Chapter 6 Applications of The Laplace Transform

EE 422G Notes: Chapter 6 Instructor: Zhang
Chapter 6 Applications of the Laplace Transform
Part One: Analysis of Network (6-2, 6-3)
1. Review of Resistive Network
1) Elements
2) Superposition
Page 6-1
3) KVL and KCL
4) Equivalent Circuits
Page 6-2
5) Nodal Analysis and Mesh Analysis
Mesh analysis
VS 1  R1 I1  R2 ( I1  I 2 )  R3 ( I1  I 2 )

VS 1  R1 I1  R4 I 2  VS 2 Solve for I1 and I2.
2. Characteristics of Dynamic Network
Dynamic Elements  Ohm’s Law: ineffective
1) Inductor
2) Capacitor
3) Example (Problem 5.9):
Page 6-3
Why so simple? Algebraic operation!

Dynamic Relationships (not Ohm’s Law) Complicate the analysis
Using Laplace Transform

1  I ( s ) i ( 1) (0) 
Vs ( s )  L[ (t )]  L( sI ( s )  i (0  ))      RI ( s )
C s s 
1
 ( Ls ) I ( s )  I ( s )  RI ( s )
Cs
Define ‘Generalized Resistors’ (Impedances)
1
Z1 ( s )  Ls Z 2 (s) 
Cs
 Vs ( s)  Z1 ( s ) I ( s )  Z 2 ( s ) I ( s )  RI ( s)
Vs ( s ) As simple as resistive network!
 I (s) 
Z1 ( s )  Z 2 ( s )  R
Solution proposed for dynamic network:

All the dynamic elements  Laplace Trans. Models.

As
G en eral ize d Oh ms L aw 
su p erp osit io n 


KVL an d KCL 
Eq ui va lent circ ui t 

N od al a na lys is and m esh 
an al ysi s
Resistive Network
Key: Laplace transform models of (dynamic) elements.
3. Laplace transform models of circuit elements.
Page 6-4
1) Capacitor
Important: We can handle these two ‘resistive network elements’!
2) Inductor
3) Resistor V(s) = RI(s)
4)Sources
Page 6-5
5) Mutual Inductance (Transformers)
(make sure both i1 and i2 either away

or toward the polarity marks to make
the mutual inductance M positive.)
Circuit (not transformer) form:
di1 di di di
v1 (t )  L1 M 1 M 1 M 2
dt dt dt dt
di d
 ( L1  M ) 1  M (i1  i2 )
dt dt
di di di di
v2 (t )  M 1  M 2  L2 2  M 2
dt dt dt dt
d di
 M (i1  i2 )  ( L2  M ) 2
dt dt
Page 6-6
Benefits of transform

Let’s write the equations from this
circuit form:
The
Same
 Laplace transform model: Obtain it by using inductance model
Just ‘sources’ and ‘generalized resistors’ (impedances)!
4. Circuit Analysis: Examples
Key: Remember very little, capable of doing a lot

How: follow your intuition, resistive network
‘Little’ to remember: models for inductor, capacitor and mutual inductance.
Example 6-4: Find Norton Equivalent circuit
Page 6-7
Assumption: vc (0  )  0
*Review of Resistive Network
1) short-circuit current through the load: I s
2) Equivalent Impedance or Resistance Rs or Z s :
A: Remove all sources
B: Replace Z L by an external source
C: Calculate the current generated by the external source ‘point a’
D: Voltage / Current  Rs  Z s
*Solution
1) Find I s ( s )  I sc
1 1 3 s3
 I ( s )  1   3I ( s )  (1  ) I ( s )  I ( s)
s s s s
1 2
I ( s)   I sc  2 I ( s )  
s3 s3
2) Find Zs
Page 6-8
Vtest ( s )
Zs 
2 I (s)
Vtest(s)
3I ( s )
I ( s)  1   0
s
 3
 (1 ) I ( s )    I ( s )
s
(Will I(s) be zero? We don’t know yet!) condition: 1 ohm = 3/s

or I(s) = 0
=>I(s) = 0 =>Zs = 
3) a
ZL
Example 6-5: Loop Analysis (including initial condition)
Question: What are i0 and v0?

