings on the software like the quality, infill, support,
adhesion, shelling, speed, travel, cooling, and how they are used to
troubleshoot the problems that occur while printing an object, such
as improper adhesion to the print bed, fringing in between two
faces, overhangs, permitted and non-permitted,
angles/lengths/curves, elephants foot, improper cooling/speed
(thermal runaway) bed leveling etc. How to think beyond these
problems and how to avoid these problems by editing your design
for creating certain designs that do not include such problems yet
they get the job done.
8
4. Machine & Material - In the following session the different kinds
of machines and printing techniques are explained, such as
stereolithography(SLA), selective laser sintering(SLS), fused
deposition modelling(FDM), digital light process(DLP), multi Jet
fusion, poly-jet, direct metal sintering, electron beam melting, also
how these machines are used with different materials for different
designs some of the materials like ABS, PETG, PLA, HIP, Nylon,
Carbon fibers, ASA, metal filled, polycarbonate, polypropylene,
wood filled, along with the specifications of machines so that the
learner can pick the machine according to their requirement.
5. Doubts - In the following session all the doubts regarding the

course will be entertained.
9
TABLE OF CONTENT
CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

NO. NO.
I DECLARATION 2
II CERTIFICATE 3-4
III ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 5
IV ABOUT COMPANY 6
V ABOUT COURSE 7-9
VI TABLE OF CONTENT 10
VII FACE SHIELDS & MASK STRAPS 96-97
VIII PROSTHETICS PROTOTYPE 98-103
PROJECT
IX INTERNSHIP 104-108
X CONCLUSION 109-110
XI REFERENCES 111
10
CHAPTERS
1. INTRODUCTION TO 3D PRINTING 13-17
1.1 What is 3D Printing? 13
1.2 Why 3D Printing? 14
1.3 Problems 3D Printing can solve. 15-17
2. HARDWARE & SOFTWARE 18-61

2.1 G-code & .STL files 19-20
2.2 Electrical Components 20-31
2.3 Mechanical Components used for Motion 31- 39
2.4 Structural Components 39-44
2.5 Extrusion Components 44-59
2.6 Cura 59-60
2.7 Marlin 60-61
3. Troubleshooting & Design Thinking 62-82

3.1 What is Troubleshooting? 62
3.2 Limits of a 3D Printer 62-63
3.3 Cura in Detail 63-64
3.4 Improper Adhesion to the Print Bed 64-71
3.5 Bed Leveling 71-76
3.6 Fringing 76-77
3.7 Overhangs and the Use of Support 77-78
3.8 Thermal Runaway 78-79
3.9 Grinding or Damaging of the Filament 79-80
3.10 Design Thinking 80-82
11
4. MACHINE & MATERIAL 83-95
4.1 Types of Machines 83-88
4.2 Types of Material 88-94
4.3 Selection of a 3D Printer 94-95
5. FACE SHIELDS & MASK STRAPS 96-98
6. PROSTHETICS PROTOTYPE PROJECT 98-103

6.1 Aim 98
6.2 Design over view 98-100
6.3 Printed Parts 100-101
6.4 Final Prototype 101-102
6.5 Thoughts and Improvements 102-103
7. INTERNSHIP TRAINING 104-108

7.1 Job Description 104
7.2 Creating Ready to Print (.STL) Files 104-105
7.3 Marketing the Course 105-106
7.4 Assisting in the construction of a 3D Modelling Course 106-107
12
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO 3D
PRINTING
1.1 WHAT IS 3D PRINTING?

3D printing, or additive manufacturing, is the construction of a three-dimensional
object from a CAD model or a digital 3D modal. The term "3D printing" can refer
to a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined or solidified
under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being
added together (such as liquid molecules or powder grains being fused together),
typically layer by layer.
In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the
production of functional or aesthetic prototypes, and a more appropriate term for it
at the time was rapid prototyping. As of 2019, the precision, repeatability, and
material range of 3D printing has increased to the point that some 3D printing
processes are considered viable as an industrial-production technology, whereby
the term additive manufacturing can be used synonymously with 3D printing. One
of the key advantages of 3D printing is the ability to produce very complex shapes
or geometries that would be otherwise impossible to construct by hand, including
hollow parts or parts with internal truss structures to reduce weight. Fused
Deposition Modelling, or FDM, is the most common 3D printing process in use as
of 2018.
13
1.2 Why 3D Printing?
The invention of 3D printing targets 2 things: reduce time to get the first version
of a product and emancipate many constraints that are not possible with
traditional production methods. For example, with 3D printing, it is possible to
print complex geometric shapes and interlocking parts that require no assembly.
It is also possible to produce single objects, in small quantities, at low cost and
fast delivery. This technology also helps in the reduction of production-related
material loss. For more information on the benefits of 3D printing compared to
plastic molding and other manufacturing processes, you can refer to our
comparison page between 3D printing and traditional manufacturing methods.
3D Printing can produce different objects without creating specific tooling or
even using several tools. This is how 3D Printing helps increasing flexibility in
the production flow and helps reducing industrial expenses. Since there’s no
need to build a dedicated production line, it helps also to significantly save time:
3D Printing enables us to innovate faster and mechanize faster. Since 3D Printing
makes a replica of the 3D files one by one, so economies of scale can’t be realized
when the same file is produced several times: this is clearly different from series
manufacturing methods that aims to produce millions of units of the same
objects. On the contrary, 3D Printing is the perfect method for on-demand and
customization needs.
Finally, 3D Printing gives to everyone the power to manufacture objects only
when they are needed or desired. It’s a fantastic process for the creative ones
who wish to make something out of their imagination. 3D Printing enables in this
14
way many people to produce and sell their creations by skipping traditional
edition and distribution networks. 3D Printing is also useful to reproduce objects
that are no longer on sale, for instance in order to repair an old bike for which
spare parts are discontinued.
1.3 Problems 3D Printing can Solve.
The decreasing cost of 3D printers over the past few years has opened them up to a
wider consumer base, even making it possible for the average person to print
objects at home. Think model figurines, ornamental objects – anything with a
novelty value. . . But move away from these gimmicky applications, and you’ll see
that the boundaries of 3D printing are being stretched in more and more ingenious
ways. As the technology develops, 3D printers are beginning to revolutionize all
kinds of industries, from industrialized manufacturing to medicine. So, what are
some of the more serious applications of 3D printing, and how will they affect
businesses in the future?
1. Medical Research
A team from the University of Nottingham has recently 3D printed a

prototype brain scanner. Designed to fit snugly around the head, this helmet-style
scanner uses a new brain imaging technique called Magnetoencephalography
(MEG). Because the sensors in the helmet can be placed directly on the scalp, the
device operates at four times the sensitivity level of current scanners. It’s now
possible to measure brain activity that has never been detected before. The portable
and comfortable helmet design also means that patients can move freely and
undertake a range of different tasks whilst their brains are being scanned. It is set
to throw light on our most complex organ like never before.
2. Saving Coral Reefs
It’s a fact: rising sea temperatures are destroying our ocean ecosystems. There’s
nowhere this is more evident than in the decimation of the planet’s coral reefs. But
with 3D printing, there could be a glimmer of hope. Last month six 3D printed
coral structures were set on the sea floor off the coast of Monaco. Created by
15
maritime company Boskalis, these artificial corals are made from the same
materials as the real thing. Their intricate tunnels and tiny cave structures mimic
natural formations, encouraging living coral polyps to inhabit them. Tests have
shown that marine life is far more likely to set up home in these complex 3D
printed structures than the concrete versions tried out in the past.
3. Disaster Relief
In September 2017 the Atlantic experienced the highest number of hurricanes on

record. In the Caribbean, entire communities were flattened, causing billions of
dollars’ worth of damage in some of the world’s poorest countries. Transporting
supplies across disaster-stricken areas such as these is a nightmare for
humanitarian organizations. Step up 3D printing. Millebot Inc has built a 3D
printing platform inside a shipping container. This portable technology can run off
generators and manufacture whatever is required, from medical supplies, water
bottles and simple hand tools. Along with these small-scale objects, 3D printing
can provide larger structures crucial to disaster relief. Earlier this year Apis Cor 3D
printed an entire house within 24 hours. This technology could soon be rolled out
to create safe, temporary shelters to house people whose homes have been
destroyed.
4. Children’s Prosthetics
With the cost of traditional prosthetic limbs easily reaching thousands of pounds,
they are an uneconomical option for children who will grow out of them quickly.
By contrast, 3D printed limbs can be manufactured comparatively quickly, and at a
fraction of the cost. Welsh company Ambionics was created when the young son
of its founder had to have his arm amputated from the elbow down.
Using Stratasys 3D printers, Ambionics builds functional, moving arms that can be
fitted to children under the age of three. Studies have shown that introducing
children to prosthetics before this age makes them far less likely to reject them.
These 3D printed arms are made without small parts, so they are safe for children
to use. Crucially, providing infants with prosthetics such as these make sure that
they don’t miss out on learning essential motor skills.
5. 3D Printing in Space
16
If humankind’s ultimate mission is to live amongst the stars, then 3D printing is
going to help get us there. Way back in 2014 under contract with NASA, Made in
Space Inc successfully printed a ratchet wrench on the International Space Station.
The implications of this landmark achievement are clear. For long-term missions
such as deep space exploration, 3D printing could solve the problem of resupplying
spacecraft with the equipment they need. And that doesn’t just mean tools. Earlier
this year Beehex unveiled a robot that can 3D print pizza in space. Saving space
travelers from freeze-dried food will be a welcome development for astronauts, but
the ability to manufacture food is an essential factor in planning missions further
and further afield. If we want to send manned spacecraft deep into space, then they
need to be self-sufficient. 3D printing could help to provide the solution. Not only
does 3D printing solve problems, it revolutionizes invention. With 3D printing we
can create objects that would never have been possible under traditional methods
of manufacture. It has been proven to improve efficiency, cut costs and reduce
manufacturing time in just about every existing industry. Now, it is leading to the
creation of entirely new business sectors, with its applications in environmental
and medical settings particularly welcome. It appears that where 3D printing is
concerned, its uses are limited only by our own ingenuity. That’s one serious piece
of technology.
17
CHAPTER 2: HARDWARE & SOFTWARE
We all know the general definition of hardware and software. Hardware is the
tangible or touchable portion of any machine that does all the mechanical work and
eventually create the output. Software is actually the hidden part, kind of like the
brains of an operation, software provides the necessary information to the
hardware in order to produce the desired outcome.
In a 3D printer the cohesiveness of all the hardware and software makes a 3D print
possible. We cannot just take a cad file or a digital 3D model and send it to the
printer, as that will not work because the machine is incapable of comprehending
it. Instead:
• that cad file is changed to a STL file which is the short form for
stereolithography file that is readable by a slicing software like cura,
• that file is sent to a 3D printing slicing software that can slice and make
cross sections of that STL file write the respective G code for that cross
section,
• that G code is then saved to a SD card to be installed onto an Arduino of the
3D printer,
• which recognizes and reads it and sends the information to the moving
components like extruder, X/Y axis motor, Z axis print bed of the 3D printer
for the file to be printed,
and that is how a 3D printer operates in a nutshell.
In the rest of the topics each and everything mentioned in the process is explained.
18
2.1 G Code & STL Files
• G Code file- G-code is a language that humans use to tell a machine how to
do something. With 3D printing, g-code contains commands to move parts
within the printer. G-code consists of G- and M-commands that have an
assigned movement or action.
• A g-code contains a lot of information. If you open the g-code in a text editor,
you could read the information but it would be difficult to make sense of it.
You can get a better understanding of g-code by using a program such as
Repetier Host. This type of program allows you to open a g-code and see the
paths the print head will take to produce the print. Repetier Host uses color to
indicate the code function.
11 → Indicates the line of code and is used for reference
G/M → Blue Text is a G- or M-command
Red Text defines certain parameters
F → Speed
X/Y/Z → Coordinates
E → Feeder movement
; → A semicolon behind the code is used for comment information. The comment is not
part of the code.
• STL File - An abbreviation of "stereolithography" is a file format native to

