Lebanese American University School of Engineering

Department of Civil
Engineering

CIE 305- Stress Analysis Lab

Instructor: Dr. Gebran Karam
Done by Simon Barakat
Abstract:

Firstly, in the buckling experiment, the goal was to study the behavior of steel plates being fixed
at one end and free at the other and under eccentric load. The loads were gradually increased and
the maximum deflection of the steel plate from the original vertical axis were measured at each
loading case. After being unloaded, a certain elastic deformation was noticed and its deflection
value was measured. The critical force for buckling was calculated based on the measured data
and it was compared to the theoretical one and it was plotted verses the maximum deflection at
each loading case. Secondly, in the plexi glass crack size experiment, several plexiglass with
different crack size have been tested while subjected to different loads. The main objective of
this test is to determine the stress intensity factor “k”, and if K varies with crack size or not. In
order to understand if we can take k as a material property. Moreover, it is expected that as the
crack size increases, the ultimate load decrease and the k factor varies with the crack size. This
experiment met those results.
Contents
Introduction: ................................................................................................................................................. 4
Apparatus: ..................................................................................................................................................... 4
Procedure:..................................................................................................................................................... 5
Buckling experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 5
Plexiglas experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 5
Data Collected: .............................................................................................................................................. 5
Buckling Experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 6
Plexiglas experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 6
Calculations: .................................................................................................................................................. 7
Buckling experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 7
Plexiglas experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 8
Discussion: .................................................................................................................................................... 9
Buckling experiment: ................................................................................................................................ 9
Plexiglas experiment: .............................................................................................................................. 10
Conclusion: .................................................................................................................................................. 10
References: ................................................................................................................................................. 11

Table of figures:

Figure 1 buckling experiment ....................................................................................................................... 4

Figure 2 Universal Testing Machine .............................................................................................................. 5
Figure 3 Plexiglas rods................................................................................................................................... 5
Figure 4 caliper.............................................................................................................................................. 5
Figure 5 data collected .................................................................................................................................. 6
Figure 6 Plexiglas data collected ................................................................................................................... 6
Figure 7 plexiglas results ............................................................................................................................... 9
Figure 8 k vs a................................................................................................................................................ 9
Introduction:

Deformation of a material is the offset distance that an object moves to due to application of a
load on its dimensions. The load can be applied centrally on the object cross section or
eccentrically at a certain distance from the neutral axis. An eccentrically applied load generates a
higher stress due to the addition of the moment parameter mc/I due to the offset from the neutral
axis. The main goal of the experiment is to study the behavior of a steel ruler when loaded with
an eccentric load on a structural system with fixed free conditions. When a load p is applied to
vertically (compression) on the steel plate, a phenomenon know as buckling occurs. Buckling is
a mathematical instability that leads to failure mode. It is characterized by a sudden sideways
deflection of a structural member. This may occur even though the stresses that develop in the
structure are well below those needed to cause failure of the material of which the structure is
composed. As an applied load is increased on a member, such as a column, it will ultimately
become large enough to cause the member to become unstable and it is said to have buckled.
Further loading will cause significant and somewhat unpredictable deformations, possibly
leading to complete loss of the member's load-carrying capacity. Moreover when the load is no
longer applied on the member, permanent deformation may occur to the structure.

Fracture mechanics, is a part from the mechanics that studies the effect and mechanism of the
growth of cracks. In engineering we have several reasons to fail the elements and in practice the
material never reaches its design or full capacity. In other words, most members fail under loads
less than that which they were designed for due to fatigue or crack. Cracks are deformations in
the in the structure which reduces its loading capacity. Fracture is the separation of a body into
pieces due to stresses. Moreover, it is important to determine the value of the stress intensity
factor (K) which is a material property in order to get the concentration of stress at the tip of the
crack. That accumulation of the stress causes the crack to grow on size and leads to failure of the
material.

Apparatus:

•Wooden fixed-end support

• Steel ruler

• Caliper

• Load units each weighing 10g

Figure 1 buckling experiment

Figure 3 Plexiglas rods Figure 2 Universal Testing Machine

Figure 4 caliper

Procedure:

Buckling experiment:
1. A steel ruler was fixed at one end with a wooden support system and was let free at the other
end.

2. An eccentric load was applied to the structural system

3. The behavior of the material was studied

Plexiglas experiment:
1. Seven plexi-glass bars were used to calculate the stress intensity factor K.
2. A crack was introduced into each of the plexi-glass bars.

3. Two lines were marked on the bars to delimit a 10 cm span in the middle of the bar.
4. A load was applied at the center of each bar until the bar failed.