What is v c (t ) ?
Solution
1) Laplace Transformed Circuit Why this direction?
Page 6-9
Why this direction?

2) KVL Equations

( R1  Ls ) I 1 ( s )  ( R 2 )( I 1 ( s )  I 2 ( s ))  V s ( s )  Li 0

 1 v0
  R 2 ( I 1 ( s )  I 2 ( s ))  ( I 2 ( s )  I 3 ( s ))  
 Cs s
 1 v0
  ( I 2 ( s )  I 3 ( s ))  ( R3  R4 ) I 3 ( s )   VC ( s )
 Cs s
Important: Signs of the sources!
3) Simplified (Standard form)
Z ( s) I ( s)  E ( s)  V ( s)
 
 R1  R2  Ls  R2 0   I ( s) 
 1 1  1 
  R2 R2     I 2 ( s )
 Cs Cs   I ( s) 
 1 1  3 
0   R3  R4 
 Cs Cs 
   
Vs ( s )  Li0  V ( s )   Li0 
 v0   s   v 
     0    0 
 s   s
 
 v0  V ( s )  VC ( s )  v0 
 s C   s 
6.4 Transfer Functions
1. Definition of a Transfer Function
(1) Definition
System analysis : Emphasize relationship between input and output, using blocks.

 Network (Circuit) analysis : Details, examples : Branch currents, voltages.
System analysis: How the system processes the input to form the output, or
Page 6-10
Input : variable used and to be adjusted

to change or influence the output.
Can you give some examples for input and output?
Quantitative Description of ‘ how the system processes

the input to form the output’: Transfer Function H(s)
(2)  input
The resultant output y(t) to  (t) input: unit impulse response

In this case: X(s) = L [ (t)] = 1
Y(s) = Laplace Transform of the unit impulse response
=> H(s) = Y(s)/X(s) = Y(s)
Therefore: What is the transfer function of a system?
Answer : It is the Laplace transform of the unit impulse response
of the system.
(3) Facts on Transfer Functions
* Independent of input, a property of the system structure and parameters.

* Obtained with zero initial conditions.
(Can we obtain the complete response of a system based on its transfer
function and the input?)
* Rational Function of s (Linear, lumped, fixed)
* H(s): Transfer function
H( j2f ) or H( j ): frequency response function of the system
(Replace s in H(s) by j2f or j)
|H( j2f )| or |H( j )|: amplitude response function
H(j2f) or H( j ): Phase response function
Page 6-11
2. Properties of Transfer Function for Linear, Lumped stable systems
(1) Rational Function of s
Lumped, fixed, linear system =>

bm s m  bm 1s m 1  ...  b0 N ( s )
H ( s)  
an s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a0 D( s )
Corresponding differential equations:
d ( n ) y (t ) d ( n 1) y (t )
an  a n 1  ...  a 0 y (t )
dt n dt n 1
d ( m ) x(t ) d ( m 1) x(t )
 bm  b m 1  ...  b0 x(t )
dt m dt m 1
a 
(2) all real! Why? Results from real system components.
j

b j 
Roots of N(s), D(s): real or complex conjugate pairs.