the stereolithography CAD software created by 3D Systems. STL has
several backronyms such as "Standard Triangle Language" and
"Standard Tessellation Language". This file format is supported by many
other software packages; it is widely used for rapid prototyping, 3D
printing and Computer aided manufacturing. STL files describe only the
surface geometry of a three-dimensional object without any representation of
19
color, texture or other common CAD model attributes. STL format specifies
both ASCII and binary representations. Binary files are more common, since
they are more compact.
• An STL file describes a raw, unstructured triangulated surface by the unit
normal and vertices (ordered by the right-hand rule) of the triangles using a
three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system. In the original specification,
all STL coordinates were required to be positive numbers, but this restriction
is no longer enforced and negative coordinates are commonly encountered in
STL files today. STL files contain no scale information, and the units are
arbitrary.
2.2 Electrical Components
Arduino
It is a Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are

distributed under a Creative Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are
available on the Arduino website. Layout and production files for some versions of
the hardware are also available.
Although the hardware and software designs are freely available
under copyleft licenses, the developers have requested the name Arduino to
20
be exclusive to the official product and not be used for derived works without
permission. The official policy document on use of the Arduino name emphasizes
that the project is open to incorporating work by others into the official
product. Several Arduino-compatible products commercially released have
avoided the project name by using various names ending in -duino.
An early Arduino board with an RS-232 serial interface (upper left) and an Atmel
ATmega8 microcontroller chip (black, lower right); the 14 digital I/O pins are at
the top, the 6 analog input pins at the lower right, and the power connector at the
lower left.
Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8-bit AVR microcontroller (ATmega8,
ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, or ATmega2560) with varying amounts
of flash memory, pins, and features. The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the
Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012. The boards use single or double-row
pins or female headers that facilitate connections for programming and
incorporation into other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules
termed shields. Multiple and possibly stacked shields may be individually
addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator and a
16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some designs, such as the LilyPad,
run at 8 MHz and dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific
form-factor restrictions.
Arduino microcontrollers are pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies
uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory. The default bootloader of the
Arduino Uno is the Optiboot bootloader. Boards are loaded with program code via
a serial connection to another computer. Some serial Arduino boards contain a
level shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and transistor–
transistor logic (TTL) level signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed
via Universal Serial Bus (USB), implemented using USB-to-serial adapter chips
such as the FTDI FT232. Some boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute
the FTDI chip with a separate AVR chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which
21
is reprogrammable via its own ICSP header. Other variants, such as the Arduino
Mini and the unofficial Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or
cable, Bluetooth or other methods. When used with traditional microcontroller
tools, instead of the Arduino IDE, standard AVR in-system programming (ISP)
programming is used.
Stepper Motor
A stepper motor, also known as step motor or stepping motor, is a brushless DC

electric motor that divides a full rotation into a number of equal steps. The motor's
position can then be commanded to move and hold at one of these steps without
any position sensor for feedback (an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is
carefully sized to the application in respect to torque and speed.
Stepper motors are an important part of 3D printers. They are used in a variety of
applications depending on the type of printer. For example, stepper motors are
used to move the extruder or the build platform alone the x, y, and z axis. The
extruder assembly also has a stepper motor used to pull the filament into the
extruder.
Stepper motors are unique in that they can move to a known interval and then hold
that position. Because they are a good motor to move an object to a repeatable
position, they are often used in robotics and in printers.
Stepper motors come in a variety of sizes. The most popular sizes used in 3D
printers are the NEMA 14, NEMA 17, NEMA 23, and NEMA 24. NEMA is a
measurement standardized by the National Electrical Manufacturers Association
22
(NEMA) and refers to the frame size of the motor. Just because a motor has a
larger frame doesn't mean it has more torque.
LCD
A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically

modulated optical device that uses the light-modulating properties of liquid
crystals combined with polarizers. Liquid crystals do not emit light
directly, instead using a backlight or reflector to produce images in color
or monochrome. LCD's are available to display arbitrary images (as in a general-
purpose computer display) or fixed images with low information content, which
can be displayed or hidden, such as preset words, digits, and seven-segment
displays, as in a digital clock.
They use the same basic technology, except that arbitrary images are made from a
matrix of small pixels, while other displays have larger elements. LCD's can either
be normally on (positive) or off (negative), depending on the polarizer
arrangement. For example, a character positive LCD with a backlight will have
black lettering on a background that is the color of the backlight, and a character
negative LCD will have a black background with the letters being of the same
color as the backlight. Optical filters are added to white on blue LCD's to give
them their characteristic appearance.
This is what the user uses to interact with the hardware of the printer using the
firmware marlin which you will learn in just a bit.
23
Fans & Cooling Systems
When talking about the functional parts of an FDM 3D printer, the layer fan is one
of the most important components that can be found. A 3D printer usually has two
fans in the Hot End area, one in charge of cooling the Hot End diffuser and another
that cools the material that comes out of the nozzle. In this article we will talk about
the latter, the layer fan.
All users have tried to print a piece with areas of little area, where the nozzle is
constantly moving in the same area, a process that causes an excess of temperature
that softens the piece. The same happens when printing slender and tall pieces, such
as a small diameter cylinder, where heat accumulates in the same area and deforms
the piece catastrophically. Another typical deformation is that which occurs
in cantilevers of great inclination, where the still hot material is deformed by the
action of being suspended in the air, until it solidifies.
Limit Switches
The 3D printer needs a reference location known as a home to base all its
subsequent movements on. To define a home location, it is important to start
visualizing the linear rails as the axes of a 3D graph, with each axis having a
positive direction terminating in a maximum and a negative direction ending in a
minimum. For simplicity, let’s say this home location is at the minima of the x, y, z
axes or (0,0,0). When the power is turned on how does printer find these minima?
24
This process is known as homing and can be accomplished by placing a sensor on
each axis, which are triggered when the carriage reaches the minima. These
sensors are known as limit switches or end stops. Limit switches are categorized by
how they are triggered. Advantages and Disadvantages
TYPES OF LIMIT SWITCHES
Mechanical Limit Switches

The mechanical limit switch is the most commonly used because of its simplicity
and low cost. It is fundamentally a push button that is triggered when its metal
spring arm is bumbed. When pressed the switch will either open or close a circuit,
depending on how it is wired. When placed on a linear rail the carriage will bump
into the limit switch and the microcontroller will sense a change in the state of the
switch and will stop stepping the motor.
Optical Limit Switches
Optical limit switches consist of an LED and phototransistor. When the light path
between the LED and phototransistor is blocked the base current of the
25
phototransistor decreases. Most optical switches output a digital high or low signal
based on if an obstruction is present, making this limit switch type compatible with
many 3D printer motherboards. However, unlike the mechanical switch the optical
switch requires an extra wire that supplies power for the LED. With optical limit
switches the detection of the carriage is a contactless process. You don’t have to
worry about parts fatiguing or wearing out overtime like the spring arm of the
mechanical switch. However, interference from ambient light is a slight concern.
Magnetic Limit Switches
Magnetic limit switches operate on either the principle of electromagnetic

induction or the Hall effect. Similar to the optical limit switch Hall based switches
are contactless, but instead of detecting changes in light they measure changes in
magnetic fields. These types of switches require a magnet to be attached to the
carriage. As the carriage moves the magent closer to the minimum and hence the
magnetic sensor there will be a distance at which an output signal is triggered.
Similar to the optical sensor the Hall sensor needs an extra wire but in this case it’s
26
for a reference voltage required for the switching effect. Unlike an optical sensor,
the Hall sensor is not affected by ambient light.
Force Sensitive Limit Switches
The final type of limit switches is resistive. Force-Sensitive Resistors (FSR), as
their name implies, change resistance when experiencing force. With these types of
switches an extra controller board is required to measure the changes in resistance
of the FSR. This intermediary controller board relays a logic level signal to the
printer motherboard. Similar to the mechanical limit switch, the carriage has to
touch the force-sensitive resistor for it to be detected. Very rarely is this type of
limit switch used to home carriages.
Z PROBES
While most 3D printers employ a limit switch on each axis, some designs call for a
Z-probe in place of or in addition to a Z-axis limit switch. The most important
distance in 3D printing is the distance between the extruder nozzle and the print
bed at the start of the print. If this distance is too great then the molten filament
will not adhere to the print bed resulting in a failed print. If this distance is too
small then the pressure in the nozzle will build up because there is not enough
clearance for the filament to be extruded, which could jam the extruder also
resulting in a failed print. Similarly to how the minima of the axes can be found
with limit switches, the height of the print bed can be found by triggering a force
sensitive resistor that is either underneath the build plate or above the build plate at
a precisely known distance. The extruder is then brought down to touch either the
build plate or the force sensitive resistor directly. This process is called probing
and the force sensitive resistor would be called the Z probe. There are different
probe types just like there are different limit switches.
27
Thermistor & Heating Element
A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature,

more so than in standard resistors. The word is a combination
of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters,
temperature sensors (negative temperature coefficient or NTC type typically), self-
resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements (positive
temperature coefficient or PTC type typically).
Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:
• With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is

commonly used as a temperature sensor, or in series with a circuit as an inrush
current limiter.
• With PTC thermistors, resistance increases as temperature rises. PTC
thermistors are commonly installed in series with a circuit, and used to protect
against overcurrent conditions, as resettable fuses.
The hot end is probably the most important component of your FDM 3D printer. It
is responsible for melting the printer’s plastic feedstock (filament) into thin,
precise lines for printing. It’ll affect how likely your prints are to fail, what kinds
of materials you can print, how fast you can print them, and how cleanly your
prints will come out.
28
PSU
29
Power supplies, or PSUs (power supply units), are usually clunky metal boxes with
a row of screw terminals or a bundle of wires at one end and a fan on the side.
When you wire them up to your printer and plug them in, they seem to magically
make things work. But what do they actually do?
PSUs tend to contain a transformer (or a series of transformers), which receives