Data Collected:
Buckling Experiment:

Applied Load Ymax (mm) Length: 725mm

(g)
0 0 Thickness: 1mm
10 4 Width: 28mm
20 9
E=25mm
40 17
60 28
80 46
100 75
120 132
140 270
160 380

Figure 5 data collected

Plexiglas experiment:

Bars 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Crack
Size a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
(mm)
W 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015
(m)
S 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110
(m)
B 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045
(m)
Ultimate
Load P 0.600 0.380 0.220 0.180 0.170 0.120 0.100
(KN)
Figure 6 Plexiglas data collected
Calculations:
Buckling experiment:

𝜋 2 𝐸𝐼
Theoretical Critical load: Pcrit =
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑓

𝜋 2 × 189000𝑀𝑃𝐴 × 2.33 𝑚𝑚4

𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡 = = 2.067𝑁
(2 × 725𝑚𝑚)2
K = column effective length factor

E = 189GPA (Ruler Assumed to be Stainless Steel)

I = bt3/12=(28 x 1^3)/ 12 = 2.33 mm4

𝜋 𝑃
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 [sec ( √ ) − 1]
2 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡

Using P1 = mg = 0.01 x 9.81 = 0.0981 N and Ymax = 4mm

𝜋 0.0981
4 = 25 [sec ( √ ) − 1]
2 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡

Pcrit = 0.857 N

Applied Load (g) Ymax (mm) Pcrit ( N)

0 0 0
Hook (10g) 4 0.857
20 9 0.873
40 17 1.11
60 28 1.24
80 46 1.32
100 75 1.39
120 132 1.46
140 270 1.53
160 380 1.70
Table 1 results of Pcrit

Experimental Critical Load (Average in N) Theoretical Critical Load (in N)

1.275 N 2.067
Table 2 experimental vs theoretical loads
 Pcritical vs Ymax
1.8
1.6
1.4
Pcritical in N

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400
Ymax in mm

Table 4 Pcrit vs Ymax Table 3 Applied Load vs Ymax

Plexiglas experiment:

( )
1 3 5 7 9
𝑃𝑆 𝑎 2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2 𝑎 2
K= 3 2.9 (𝑤) – 4.6 (𝑤 ) + 21.8 (𝑤) - 37.6 (𝑤) + 38.7( )
𝑤
𝐵𝑊 2

Sample calculation:

(
1 3 5 7
0.38∗0.11 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
K= 3 2.9 (
0.015
) – 4.6 (𝑤0.015) + 21.8 (0.015) - 37.6 (0.015) +
0.00450.0152

)
9
1 2
38.7(
0.015
)

K= 3,498,574 N/m^1.5

Bars 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Crack Size
a (mm) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
W
(m) 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015 0.015
 S
(m) 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110 0.110
B
(m) 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045 0.0045
a/w 0 0.06667 0.13333 0.20000 0.26667 0.33333 0.40000

Ultimate
Load P 0.600 0.380 0.220 0.180 0.170 0.120 0.100
(KN)
K1
(N/m^1.5) 0 3,498,574 2,776,272 2,798,918 3,161,141 2,649,487 2,635,964

Figure 7 plexiglas results

Figure 8 k vs a

Discussion:

Buckling experiment:
When the load applied increases, the buckling deformation y (max) increases. For the 40g load,
ymax = 1.7 cm whereas for the 60g load ymax = 2.8 cm. The critical theoretical load for the
same height, width, thickness and material stays the same no matter what load was applied,
which was not the case in this experiment. In real life, the column has a higher horizontal cross
section than the ruler used. The ratio of the width and the thickness of column is small compared
to the one of the ruler. In other words, for the same length, the buckling load of the column is
way higher than the ruler due to higher modulus of elasticity and moment of inertia. Moreover, a
column is not fixed free as the ruler in this experiment. Thus, it will deform in another way than
the ruler did. The column is considered fixed-fixed or fixed-pin. For those conditions, the K
value is lower than 2 (0.5-0.7 respectively), which means that P critical for buckling is even
higher. First, a higher cross section can be used in order to increase P critical and reduce
buckling. Second, a lower L effective can be used by changing the end condition of the column
to reduce k; therefore, reducing L effective. Finally, an average critical load of 1.275 N was
calculated against the 2.067 N Theoretically. However, the compared numbers are far from each
other, which is due to either calculation errors, or human error with wrong measurements
readings.

Plexiglas experiment:

The reason behind this experiment is to study and analyze the stress intensity factor “K” caused
by stresses and the effect of the crack size on the ultimate load that could be handled. To perform
this experiment several Plexiglas bars with different crack sizes were used to determine k, they
were subjected to various loads until they break. As expected, while the load is being applied the
crack size was increasing on the bars. Moreover, it was concluded that as the crack size increased
on the respective bars, the failure load decreased since the bigger the crack, the less force is
needed for the material to fail. In addition, no experiment lacks of errors, Natural, instrumental
and random errors were present and should be accounted for. For example, misreading errors are
found while reading the dimensions of the Plexiglas bar with the caliper.

Conclusion:

In the two experiments conducted to conclusions were made. The first, buckling is a natural
phenomenon that occurs in structural engineering due to load application on structurally
supported systems. The deformation or offset distance Y(max) due to buckling increases as the
load is increased. The second, several plexi-glass bars were tested in this experiment with a
specific crack size in each bar in order to determine the stress intensity factor K. After testing, it
was found that the bar with the smaller crack size had the highest failure load. Moreover, the bar
with the highest crack size had the lowest failure load. Furthermore, the relationship between the
load and K was found out to be proportional.

References:

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckling
• Lab handouts
• Fracture Mechanics Book