Poles of the transfer function: roots of D(s)
Zeros of the transfer function: roots of N(s)
D ( s )  ( s 2  3s  1)  D ( s )  ( s  2)( s  1)
Example: poles : 2,1
(3) H(s) = N(s)/D(s) of bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable

system
* Degree of N(s)  Degree of D(s)

Why? If degree N(s) > Degree D(s)
N ' ( s)
 H ( s )  ck s k  ...  c1s  c0  where degree N’(s) <degree D(s)
D( s)
Under a bounded-input x(t) = u(t) => X(s) = 1/s
c0 N ' ( s )
 Y ( s )  ck s k 1  ...  c1  
s sD( s ) (  (t ) not bounded!)
 y (t )  ...  c1 (t )  ...
* Poles: must lie in the left half of the s-plan (l. h. p)
Page 6-12
D ( s )  ( s   1 )( s   2 )...( s   n )
i.e., Re( j )  0
Why?
Bj
Y ( s)  ...   ...( j   j  j )
(s   j ) k
B j t k 1  jt
 y (t )  ...  e  ...
(k  1)!
B j t k 1  jt
 ...  e e jt  ...
(k  1)!
(Can we also include k=1 into this form? Yes!)
B j t k 1  jt
e e jt
( k  1)!
 jt
k  1  Bje e jt
Magnitude : | e jt | 1, | B j |: fixed
 jt  jt
B je e jt | B j || e jt | e
 jt
| B j | e 0 j 0
 cons tan t j 0
 j 0
* Any restriction on zeros? No (for BIBO stable system)
3. Components of System Response

d ( n ) y (t ) d ( m ) x (t )
an  ...  a 0 y ( t )  bm  ...  b0 x (t )
dt n dt m
Because x(t) is input, we can assume
x (0)  x (1) ( 0)  ...  x ( m 1) (0)  0
Laplace transform of the differentional equation
D(s)
C(s)
N(s) Page 6-13

an s nY ( s )  an [ s n1 y (0)  s n2 y (1) (0)  ...  y ( n1) (0)

 an1s n1Y ( s )  an1[ s n 2 y (0)  ...  y ( n 2 ) (0)
 ...
 a1sY ( s )  a1 y (0)
 a0Y ( s )
 [bm s m  bm1 s m1  ...  b0 ] X ( s )
 D ( s )Y ( s )  C ( s )  N ( s ) X ( s )
C ( s) N ( s) C (s)
or Y ( s )   X ( s)   H ( s) X (s)
D( s) D( s) D( s)
D(s): System parameters

C(s): Determined by the initial conditions (initial states)
Initial-State Response (ISR) or Zero-Input Response (ZIR):

 C ( s) 
y zir (t )  L1  
 D( s) 
Zero-State Response (ZSR) (due to input)
y zsr (t )  L1[ H ( s ) X ( s )]
From another point of view:

Transient Response: Approaches zero as t∞
Forced Response: Steady-State response if the forced
response is a constant
How to find (1) zero-input response or initial-state response? No problem!

 C ( s) 
L1  
 D( s) 
(2) zero-state response? No prolbem!

L1 [ H ( s ) X ( s )]
How to find (1) transient response? All terms which go to 0 as t

(2) forced response? All terms other than transient terms.
Example 6-7
Input v s (t )
Output y (t )  v R (t )
Initial capacitor voltage: v0
Page 6-14
RC = 1 second
Solution
(1) Find total response
Vs ( s)  v0 / s
Y ( s)  R
1 / Cs  R
Rv 0 / s R
  Vs ( s )
1 / Cs  R 1 / Cs  R
v0 / s 1
  Vs ( s)
1 / CRs  1 1 / CRs  1
v0 s
  Vs ( s )
1 / CR  s 1 / CR  s
CR 1 v s
  0  Vs ( s )
s 1 s 1
(2) Find zero-input response and zero-state response
1   t v
Zero-input response: L  s 0 1  v 0 e u (t )
 