the 110 to 240 volts from the wall and steps them down to a more reasonable 12 to
24 volts. Also, within a PSU is a rectifier circuit, which converts the wall’s AC
current to the DC current a 3D printer needs.
3D PRINTER POWER SUPPLY
Why Specifications Matter
The sticker with specified ratings of a PSU. Source: Emmett Grames / All3DP
A 3D printer power supply usually has the following specifications:
• The rated voltage(s) of a PSU indicates what voltages it will accept out of the
wall. In most cases, this can be changed using a switch on the side of the PSU. As
such, they can work on both 110V @ 60Hz and 240V @ 50Hz AC.
• The output voltage is what comes out the other end: the voltage of DC current
that the PSU can provide. This will vary from supply to supply, but each unit will
only support one particular voltage, for example 12V. This is important because
each component on your printer is rated for a specific voltage. If you get it wrong,
things won’t work.
30
• The output current, or output amperage, is the highest number of Amps that the
supply can provide at any given time. This number will affect how many heaters
your printer can have. It’s most often seen as a limit to how hot a heated bed can
get.
• The total wattage of a PSU is how much power (energy per unit time) it can
provide. Mathematically, it is the product of the output voltage and the output
current. For example, a 12V supply with a 30A maximum current will be able to
provide 360 Watts (12 x 30 = 360).
2.3 Mechanical Components used in Motion

Linear Motion Systems
There are basically two different linear motions systems used in the vast majority
of 3D printers on the market today, although there are a few experimental systems
that will be discussed later on. Most 3D printers use combinations of lead screws
and timing belts for linear motion.
Lead Screws
Lead screw systems are a simple means of translating the rotational motion of the
stepper motors to linear motion of the 3D printer build platform and/or extruder. A
lead screw linear motion system consists of some kind of threaded rod, which is
rotated by the stepper motor, and a mating nut that moves up and down the
threaded rod as it rotates.
31
You can see the lead screw in the middle with a nut that provides motion.
Almost all 3D printers use at least one lead screw in their linear motion system to
control motion along the z-axis. Typically, a lead screw will be used to lift the
build platform or the extruder up one layer at a time during the build process.
There are several different types of lead screws, each with their own advantages
and disadvantages. The three most common types of lead screws are ordinary
threaded rods, trapezoidal (ACME) lead screws, and ball screws. Each of these
lead screw times has its own set of advantages, but there are some advantages that
all three types of lead screws share. First, lead screws are capable of delivering a
large amount of force. The mechanical advantage provided by screws is the entire
reason screws exist at all. Second, screws are said to be self-locking. This means
that if the 3D printer loses power, the screw will stay right were it is, without
moving. This is part of the reason lead screws are typically used for vertical
movement of the build platform. It does not matter if the z-axis motor loses power;
the build platform will stay at its current position.
All lead screws also share some disadvantages. First, they all require periodic
lubrication to reduce ware and increase efficiency. Second, all lead screws wear
more quickly than other linear motion systems. Third, because of the metal-on-
metal contact between the lead screw and nut, lead screws are noisy. Last, lead
screws are prone to backlash. This is the reason lead screws are not usually used
for the x-axis or y-axis. These axes switch directions very frequently and because
of the backlash most lead screws suffer from, every time the screw changes
direction, the positional accuracy decreases. This can get to be a big problem for a
long print.
32
A threaded rod.
An ACME lead screw.
33
A ball screw.
As for the unique benefits and drawbacks of each type of lead screw, ordinary
threaded rods are the lowest performance, but also the cheapest, type of lead screw.
Technically, threaded rods are not lead screws at all because they are not designed
for use in linear motion systems. Their intended purpose is to attach things.
Threaded rods have the benefit of being very inexpensive, and readily available.
However, again because threaded rods are not designed for linear motion, they are
not as accurate as the other lead screw types, they have a relatively large amount
of backlash, they wear quickly, they require lubrication, and they are very
inefficient. This last point about efficiency is actually very important. Threaded
rods only have an efficiency around 20% to 30%. This means a bunch of power is
wasted on fighting friction, it means the threads will were quickly, and it means
moving the lead screw is taxing on the motor.
ACME lead screws are a kind of middle ground between threaded rods and ball
screws. Unlike ordinary threaded rods, ACME lead screws are designed for linear
motion. ACME lead screws are much more accurate than threaded rods, and they
have smaller backlash. The trapezoidal thread profile also makes ACME lead
screws more resistant to wear. However, ACME lead screws, like threaded rods,
are still very inefficient and they require lubrication. Last, ACME lead screws are a
lot more expensive than threaded rods, and the ACME nuts are more expensive
than regular nuts as well.
34
Last we have ball screws. Ball screws have the best performance among the three
lead screw types, but they are also by far the most expensive. Ball screws use a
specialized type of nut that is kind of like a ball bearing. Ball screws are again
much more accurate than threaded rods, and have a smaller backlash. Also though,
ball screws are much more efficient than either threaded rods or ACME lead
screws, about 70% efficient. For this reason they consume less power, are less
demanding of the motors, and wear less. Ball screws, however, require regular
lubrication to function properly and are, again, very expensive.
35
Lead
Screw Pros Cons
Type
Poor
accuracy
Wear quickly
Cheap Require
Threaded Rods Easy to obtain lubrication
Easy to work with Very
inefficient
Large
backlash
Moderate price point Require lubrication

ACME
High accuracy Inefficient
Screws
Strong Some backlash
High accuracy
Ball Strong Expensive
Screws Greater efficiency Require lubrication
Low backlash
Timing Belts
Belt drives are used on the x-axis and y-axis on the vast majority of 3D printers. A
belt drive consists of a timing belt with teeth, a toothed pulley which is attached to
the motor, and a carriage attached to the belt. When the motor turns, it turns the
pulley. The teeth on the pulley interface with the teeth on the timing belt so that
when the motor rotates the pulley, the timing belt is pulled in the direction it needs
to go. A carriage is typically attached to the belt such that it moves back and forth
with the belt.
36
A motor drives a pulley which interfaces with the timing belt.
37
A carriage attached to the belt moves back and forth with the belt.
Belt drives have several advantages over lead screws for use on the x- and y-axes:
• Belt drives are typically less expensive than specialized types of lead screws like
ACME screws or ball screws.
• Belt drives are better suited for long travel lengths since the timing belt can easily
be made as long as necessary to achieve the desired travel distance for the axis.
• Lower maintenance than lead screws; no lubrication required.
• Capable of much higher speeds than lead screws.
• Low backlash
This last point is of particular importance. Assuming that the belt drive system has
been set up and tuned correctly, a subject we will discuss in a moment, belt drive
systems have very low backlash. This makes them good for use on the x-axis and
y-axes, which change direction frequently. The low backlash means the linear
motion will not lose positional accuracy over time. The second to last point is also
38
important. Belt drives can move much faster than lead screw systems, meaning
prints get done in less time.
Here you can see the belt drive used on the Ultimaker 2.
Belt drives for linear motion of course have some downsides. Most importantly, a
belt drive system achieves its low backlash and high accuracy only when the belt is
in tension. In other words, if there is slack in the timing belt, it will ruin the
accuracy of the entire system. For this reason, 3D printers using belt drive systems
must incorporate some mechanism for keeping the belts in the proper tension at all
times. The belts must be tight enough to avoid backlash and any kind of
oscillation. On the other hand, if the belts are too tight, the motors will not be
strong enough to move them and the system could miss movement commands.
Therefore, one of the drawbacks to using a belt drive system is that it requires
more work to tune correctly.
Compounding this issue is the fact the timing belts have a tendency to stretch a bit
over time. Therefore, a 3D printer operator will need to periodically re-tension the
timing belts to keep the system working well.
2.3 Structural Components
Aluminum Extrusions
Aluminum extrusion is a process by which aluminum alloy material is forced

through a die with a specific cross-sectional profile.
39
A powerful ram pushes the aluminum through the die and it emerges from the die
opening. When it does, it comes out in the same shape as the die and is pulled out
along a runout table.
At a fundamental level, the process of aluminum extrusion is relatively simple to

understand.
The force applied can be likened to the force you apply when squeezing a tube of
toothpaste with your fingers.
As you squeeze, the toothpaste emerges in the shape of the tube’s opening.
The opening of the toothpaste tube essentially serves the same function as
an extrusion die. Since the opening is a solid circle, the toothpaste will come out as
a long solid extrusion.
Below, you can see examples of some of the most commonly extruded shapes:
angles, channels, and round tubes.
On top are the drawings used to create the dies and on the bottom are renderings of
what the finished aluminum profiles will look like.
Print Bed
The build plate is arguably one of the most important parts of any 3D printer, as
you can’t very well print without it. They come in many variations, with different
surfaces, thermal characteristics, and price tags.
The primary function of a build plate is to provide a perfectly (or almost perfectly)
flat surface for the bottom layer of your print. The second function is usually to
provide an adhesive surface for the extruded plastic to form a temporary bond with
during a print, or a surface onto which an adhesive can be applied.
40
In short, the build plate is a flat surface that printed objects will stick to during a
print. Without this, your printer would need some sort of stasis field to hold a print
in place while your printer fabricates objects in midair. As cool as that sounds, that
sort of technology doesn’t exist yet (unfortunately), so we’re all stuck printing on
glass and the like. That is, until our friends at BuildTak decide to develop such a
field (hint, hint).
As there are many options for build plates, we’ve compiled a short list of
the commonly used varieties and their unique properties. Please note that the
majority of these solutions are intended to be installed on top of an aluminum (or
similar) heated bed.
Polypropylene
Using a polypropylene build plate. Source: Ronald Walters / YouTube

Polypropylene sheets are another fairly common build plate solution. These offer
good adhesion directly to the surface, without additional adhesives, and are
relatively cheap to purchase.
Easy-Peelzy
41
The Easy-Peelzy in action. Source: Maker's Muse / YouTube
A similar system to the FlexPlate, the Easy-Peelzy is another option for a flexible,
removable build plate.
BuildTak FlexPlate
Flexing a FlexPlate. Source: BuildTak
If a glass-based solution isn’t going to do the trick, perhaps you should look into
something a little more flexible. Enter the BuildTak FlexPlate.
Anycubic Ultrabase
42
The Ultrabase, as seen on the Anycubic i3 Mega. Source: All3DP
A step up from your everyday glass plate, the Anycubic Ultrabase has a special
structure of nanoparticles applied to its surface, which cling to the print while hot,
but easily release the object after it cools.
Printing on Glass
A sheet of borosilicate glass. Source: Aliexpress
A glass sheet is likely the most popular, simple, and easy solution for a build plate
currently in use today.
Guide Rail
a rail or track which directs the movement or positioning of something.
43
Brackets
These used to support beams, conduits , pipes etc. When the roofing work is
finished for a portal structure, the overhang of the sheets is supported by brackets.
2.4 Extrusion Components

The 3D printer extruder is a series of parts that together handle the moving and
processing of plastic filament.
Some people think of the extruder as only the motor and associated parts that push
and pull the filament — others, the entire assembly including the heated part that
melts and deposits the filament.
To keep things simple, this guide considers the entire assembly as the extruder. To
begin with, in explaining the crucial components of the 3D printer extruder, we
boil it down into two elements: the cold end and the hot end.
3D PRINTER EXTRUDER – THE ULTIMATE GUIDE
Cold End
As the name suggests, the cold end is just that — cold. Cold end refers to the upper
portion of the 3D printer extruder system whereby filament is fed and then passed
along into the hot end for melting and extrusion onto the print bed.
44
How the general layout and position of the cold end on your 3D printer looks is
down to whether it is a direct or Bowden drive 3D printer extruder (both of which
are explained in detail below). The Lulzbot Taz 6 pictured at the top of this section
uses a geared direct drive arrangement for its extruder, with the filament being
pulled into the print head and directly pushed into the hot end. What we would
consider the cold end is highlighted in the picture.
There is no heating of the filament here. The cold end consists of an extruder
motor and gearing — typically mounted either to the printer’s frame or the print
head itself depending on the style of extruder — and PTFE tubing to smoothly
guide the filament into the hot end (again, dependent on the style of extruder,
which we cover shortly). The tubing is essential on any Bowden 3D printer
extruder to guide and, by being clamped on both ends, allow sufficient push on the
filament to feed into the hot end.
What Happens in the Cold End?
With the heat sink removed on this e3D Titan Aero, we see the inner workings of
the 3D printer extruder.
At its basest, the cold end consists of a stepper motor, some form of toothed
gearing, a hobbed bolt or gear, spring-loaded idler (typically a bearing of some
kind) to hold onto the filament and then PTFE tubing to guide the filament. With
the exception of the PTFE tubing (which is not necessary on a direct drive 3D
printer extruder), this cluster of parts is the same in both direct drive and Bowden
3D printer extruders.
45
The humble stepper motor — seen here with a metal gear essential for the 3D
printer extruder — these drive the motion and extrusion of filament in most if not
all modern desktop 3D printers. Stepper motors are brushless DC motors that
achieve a high level of precision in small movements and impart full torque at low
speeds. Exactly what one wants when pushing exacting amounts of filament
around a 3D printer extruder.
The stepper motor alone is not enough to feed filament to the hot end though. Parts
attached to and working with the stepper motor’s driveshaft are required to
physically grab the filament and push it along on its path to the hot end.
46
In this cutaway view of the 3D printer extruder we see the metal pinion gear and
plastic gear with hobbed shaft.
For this, there is usually a combination of gears and hobbed bolts or shafts (in the
image above, we see a hobbed shaft attached to a plastic gear) serving as a pinch
wheel along with a bearing or other stiff frictionless material. Often spring-loaded
to maintain pressure on the filament, this also allows for the free movement of the
filament (as dictated by the rotating of the hobbed bolt/gear). This arrangement
typically sees the stepper motor directly pushing on the filament to feed it.
47
Here we see a plastic lever arm with embedded bearing, tension spring and plastic
gear with hobbed shaft. Together these exert pressure on filament and feed it
through the extruder.
Alternatively, there are versions of the 3D printer extruder cold end that utilize
slightly different part arrangements in order to feed filament. Such variances often
claim to offer increased grip and delivery of the filament.
One such example would be Bondtech and its popular 3D printer extruder. It uses
two geared counter-rotating hobbed gears to grip the filament from two sides. The
result is a dramatic increase in grip power when pushing the filament.
48
Here we see both sides of the Prusa i3 Mk3’s cold end – including its Bondtech
extruder gearing. Two hobbed gears grip and push the filament, resulting in few (if
any) skips or grinding of the filament.
As mentioned, there are variations of 3D printer extruder that utilize these parts in
slightly different arrangements from one another. Each has its own pros and cons.
Next, we’ll dive into what the differences are between direct drive and Bowden 3D
printer extruders.
49
A simple but effective diagram explaining the key difference between the direct
drive and Bowden 3D printer extruder. (Image: forefrontfilament.co.uk)
Direct Drive Extruders
A direct drive extruder on the Prusa i3 Mk3. Stacked on top of the hot end, it pulls
filament directly into the print head.
A direct drive 3D printer extruder is distinctive for its placement of the extruder
motor directly on top of the hot end. Such an arrangement minimizes the travel
distance of the filament to the hot end and can allow for more reliable 3D printing
of flexible filaments.
50
Note though that because a 3D printer has a direct drive extruder does not
necessarily mean it can print flexible filaments — soft wiggly filament can and
will find its way out of an unconstrained paths. For success printing flexible
materials, pay more attention to the position of the pinch and the path immediately
around in inside your cold end.
A benefit to the use of direct drive is the finer control of retraction. Because of its
position directly over the hot end, there is less travel between the pinch action and
the filament passing through the heatbreak into the hot end. Consequently, there is
less room for the filament to bend and buckle under the pressure exerted on it.
You will find a direct drive 3D printer extruder contributes to a bulkier, taller print
head. Since it is adding a motor and other parts on top of the hot end, it logically
stands to reason that this system is also adding mass to the print head, necessitating
the build of the printer around it to accommodates moving this extra mass
accurately.
A poorly assembled printer with a direct drive extruder is more likely to exhibit
poor print quality (likely ripples on the surface of the print) from the print head’s
continual overshooting and lurch when changing direction.
Bowden Extruders
A Bowden extruder arrangement on a delta style 3D printer. The extruder motor is

mounted to the frame, pushing filament through a tube to the hot end below.
51
Describing the difference between the Bowden and direct drive 3D printer extruder
is easier if we turn to a clumsy metaphor. Everyone loves a clumsy metaphor,
don’t they?
Imagine the difference between standing a few feet away from a hole in the wall
and trying to poke a pool noodle through it, then standing inches next to the wall to
do the same. One gives ample room for the noodle to wobble, bend and buckle.
The other does not.
Rather than being mounted directly on top of the hot end, as with a direct drive 3D
printer extruder, the Bowden style of 3D printer extruder sees the assembly of
motor and gearing mounted to the printer’s frame. In doing so, the Bowden
extruder gains an advantage over its print head mounted direct drive sibling: speed.
Mechanically a Bowden 3D printer extruder is no different to a direct drive 3D

printer extruder. You still have a stepper motor driving a hobbed gear/bolt, which
bites into the filament passing through it. Since the filament now has some distance
to cover before entering the hot end for melting, the use of PTFE tubing is
necessary to guide it. This tubing, typically with an internal diameter slightly larger
than that of the filament, constrains the material’s path and allows the cold end to
exert pressure as it feeds.
52
The Prusa i3 Mk3, which utilizes a direct drive arrangement of its extruder. It
could be argued that the extra mass of the 3D printer extruder directly on the
moving print head can cause problems, but a well-engineered and assembled
machine (like this Prusa) negates this.
By placing the mass of the 3D printer extruder on the frame instead, a the print
head is freed up to print at higher speeds without sacrificing print quality. Less
mass moving at speed on the print head means
A side effect of positioning the 3D printer extruder in such a way is that now the
filament has a long way to travel within a tube that is a fraction wider than it is.
Across the length of the tube, there can be enough room for the filament to bend
slightly. When retracting the filament between travel moves, this slack in the
filament eats into the retraction distance. Without correction (i.e. increasing
retraction), this introduces a delay in the easing of pressure effected on the hot end.
In short, you could get messy stringing if you don’t take care to alter your
retraction settings.
53
Another issue to address with Bowden 3D printer extruder setups is friction. With
the filament needing to be pushed long distances inside a tube, it’s important that
sufficient bite from the extruder with enough torque behind it is exerted on the
filament for it to reach the hot end. Because of this, it’s not uncommon to see
geared extruder motors in Bowden style 3D printer extruders for the higher torque
they offer.
Most delta style desktop 3D printers utilize Bowden extruders.

Hot End
Where the cold end directly manipulates the filament, pushing and pulling as
required by the 3D printer, the hot end is where… well, the hot stuff happens.
Inside the assembly known as the hot end the filament passes into a heated
chamber, where it transitions from solid to liquid. Sounds simple, and it mostly is.
Though there is a lot going on to allow the filament to silkily extrude onto your
build plate.
What Happens in the Hot End?
54
The e3D Titan Aero combines both hot end and extruder in one compact unit. The
hot end would typically feature just the central parts of this image: heatsink (and
fan), heat break, heater bock, hearter cartridge, thermistor and nozzle.
From the top to bottom, your typical 3D printer hot end comprises of a specific
sequence of parts. There is a slight difference depending on if you are using a
PTFE/PEEK or all-metal hot end. Here we explain the all-metal hot end — a
breakdown of the differences between PEEK/PTFE and all-metal hot ends can be
found in the section below this.
Firstly there is the filament feed tube (not pictured above). In both the Bowden and
direct drive 3D printer extruder this will simply be the PTFE tube running from
your cold end. Though note that not all direct drive 3D printer extruders feature
this.
Sometimes you’ll see direct drive 3D printer extruders with the filament running
directly into the print head.
On a Bowden 3D printer extruder, this feed tube inserts the filament directly into
the heat break through the heat sink. The heatbreak, which is threaded into the heat
sink, is often simply a threaded stainless steel (or other non-heat conducting metal,
such as titanium) tube.
Divided into two parts (notice the two separate threads on the image below —
longer for the heat sink, shorter for the heater block) and featuring a treated
55
interior surface, the heat break allows the filament to pass freely into the nozzle for
extrusion.
Clockwise from bottom left: steel heatbreak, aluminum heater block, and brass
nozzle.
But, since we’re dealing with accuracy and material that turns into a liquid to be
rapidly re-cooled, the management of temperature is crucial. The heatbreak, in
combination with the heat sink, maintains a specific boundary at which the
filament is hit with high temperatures.
The upper portion, which is actively cooled by the heat sink and a dedicated fan (or
water cooling system, in some extravagant cases), prevents heat escaping the hot
end and weakening the filament before it is where it needs to be for extrusion. This
undesirable phenomenon is known as heat creep.
The lower portion of the heat break sits within a heater block, along with a heater
cartridge, temperature relaying thermistor, and nozzle.
56
Usually constructed from aluminum, the heater block ensures a seamless transition
for the filament from the open end of the heat break tube, into the nozzle.
The temperature to melt the filament has to come from somewhere though, which
is where the heater cartridge comes into play. Under an electric current, the heater
cartridge gets hot, transferring heat to the nozzle via the heater block they are both
encased in.
Clockwise from top left: heating block, thermistor, heater cartridge, nozzle,
heatbreak.
Power resistors are an alternate means to heat the hot end, but are less common
these days.
Also housed within the heater block is a thermistor — a small probe that relays the
temperature of the block to the 3D printer’s mainboard, allowing for the correct
adjustments to be made. In layman’s terms (we’re not electrical engineers here —
it’d be disingenuous to attempt to explain in detail), it does this by nature of its
resistance changing in correspondence with its temperature, and thus the printer’s
57
board can get a read on the temperature based on the resistance at that current point
in time.
And then, at the raggedy edge of the whole system, there is the nozzle. A small
nubbin of machined metal, the nozzle itself consists of a chamber — where the
molten filament resides — that tapers to the nozzle’s opening.
This opening is a precise diameter, which is the measure by which you purchase it.
Most desktop 3D printers ship with 0.4mm nozzles as standard, but there are many
other sizes available.
Nozzles! The larger opening on the right is where molten filament gathers inside
the heater block, before being ejected through the nozzle opening.
Brass is the preferred material for factory-shipped default nozzles but, while fine
for softer materials like PLA and ABS, filaments with tough additives such as
carbon fiber will quickly wear away and deform a brass nozzle’s opening. For
specialist filaments, 3D printer nozzle materials like stainless steel and ruby are
preferred.
58
The 3D printer nozzle is a veritable world of options, so we’ll detail the popular
choices and differences between them below in their own dedicated section.
Hot End Variations

Before jumping on to the nozzle though, there’s an important distinction and
glossary check to keep in mind. Commonly you will see reference to “all metal”
hot ends. Traditionally hot ends used PEEK (Polyether ether ketone) as an
insulator for the PFTE (Polytetrafluoroethylene) tubing inside the heat break,
guiding the filament into the heater block for melting.
In the days of simply printing PLA or ABS — which typically require low
temperatures to print — PEEK was sufficient. However, attempting to print
tougher and more demanding filaments requires higher temperatures that risk
breaking both PEEK and PTFE down, releasing noxious fumes, ruining prints and
generally messing up your hot end.
All metal hot ends were introduced to allow for the printing of materials that
require higher temperatures. In place of a PEEK insulator, we now typically see a
stainless steel heartbreak (as described above) separating the PTFE tubing coming
from the cold end, and our heating block.
2.6 Cura (Software)

Cura is an open source slicing application for 3D printers. It was created by David
Braam who was later employed by Ultimaker, a 3D printer manufacturing
company, to maintain the software. Cura is available under LGPLv3 license. Cura
was initially released under the open source Affero General Public License version
3, but on 28 September 2017 the license was changed to LGPLv3. This change
allowed for more integration with third-party CAD applications. Development is
hosted on GitHub. Ultimaker Cura is used by over one million users worldwide
and handles 1.4 million print jobs per week. It is the preferred 3D printing software
for Ultimaker 3D printers, but it can be used with other printers as well.
Technical Specification
59
Ultimaker Cura works by slicing the user’s model file into layers and generating a
printer-specific g-code. Once finished, the g-code can be sent to the printer for the
manufacture of the physical object. The open source software, compatible with
most desktop 3D printers, can work with files in the most common 3D formats
such as STL, OBJ, X3D, 3MF as well as image file formats such
as BMP, GIF, JPG, and PNG.
2.7 Marlin (firmware)

Marlin is an open source firmware primarily designed for RepRap
project based FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling) 3D-printers using
the Arduino platform.
The firmware runs coded commands and instruction sets as a robot software on the
3D printer's control board which manages all of the machine's real-time activities
including sending movement coordinates to stepper motors through the stepper
drivers, controlling heater elements, sensors, lights, tracking bed levelling, LC
displays and buttons. Marlin supports many different boards and many designs of
3D printer robot platforms, including Cartesian (including Core
XY), Delta and SCARA printers, as well as some other less conventional designs
like Hangprinter.
60
Other than for 3D printing, Marlin is also used for many other kinds of machine
including SLA and SLS 3D printers, CNC mills and egg painting robots.
Marlin was first created in 2011 for the RepRap and Ultimaker printers; it claims
to be the most widely used 3D printing firmware in the world.
Marlin 2.0 (version 2.0.0) was released on the 2nd of December 2019 as the first
official version or the Marlin firmware to support 32-bit based controller boards.
The firmware is created by a community of contributors, with Scott Laheine (aka
Thinkyhead) as the main developer. Marlin uses a GPL license which requires that
organizations and individuals share their source code when modifying or expanding
the code, some users have not been compliant with the license which has led to
distributors removing their products.
61
CHAPTER 3: TROUBLESHOOTING &
DESIGN THINKING
3.1 What is Troubleshooting?
Troubleshooting is the process of diagnosing the source of a problem. It is used to
fix problems with hardware, software, and many other products. The basic theory
of troubleshooting is that you start with the most general (and often most obvious)
possible problems, and then narrow it down to more specific issues.
3.2 Limits of a 3D Printer
So, there are certain limits up to which a printer can print and there are tests built for
those things.
Tests like:
62
1 Bridging- this occurs when there are two elements for apart from each other and a
gap is to be field between them sort of like a bridge there is a limit up to which this
bridging can occur and still make a decent part that limit for some printers is 40 mm
to 50mm and even more in the printers with higher resolution.
2 Negative feature resolution- this test is basically designed to test the resolution of
the negative that a printer can make in a path using a series of negative getting
smaller and smaller the printer can print better the resolution.
3 Overhangs- these are as the name suggest sections of a part that are not supported
from one end there is a limit up to which what degree of overhang can be produced
it ends up to 15 to 20 degrees.
4 Dimensional accuracy- this is to check how accurately the printer can print the
dimensions of the original file that it was provided using a series of changes in the
dimensions and observing how accurate it actually is.
5 Stringing (flow control)- this is actually a phenomenon that occurs when there are
two structures close to each other that the residue due to the momentum of flow of
the material in the extrusion nozzle sticks out to create sort of strings, this tests the
retraction capability of the extrusion assembly.
6 Alignment in each of the axis- finally the alignment of each of the axis is tested
bye by creating directions in X, Y and Z direction.
3.3 Cura in Detail

As we all know is the slicing software that provides the G code from the STL file
provided to it. There are certain things that we need to know about cura so that we
can study this troubleshooting process in depth.
looking at the dialogue box on the side shows you some basic quick settings like the
profile that is the layer height for the specific part. Infield what is the density of
Imphal that is desired by the user. Whether the part requires support or not and is
there any need for extra material to have a better adhesion to the build plate.
63
Going into the custom settings you can see a more in-depth drop-down list
64
1 Quality- first one of them being the quality which is actually the layer height of
the extrusion for this particular part also the line width wall thickness infill with top
and bottom line width skirt and brim with are included in the quality section we are
allowed to go from 0.06 mm to 0.6mm.
2 Shell- second option is sharing or shell this allows us to change the wall thickness
off the path on different sections and also alternate between sections we can
compensate for outer wall overlaps and inner wall overlaps we can also create
horizontal expansions initial layer horizontal expansions horizontal expansions and
much more.
3 Infill- infill is actually the inside of a part we can choose the amount of density the
infill needs to hold we can also choose the pattern that it can have including
65
randomizing the pattern maximum and minimum requirements we can also select a
gradual infill and different infill on different layers.
4 Material- we can also customize our G code according to the material we are
printing in the material dialogue box allows us to do just that adjusting from
temperature Lo wall floor and Prime skirt and infill floor.
5 Speed- this dialogue box allows us to play with the speed of the extruder x and y
axis including the print bad motor giving us full control over every single motor and
profile that will be printed.
6 Cooling- this functionality allows us to control every aspect of the cooling we can
adjust what time to start the cooling at what speed and till what duration this gives
us an immense amount of control over the cooling of the part that we are printing.
7 Support- this drop-down box gives us the control over the kinds the density and
the amount of support enabling us to choose the best kind of support for the part that
we are printing it also enables to eliminate the drooping problem that overhang can
give.
8 Build plate Adhesion- using this criterion you can select an extra layer that can be
added to your path so that the path sticks better to the print bed.
3.4 Improper Adhesion to the Build Plate

1.First Layer Issues
66
The first layer of your print is probably the most important layer. As foundation to
your whole print, it is essential in providing proper adhesion to the build plate.
Many common 3D printing problems stem from a poor first layer. There’s a
couple of things that can go wrong when printing your first layer.
67
Nozzle too close to the bed
Nozzle too far away from the print bed
Print Not Sticking
Printer specific tips
Filament specific tips
2.Print Not Sticking To The Bed
68
This is one of the most common issues with many 3D printers. If your adhesion is
lacking, you might end up with warped print – or no print at all besides a huge
mess of tangled filament on your bed (eg. Green 'birds nest' print you see here).
The following are the various causes for bed adhesion to fail before or during a
print.
Platform not level

Platform is warped
Clean your bed
Nozzle too far
Nozzle too close
First layer too fast
Check extrusion settings to ensure proper amount of plastic is extruded
Print temperature for first layer
Bed temperature first layer
Part cooling fan settings
Use build plate adhesion helpers
3.Prints Sticking Too Much
69
Maybe less common than the opposite problem with prints not sticking or
warping, but prints sticking excessively to your print bed may happen. Possible
reasons and fixes include:
Nozzle to bed distance

Bed Temperature
Bed adhesion
Release agent
Extrusion multiplier
Freezing
4.Warping
70
Warping can be caused by a few different variables but is fairly easy to recognise
and resolve. Read below more information on warping and how to fix it.
Big parts are the main cause
3.5 Bed Leveling

1.
Walls Caving In
71
A very similar problem to elephants foot, sans the flared out first layer.
2.
Curling and Rough Corners
72
Curling and rough corners is very easy to spot and looks quite the mess compared to the sides of
the print.
3.
Cracking or Layer Separation
73
Cracking can be difficult to differentiate from temporary under extrusion but this section will help you
figure it out and how to fix it.
4.
Layers Shifting & Misaligned Layers
74
Some 3D printing issues like this, appear as completely random and isolated events. There are
some checks that can be done to fix it though so keep reading to learn more.
5.
Layers Missing or Skipped Layers
75
This is often a confusing issue to come across as it may appear as other problems initially. It's
important to look at the consistency in the whole layer and compare it to the rest of the print.
3.6 Stringing
Stringing (otherwise known as oozing, whiskers, or “hairy” prints) occurs when
small strings of plastic are left behind on a 3D printed model. This is typically due
to plastic oozing out of the nozzle while the extruder is moving to a new location.
76
The use of the retraction setting can eliminate the stringing problem.
3.7 Overhangs and the use of Supports

The term 'support material' refers to the low-density structure that a 3D printer
creates in order to support any overhanging or undercutting sections present in
your model. It is printed in a low-density format to enable it to be easily removed
from your model post-production. The UP software provided with UP 3D printers
automatically calculates and creates what support is needed based on the user's
settings.
On the UP Mini, UP Plus and UP+2, support material is created using the same
filament or material you have chosen to create your model. This means if you
decide to print using ABS plastic, the printer will automatically calculate and
create support material out of ABS plastic but in a low density format, so that it
doesn't possess the same strength as your model and is easy to remove. This also
means there is no requirement to change materials during your print.
The Inspire range of 3D printers further possess the ability to simultaneously create
soluble support material due to dual extruders. The main benefit here is that
support material created to fill tight/hard to reach spaces or support delicate
sections can be dissolved, rather than risk damage to your object.
77
3.8 Cooling Problem
Thermal runaway is one of the most dangerous errors that can occur during 3D
printing. Simply put, it refers to the situation in which a 3D printer heats up to
extremely high temperatures and can’t stop. In this scenario, it’s not uncommon for
the printer to catch fire.
Thermal runaway can happen for a host of different reasons, but the main one is
probably your temperature sensor, the thermistor, is misaligned. Unable to properly
sense the current nozzle or bed temperature, a firmware will continue to raise the
heat in order to reach the target temperature.
In this article, we’ll discuss how you can prevent thermal runaway both through
your printer’s firmware and other general safety practices. We’ll also give you a
step-by-step guide on how to test whether your 3D printer’s thermal runaway
protection is activated and working.
Thermal runaway is a very scary possibility, but there are ways to protect your
printer from damage. The main way to protect your printer is to make sure
78
that thermal runaway protection is activated in your printer’s firmware. The
firmware feature doesn’t prevent thermal runaway, but it does attempt to stop a
printer’s overheating in its tracks.
Basically, thermal runaway protection aborts a print when there’s something fishy
about the thermistor’s readings. To be more specific, the feature detects that the
value has been significantly less than expected for an extended period of time.
The firmware in most 3D printers, notably in Prusa and MakerBot printers, have
thermal runaway protection activated by default. The popular firmware
group Marlin has a lot of thermal runaway protection features, too.
Overall, thermal runaway protection in your 3D printer’s firmware is vital for

lowering the risk of fires, damage to your printer, and damage to the surrounding
area while printing.
3.9 Grinding of the Filament

The picture on the left shows a section of filament after it was manually pulled out
of the extruder. You can see the dent where the drive gear dug in deep into the
filament, making further transport of this filament impossible. It had to be removed
manually with a bit of force.
This usually happens when the pressure inside the HotEnd gets too high or if there
is anything blocking filament transport. 3D printer filament grinding can be caused
by a number of different things, read our 'How to fix:' section to learn more.
Calibrate your extruder and reduce your material flow. Especially when switching
to smaller nozzle sizes your extrusion settings need to be spot on. The smaller
diameter holes are way less forgiving as we’re facing higher pressure trying to
79
extrude through a smaller hole to begin with. Too much pressure and the drive gear
of the feeder motor is likely to start grinding instead of pushing the filament.
3.10 What is Design Thinking?

Freedom of design is one of the main benefits of additive manufacturing. However,
since designing for 3D printing significantly differs from designing for traditional
manufacturing, it requires a new approach to design engineering. In order to create
3D printable, high-quality parts designers and engineers must therefore be armed
with a knowledge of new approaches and requirements when designing for
additive manufacturing. Although the particularities of each 3D printing
technology and material dictates their specific design approaches, in this short
guide we’ll highlight general design considerations that can be applied to all 3D
printing techniques.
And for a guide to some of the best CAD design software tools out there, check out
our guide here.
Key considerations when designing 3D printable parts

1. Overhangs and supports
Overhangs are the protruding parts of a structure, and are often found in more
complex designs. The key point to consider when designing parts with overhangs
is the angle, as every 3D printer has its own limits and it’s important to ensure that
the overhangs don’t exceed the allowable values.
For example, the appropriate angle for FDM and SLA shouldn’t exceed 45
degrees. If the angle is greater than this, the overhangs will require additional
80
supports to prevent damage to the part. Generally, it’s a good practice to reduce the
number of overhangs, as this will limit the supports and therefore save printing
time and material. This will also make post-processing much easier.
2. Wall thickness
The next crucial point to be considered during the design stage is wall thickness.
Issues with wall thickness are among the most typical design problems and can
cause print failures. If the walls of your part are too thin, this results in a very
fragile print that can easily be broken or damaged. On the other hand, walls that are
too thick cause internal stresses, leading to undesirable results such as cracking.
Although the recommended minimum wall thickness mostly depends on the
material in use and the overall design of the 3D model, the general rule of thumb is
to make the walls a slightly thicker. A wall thickness of more than 0.8
mm generally allows for the successful printing of parts with all 3D printing
methods.
3. Shrinkage and warping

The 3D printing process typically involves changes within the material, as it is
sintered, melted or heated in some other way. However, problems usually occur as
the material cools, as this causes warpage or shrinkage which in turn results in
cracking and deformation. Parts with long, flat surfaces are especially prone to
shrinkage because heat treatment induces lengthwise contraction.
Deformation can also be generated by sharp corners as they act as stress
concentration points. However, with the right design, these issues can be avoided.
Consider adding a rounded brim instead of sharp corners to a 3D model and try to
avoid long flat surfaces. As the corners are rounded off, the stress can be
distributed more evenly. Fillets are also can be designed into a 3D model to
mitigate warping at the contact area of a build plate and bottom surface of a part.
4. File resolution
To ensure a good quality print it’s important to consider the level of detail and to
choose the right resolution for your part. Naturally, the level of detail depends on
the 3D printing technology and materials used. However, designing a model with
extreme level of detail can lead to 3D printers simply unable to print an object. So
make sure to design details according to the specifications of your 3D printer.
To sum up
81
A successful print always begins with a correctly designed 3D model. Other
important factors for designers to consider include the material and type of 3D
printing technology that will be used, basic design rules are in many ways
determined by these key factors. Ultimately, exploring design considerations and
requirements will be the first step in ensuring a successful printing process.
82
CHAPTER 4: MACHINE & MATERIAL
4.1 Types of Machines

The term 3D printing encompasses several manufacturing technologies that
build parts layer-by-layer. Each vary in the way they form plastic and metal
parts and can differ in material selection, surface finish, durability, and
manufacturing speed and cost.
There are several types of 3D printing, which include:
• Stereolithography (SLA)
• Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)
• Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)
• Digital Light Process (DLP)
• Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
• PolyJet
• Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)
• Electron Beam Melting (EBM)
Selecting the right 3D printing process for your application requires an

understanding of each process’ strengths and weaknesses and mapping those
attributes to your product development needs. Let’s first discuss how 3D
printing fits within the product development cycle and then take a look at
common types of 3D printing technologies and the advantages of each.
3D Printing for Rapid Prototyping and Beyond

It’s safe to say 3D printing is most often used for prototyping. Its ability to
quickly manufacture a single part enables product developers to validate and
share ideas in a cost-effective manner. Determining the purpose of your
prototype will inform which 3D printing technology will be the most beneficial.
Additive manufacturing can be suitable for a range of prototypes that span from
simple physical models to parts used for functional testing.
83
SLA technology forms plastic parts by curing a liquid thermoset resin with
a UV laser. As parts are built, they require support structures which are
removed once the build completes.
Despite 3D printing being nearly synonymous with rapid prototyping, there are
scenarios when it’s a viable production process. Typically, these applications
involve low-volumes and complex geometries. Often, components for aerospace
and medical applications are ideal candidates for production 3D printing as they
frequently match the criteria previously described.
Five 3D Printing Considerations

Like most things in life, there’s rarely a simple answer when selecting a 3D
printing process. When we assist customers evaluating their 3D printing options,
we typically point to five key criteria to determine what technology will meet
their needs:
1. Budget
2. Mechanical requirements
3. Cosmetic appearance
4. Material selection
5. Geometry
84
Once an SLS build is complete, the technician removes the part from the
powder bed, brushes off excess material, and then bead blasts the part.
Polymer 3D Printing Processes

Let’s outline some common 3D printing processes and discuss when each
provides the most value to product developers, engineers, and designers.
Stereolithography (SLA)
Stereolithography (SLA) is the original industrial 3D printing process. SLA
printers excels at producing parts with high levels of detail, smooth surface
finishes, and tight tolerances. The quality surface finishes on SLA parts, not
only look nice, but can aid in the part’s function—testing the fit of an assembly,
for example. It’s widely used in the medical industry and common applications
include anatomical models and microfluidics. We use Vipers, ProJets, and iPros
3D printers manufactured by 3D Systems for SLA parts.
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

Selective laser sintering (SLS) melts together nylon-based powders into solid
plastic. Since SLS parts are made from real thermoplastic material, they are
durable, suitable for functional testing, and can support living hinges and snap-
fits. In comparison to SL, parts are stronger, but have rougher surface finishes.
SLS doesn’t require support structures so the whole build platform can be
85
utilized to nest multiple parts into a single build—making it suitable for part
quantities higher than other 3D printing processes. Many SLS parts are used to
prototype designs that will one day be injection-molded. For our SLS printers,
we use sPro140 machines developed by 3D systems.
PolyJet
PolyJet is another plastic 3D printing process, but there’s a twist. It can
fabricate parts with multiple properties such as colors and materials. Designers
can leverage the technology for prototyping elastomeric or overmolded parts. If
your design is a single, rigid plastic, we recommend sticking with SL or SLS—
it’s more economical. But if you’re prototyping an overmolding or silicone
rubber design, PolyJet can save you from the need to invest in tooling early in
the development cycle. This can help you iterate and validate your design faster
and save you money.
Digital Light Processing (DLP)

Digital light processing is similar to SLA in that it cures liquid resin using light.
The primary difference between the two technologies is that DLP uses a digital
light projector screen whereas SLA uses a UV laser. This means DLP 3D
printers can image an entire layer of the build all at once, resulting in faster
build speeds. While frequently used for rapid prototyping, the higher throughput
of DLP printing makes it suitable for low-volume production runs of plastic
parts.
86
Multi Jet Fusion (MJF)
Similar to SLS, Multi Jet Fusion also builds functional parts from nylon powder.
Rather than using a laser to sinter the powder, MJF uses an inkjet array to apply
fusing agents to the bed of nylon powder. Then a heating element passes over
the bed to fuse each layer. This results in more consistent mechanical properties
compared to SLS as well as improved surface finish. Another benefit of the MJF
process is the accelerated build time, which leads to lower production costs.
Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM)

Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is a common desktop 3D printing technology
for plastic parts. An FDM printer functions by extruding a plastic filament
layer-by-layer onto the build platform. It’s a cost-effective and quick method for
producing physical models. There are some instances when FDM can be used
for functional testing but the technology is limited due to parts having relatively
rough surface finishes and lacking strength.
Metal 3D Printing Processes
Direct Metal Laser Sintering (DMLS)

Metal 3D printing opens up new possibilities for metal part design. The process
to 3D print metal parts is direct metal laser sintering (DMLS). It’s often used to
reduce metal, multi-part assemblies into a single component or lightweight parts
87
with internal channels or hollowed out features. DMLS is viable for both
prototyping and production since parts are as dense as those produced with
traditional metal manufacturing methods like machining or casting. Creating
metal components with complex geometries also makes it suitable for medical
applications where a part design must mimic an organic structure.
Electron Beam Melting (EBM)

Electron beam melting is another metal 3D printing technology that uses an
electron beam that's controlled by electromagnetic coils to melt the metal
powder. The printing bed is heated up and in vacuum conditions during the
build. The temperature that the material is heated to is determined by the
material in use.
When to Use 3D Printing

As stated earlier, there are a couple common denominators among 3D printing
applications. If your part quantities are relatively low, 3D printing can be
optimal—our guidance is usually 1 to 50 parts. As volumes start to near the
hundreds, it’s worth exploring other manufacturing processes. If your design
features complex geometry that is critical to your part’s function, like an
aluminum component with an internal cooling channel, 3D printing might be
your only option.
Selecting the right process comes down to aligning the advantages and
limitations of each technology to your application’s most important
requirements. In the early stages when ideas are being thrown around and all
you need is a model to share with a colleague, those stair-stepping surface
finishes on your part aren’t of much concern. But once you hit the point where
you need to conduct user testing, factors like cosmetics and durability start to
matter. Although there is no one-size-fits-all solution, properly utilizing 3D
printing technology throughout product development will reduce design risk
and, ultimately, result in better products.
4.2 Types of Material
PLA
88
Polylactic Acid, commonly known as PLA, is one of the most popular materials
used in desktop 3D printing. It is the default filament of choice for most extrusion-
based 3D printers because it can be printed at a low temperature and does not
require a heated bed. PLA is a great first material to use as you are learning about
3D printing because it is easy to print, very inexpensive, and creates parts that can
be used for a wide variety of applications. It is also one of the most
environmentally friendly filaments on the market today. Derived from crops such
as corn and sugarcane, PLA is renewable and most importantly biodegradable. As
a bonus, this also allows the plastic to give off a sweet aroma during printing.
Pros
• Low Cost
• Stiff and good strength
• Good dimensional accuracy
• Good shelf life
Cons
• Low heat resistance
• Can ooze and may need cooling fans
• Filament can get brittle and break
• Not suitable for outdoors (sunlight exposure)
ABS
ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene) has a long history in the 3D printing world.
This material was one of the first plastics to be used with industrial 3D printers.
Many years later, ABS is still a very popular material thanks to its low cost and
good mechanical properties. ABS is known for its toughness and impact resistance,
allowing you to print durable parts that will hold up to extra usage and wear.
LEGO building blocks are made from this material for that same reason! ABS also
89
has a higher glass transition temperature, which means the material can withstand
much higher temperatures before it begins to deform. This makes ABS a great
choice for outdoor or high temperature applications. When printing with ABS, be
sure to use an open space with good ventilation, as the material tends to have a
slight odor. ABS also tends to contract quite a bit as it cools, so controlling the
temperature of your build volume and the part inside can have major benefits.
Pros
• Low Cost
• Good impact and wear resistance
• Less oozing and stringing gives models smoother finish
• Good heat resistance
Cons
• Heavy warping
• Needs heated bed or heated chamber
• Produces a pungent odor while printing
• Parts tend to shrink leading to dimensional inaccuracy
PETG
PETG is a Glycol Modified version of Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET), which is
commonly used to manufacture water bottles. It is a semi-rigid material with good
impact resistance, but it has a slightly softer surface which makes it prone to wear.
The material also benefits from great thermal characteristics, allowing the plastic
to cool efficiently with almost negligible warpage. There are several variations of
this material in the market including PETG, PETE, and PETT. The tips in this
article will apply to all of these PET-based filaments.
Pros
• Glossy and smooth surface finish
• Adheres well to the bed with negligible warping
• Mostly odorless while printing
90
Cons
• Poor bridging characteristics
• Can produce thin hairs on the surface from stringing
TPU
Flexible filaments are made of Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE) which are a blend
of hard plastic and rubber. As the name suggests, this material is elastic in nature
allowing the plastic to be stretched and flexed easily. There are several types of
TPE, with Thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) being the most commonly used
among 3D printing filaments. In many cases, these terms are used interchangeably,
along with popular brand names such as Ninjaflex. The degree of elasticity in the
plastic depends on the type of TPE and the chemical formulation used by the
manufacturer. For example, some filaments can be partially flexible like a car tire
but others can be elastic and fully flexible like a rubber band. This guide will cover
tips to help you with both of these variations of flexible filaments.
Pros
• Flexible and soft
• Excellent vibration dampening
• Long shelf life
• Good impact resistance
Cons
• Difficult to print
• Poor bridging characteristics
• Possibility of blobs and stringing
• May not work well on Bowden extruders
HIPS
HIPS, or High Impact Polystyrene, is a dissolvable support material that is
commonly used with ABS. When being used as a support material, HIPS can be
dissolved in d-Limonene, leaving your print free of any markings caused by
support removal. HIPS has many of the same printing properties as ABS, making it
a logical dual extrusion partner. Not only is HIPS great for supporting your ABS
91
prints, it’s also more dimensionally stable and slightly lighter than ABS, making it
a great choice for parts that would end up getting worn out or used in applications
that can benefit from the lighter weight.
Pros
• Low cost
• Impact and water resistant
• Lightweight
• Dissolvable by d-Limonene
Cons
• Heated bed required
• Heated chamber recommended
• High printing temperature
• Ventilation required
Carbon Fiber
Carbon fiber filaments use tiny fibers that are infused into a base material to
improve the properties of that material. Several popular filaments can be bought
with carbon fiber fill including PLA, PETG, Nylon, ABS, and Polycarbonate.
These fibers are extremely strong and cause the filament to increase in strength and
stiffness. This also means that the 3D printed parts will be much lighter and more
dimensionally stable, as the fibers will help prevent shrinking of the part as it
cools. Print settings, such as printing temperature, speed, bed adhesion, and
extrusion rates will be very similar to the normal settings used for the base material
that the fibers were added to (for example, the stock PLA settings would be a good
starting point for PLA-based carbon fiber filament). However, due to the added
fibers, these specialty materials are more likely to clog and can require special
hardware to avoid damaging the printer.
Pros
• Increased strength and stiffness
• Very good dimensional stability
• Lightweight
92
Cons
• Abrasive and requires hardened steel nozzle
• Increased oozing while printing
• Increased brittleness of filament
• Higher tendency to clog
Metal Filled
Metal filled filaments contain very fine metal powder such as Copper, Bronze,
Brass, and Stainless Steel. The percentage of metal powder infused in each
filament can vary depending on the manufacturer. The presence of this metal
powder makes the filament much heavier than standard plastics. This means that
the parts printed with metal-filled PLA will weigh significantly more than ones
from the standard PLA, despite using the same settings and consuming the same
amount of material. Metal filled filaments also tend to be very abrasive as they are
extruded through the hotend. A standard brass nozzle will be too soft and will
quickly wear down. Be sure to upgrade to a wear resistant nozzle in order to print
this filament effectively. There are other metal-like filaments in the market that
may just have metallic coloring added to the filament. These filaments do not
contain any actual metal powder, so they do not share many of the same benefits of
the true metallic filaments. This article will focus on materials that contain actual
metal powders for a realistic metallic weight and feel.
Pros
• Metallic finish is aesthetically appealing
• Does not need high-temperature extruder
• Heavier than standard filaments
Cons
• Requires a wear-resistant nozzle
• Printed parts are very brittle
• Very poor bridging and overhangs
• Can cause partial clogs over time
• Expensive
93
Wood Filled
Wood-based filaments are typically a composite that combines a PLA base
material with wood dust, cork, and other powdered wood derivatives. Typically,
the filament consists of around 30% wood particles, but the exact number may
vary depending on the brand. The presence of these particles gives the 3D printed
parts the aesthetics of real wood. This filament is also less abrasive compared to
other composite filaments such as carbon-fiber filled and metal filled, since wood
particles are much softer. There are some wood-like filaments on the market that
only contain wood coloring, but no actual wood particles, so these typically have a
very different look and feel. This guide will focus on wood infused PLA filaments
since these are the most common, but you can use these tips as a starting point for
other wood-based filaments as well.
Pros
• Wood-textured finish is aesthetically appealing
• Does not need any expensive wear resistant nozzles
• Aromatic and pleasant smelling
Cons
• Prone to stringing
• Smaller nozzles can end up with partial clogs over time
• May require a larger size nozzle
4.3 Selection of a 3D Printer

After having a firm grasp on the types of 3D printers and the types of materials it is
important to discuss that if the learner supposed to buy a printer for themselves
how would that go. (This is applicable to only to FDM)
94
Build volume- while purchasing 3D printer the most important thing to be kept in
mind is the volume of the printer. It should suit the needs of the user should not be
too small all and not according to the requirement.
Number of Extruders- next thing to be kept in mind how many extruders will be
sufficient for their particular use suppose if they are using the printer to build a part
that requires multiple materials at the same time Then it should be e a double
extruder or multiple filament holder according to the needs.
Integrated or remote extruder- as mentioned previously in the document there are

two types of extruders boden and integrated according to the need in accuracy
these two can be selected for higher accuracy boden and for comparatively lower
but easy to managing integrated can be selected.
Cost- it is nice to have a good cost to perform and restore while purchasing always
look for the printer that is study construction has easily replaceable fragile parts.
Type of Print Bed- you can get a variety of print bags ranging from self heated
flexible glass metallic according to your preference you should choose the print
bed for your machine.
95
CHAPTER 5: FACE SHIELD & MASK
STRAPS
People at curiosity 3D came up with this brilliant idea of teaching people about the
3D printer by a hands-on experience. and what better way to learn and experiment
with this technology while helping people who are battling this pandemic by
creating face shields and mask straps. these se Shield and mask straps are built
from Peele which makes them industrially biodegradable and since they require
very less material to build. They can be built very efficiently.
Students can then go out and donate the PPE kits to the people in need like police
officers’ doctors in hospitals grocery store owners etc. people who have to do their
job because it is necessary. This also helps the student to understand a great value
of helping others in worse situation like these.
96
97
CHAPTER 6: PROSTHETIC PROJECT
PROTOTYPE
6.1 AIM- The aim of this project is to create a prototype of a prosthetics
customized for hand without middle, ring finger.
6.2 DESIGN OVERVIEW-

The design of the prototype is actually quite simple it is just eating joint on the
fingers shelf for the appropriately done over each finger, and the hand breast
customized according to the contour of the hand.
The middle finger- if you can see the first section of the middle finger has a oblong
shape that matches the shape of the existing finger in order to fit perfectly with the
design it also connected to the brace.
Ring finger- the ring finger is kind of conical as you can see in the image so it
makes sense to make a sort of a frustum that can fit onto the finger as shown in the
design with the same revolute joints for the rest of the sections of the finger.
98
The brace- is actually the part of the prosthetics that rests on to the hand to which
all of the fingers are attached to as shown in the design.
99
The Assembly- The fingers are attached to the brace using little connecting bands.
6.3 PRINTED PARTS- The printed parts required some of the support.
As shown in the finger slicing supports are added onto the base to the over hands.
And for the brace there was no support used.
100
6.4 FINAL PROTOTYPE- Below you can see the final pictures of the
prototype and you can see the fingers fit really well along with the breast that
totally matches the contour of my hand It does not interfere with the raised any
way it is breathable as it has holes in it it does not scratches the surface of my hand
it is a little bit uncomfortable to wear for a long period of time but I guess for the
prototype it is quite a good one.
101
102
6.5 THOUGHTS IMROVEMENT- for the future and the next generation of
the prototype I would like to create the brace with a flexible material so that it
provides much more mobility.
As the fingers do not move as intended for now because the mechanism is not
complete, I intend to improve on the mechanism to get a firm grip on to stuff that
needs to be held.
I mean also change the pattern onto the finger surface as well in order to increase
the grip strength of the fingers.
103
CHAPTER 7: INTERNSHIP
After the course of the 3D printing my mentor Mr Raunak dua was quite impressed
by my performance hence offered me and internship in the company following are
the things that I did during the course of one month.
7.1 JOB DESCRIPTION (AS DISCRIBED IN THE LETTER)

Your 1-month internship will begin on 15 July 2020. You will be a part of the
Technical Team. Your position will be ‘3D Printing Technical Intern’. You can go
ahead and add this position to your LinkedIn profile.
This will be an unpaid internship, to begin with; however, you might be rewarded
appropriately if your performance is noteworthy.
We expect you to be sincere and loyal during your internship. You agree not to
reveal any confidential information without permission. You cannot represent
Curiosity3D or take decisions/ make claims without prior permission.
We look forward to working with you during the forthcoming month and to better
understand your skills and capabilities. At the end of the month, we will review
feedback from the people you have worked with and make a determination of
whether there is an ongoing opportunity for you in Curiosity3D.
7.2 CRESTING READY TO PRINT STL FILES

As I was Prime really the part of the technical team one of my job description was
to create STL files for the course that would be ready to print those required some
knowledge of the software some not so much some quite useful as shown in the
pictures:
Laptop camera cover
104
Laptop stand
Carabiner hook
Compliant mechanism
105
Wall hook
7.3 MARKETING THEIR EXISTING COURSE

I also got a chance to market the current course to others students.
Explaining students what a great opportunity 3D printing actually is. The
ability to design and manufacture without any tools hand make instant
changes the year design. As a result of some more elaborate explanation
and a lot of doubt clearing sessions with my clients. I was able to get
some customers for the course which was quite exciting as I got to learn
about how to market an idea and how to convince people to buy your
106
products. I was rather successful in convincing clients. Most of my
clients showed a great reception to my explanations. Their doubts with
my acquired skills of conversational marketing were a breeze. With
some guidance from my mentor, I was able to greatly influence and
convince them to apply for our course. With an open dialogue I was able
to convince the clients far better because all their misconceptions and
delusions about the course were cleared by an open dialogue between us.
The two-way conversation allowed the clients to see the intimacies of
the course and the printer.
This open dialogue also helped in building a good trust relationship
between us and made sure that everyone of the clients were satisfied
with the care and through with the set instructions and safety policy.
7.4 Assisting in the making of the 3D Modeling Course

During the internship I got the chance to assist in making a new 3D
Modeling Course. I was ecstatic for this opportunity to see and learn the
process of making of the 3D Modeling Course. I assisted in designing of
the course structure, with the ideas provided by my superiors and my
suggestions, we were able to make an interactive learning course which
could be easily interpreted by students and could provide them a general
overview about the subject.
I helped in designing and making the files and make them 3D Printable.
During this time, I was able to understand the designing process in depth
this made for a great learning session for me even though most of the
input was provided by my superiors I was able to assist them little by
little. I worked diligently and made notes for future refence.
107
During the conversion of files, I was able to understand the depth of how
the files were made and converted to a more printable version. With the
help from my superior who guided me thoroughly to the process as I
even tried my own way with some projects, which turned out great
thanks to his tutelage. I was easily able to do some practice projects on
my own.
I made tutorials for each of the files assembled them with the help of
mentors. All the while I learned about everything during the process and
figured out how to do it on my own. During the tutorial making and file
assembly I understood how to make the tutorials more effective and how
to effectively assemble files to optimize the data present in the files.
108
Conclusion and Future Scope
3D printers are emerging as a key growing printing technology in the global

landscape. In India, the market for 3D printers is at its nascent stage; however,
offers huge growth opportunities in the coming years. Low market awareness, cost
constraint, and lower domestic production are witnessed as key hurdles for the
adoption in the country. Expected domestic production, low cost of manufacturing,
and increasing penetration across various applications coupled with Make-in-India
campaign would spur the 3D printer market in India. However, with low cost of
production, increasing awareness & penetration, and advancements in material
research, 3D printer market is expected to witness tremendous growth in the
coming years.
According to 6Wresearch, India 3D printer market is expected to cross $79

million by 2021, with automotive applications accounting for the biggest chunk of
business. Educational and medical applications are also expected to witness good
growth. Other niche applications include arts and crafts, interior decoration,
fashion accessories, footwear designs, jewelry designs, animation & gaming,
customized footwear designs, furniture, and modeling.
In India’s 3D printers market, 3D printers have been used primarily in medical,

architecture, automotive, industrial, aerospace & military and other applications,
where automotive application accounts for largest of the revenue & volume share.
Over the next four years, medical and aerospace & military applications are
exhibiting promising growth in India’s 3D printer market, owing to an increase in
spending towards R&D of aerospace & military-related equipment.
India accounts for major potential growth for domestic manufacturers, local
assemblers and distributors due to increasing use of rapid prototyping and 3D
modeling across various industry sectors. India primarily imports 3D printers in the
country from countries such as China, U.S., and Germany. However, with
government initiatives to boost domestic manufacturing like the “Make in
Campaign”, many local players are expected to emerge in the forecast period.
109
"India has still not defined 3D printers as a product category. Due to this, 3D
printers in India attract close to 40 percent excise duty, making it less
accessible to Indian customers."
Amongst all 3D printing technologies, FDM-based 3D printers dominate the

overall market. Low cost and ease of availability of these printers have led for their
majority of the market revenues. In the industrial application, 3D printer market
faces the major challenge from CNC machines (used for modeling), which costs
much less than 3D printers in India, thus increases reluctance among the
consumers to opt for 3D printers. However, with the expected price decline,
increasing market awareness, coupled with major transformation such as easier
design capabilities, compatibility for mass production and manufacturing of large
format object, India’s 3D printer market to witness healthy growth in the near
future.
Globally established players, such as Stratasys, 3D Systems and Optomec, are

gradually making their footprints in India, through partnerships and alliances with
India based technology firms. Other major global players in 3D printing market
include Sintermask (Fabbster), Leapfrog and Flashforge. Major players active in
India 3D printing market (including manufacturers and distributors) include Altem
Technologies, Imaginarium, Brahma 3, KCbots, 3Ding (REDD Robotics)
and JGroup Robotics.
110
References
➢ Curiosity 3D™
➢ Simplify 3d
➢ 3d Printing Systems
➢ Rigid Ink
➢ all3dp
➢ pin shape
➢ AMFG
111

Traning Report - 01914803618 - Ansh Puri

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Traning Report - 01914803618 - Ansh Puri

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

I am highly obliged to Curiosity 3D ™ for their guidance and constant supervision

I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents, and members of curiosity

At Curiosity3D, they are introducing 3D Printing technology in Indian education.

Their training programs are designed to be practical and skill oriented.

3D printing or additive manufacturing is a process of making three

1. Introduction to 3D Printing - In the following session the

2. Hardware & Software- In this face to face session the hardware

3. Troubleshooting and design thinking - In this session the

5. Doubts - In the following session all the doubts regarding the

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

2. HARDWARE & SOFTWARE 18-61

3. Troubleshooting & Design Thinking 62-82

5. FACE SHIELDS & MASK STRAPS 96-98

6. PROSTHETICS PROTOTYPE PROJECT 98-103

7. INTERNSHIP TRAINING 104-108

1.1 WHAT IS 3D PRINTING?

1.3 Problems 3D Printing can Solve.

A team from the University of Nottingham has recently 3D printed a

2. Saving Coral Reefs

In September 2017 the Atlantic experienced the highest number of hurricanes on

11 → Indicates the line of code and is used for reference

G/M → Blue Text is a G- or M-command

Red Text defines certain parameters

• STL File - An abbreviation of "stereolithography" is a file format native to

2.2 Electrical Components

It is a Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are

A stepper motor, also known as step motor or stepping motor, is a brushless DC

A liquid-crystal display (LCD) is a flat-panel display or other electronically

TYPES OF LIMIT SWITCHES

Mechanical Limit Switches

Magnetic limit switches operate on either the principle of electromagnetic

A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance is dependent on temperature,

Thermistors are of two opposite fundamental types:

• With NTC thermistors, resistance decreases as temperature rises. An NTC is

PSUs tend to contain a transformer (or a series of transformers), which receives

2.3 Mechanical Components used in Motion

An ACME lead screw.

Moderate price point Require lubrication

2.3 Structural Components

Aluminum extrusion is a process by which aluminum alloy material is forced

At a fundamental level, the process of aluminum extrusion is relatively simple to

Using a polypropylene build plate. Source: Ronald Walters / YouTube

Flexing a FlexPlate. Source: BuildTak

A sheet of borosilicate glass. Source: Aliexpress

2.4 Extrusion Components

What Happens in the Cold End?

3D PRINTER EXTRUDER – THE ULTIMATE GUIDE

Direct Drive Extruders

A Bowden extruder arrangement on a delta style 3D printer. The extruder motor is

Mechanically a Bowden 3D printer extruder is no different to a direct drive 3D

Most delta style desktop 3D printers utilize Bowden extruders.

What Happens in the Hot End?

Hot End Variations

2.6 Cura (Software)

2.7 Marlin (firmware)

3.2 Limits of a 3D Printer

3.3 Cura in Detail

3.4 Improper Adhesion to the Build Plate

2.Print Not Sticking To The Bed

Platform not level

3.Prints Sticking Too Much

Nozzle to bed distance