Zero-state response:
 s   s  5s  
L1  Vs ( s )  L1   2 
s 1   s  1  s  4 
 1  s 1 2 
 L1   4 2  
 s  1  s  4 2 s  4 
2
 [e t  4 cos 2t  2 sin 2t ]u (t )
(3) Find transient and forced response

y (t )  v0 e  t u (t )  e  t u (t )  4(cos 2t )u (t )  2(sin 2t )u (t )
Which terms go to zero as t?
 v 0 e  t u (t ) and e  t u (t )
 y transient (t )  v0 e t u (t )  e t u (t )
What are the other terms:
4(cos 2t )u (t ) and  2(sin 2t )u (t )

 y forced (t )  ( 4 cos 2t  2 sin 2t )u (t )
4. Asymptotic and Marginal Stability
System: (1) Asymptotically stable if y zir  0 as t (no input) for all
possible initial conditions, y(0), y’(0), … y(n-1)(0)
 Internal stability, has nothing to do with external input/output
(2) Marginally stable
| y zir  M all t>0 and all initial conditions
Page 6-15
(3) Unstable
y zir grows without bound for at least some values
of the initial condition.
(4) Asymptotically stable (internally stable)
=>must be BIBO stable. (external stability)
6-5 Routh Array
1. Introduction
System H(s) = N(s)/D(s) asymptotically stable  all poles in l.h.p (not

include jw axis.
How to determine the stability?
Factorize D(s):
D ( s )  s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a1s  a0
 ( s  1 )( s   2 )...( s   n )
stable  all Re( j )  0
Other method to determine (just) stability without factorization?

Routh Array
(1) Necessary condition

All a j ( j  0,1,...n  1)  0 (when an  1 is used)
 any a j  0 or a j  0 => system unstable!
Why?
Denote  j   p j  Re( p j )  0 to esnure stability
D ( s )  ( s  p1 )( s  p 2 )...( s  p n )
 sum of products of p 's
 s n  ( p1  p 2  ... p n ) s n 1  s n  2  
j
 taken two at a time 
 
 sum of products of p j ' s 
 ...  
 taken n-1 at a time
 s  p1 p 2 ... p n

 
When all Re(pj) > 0 , all coefficients must be greater than zero. If some
coefficient is not greater than zero, there must
Page 6-16
be at least a Re(pj) <= 0 (i.e., Re( j )  Re(Pole j)  0 )

=> system unstable
(2) Routh Array

Question: All a j  0 implies system stable?
Not necessary
Judge the stability: Use Routh Array (necessary and sufficient)
2. Routh Array Criterion
Find how many poles in the right half of the s-plane
(1) Basic Method
D ( s )  an s n  an 1s n 1  ...  a0
Formation of Routh Array

Number of sign changes in the first column of the array
=> number of poles in the r. h. p.
Example 6-8
D ( s )  s 3  14 s 2  41s  56
Page 6-17
sign: Changed once =>one pole in the r.h.p

verification:
D ( s )  s 3  14 s 2  41s  56
 ( s  1)( s  7)( s  8)
Example 6-9
D( s )  s 4  5s 3  s 2  10s  1
5  1  1  10
b1   1
5
s4 1 1 1 5 1  1 0
b2  1
s3 5 10 5
 1  10  5  1
s2 b1  1 b2  1 c1   15
1
s1 c1  15 c2  0  1 0  5  0
0 c2  0
s d1  1 1
15  1  ( 1)  0
d1  1
15
Sign: changed twice => two poles in r.h.p.
(2) Modifications for zero entries in the array
Case 1: First element of a row is zero

 replace 0 by ε (a small positive number)
Example 6-10
D( s )  s 4  s 3  s 2  s  3
Page 6-18
Case 2: whole row is zero (must occur at odd power row)

construct an auxiliary polynomial and the perform differentiation
Example: best way.
Page 6-19
Example 6-11
D ( s )  s 7  3s 6  3s 5  s 4  s 3  3s 2  3s  1
S3
Replace 0
Page 6-20
(3) Application: Can not be replaced by MatLab

Range of some system parameters.
Example: D ( s )  s 3  3s 2  3s  (1  k )
s3 1 3 3  3  1  (1  k ) 8  k
2 b1  
s 3 1 k 3 3
s1 b1  (8  k ) / 3 (8  k ) / 3  (1  k )  3  0
c1   1 k
s0 c1  1  k (8  K ) / 3
Stable system
8k 
08k 
3   8  k  1 to ensure system stable!
1  k  0  k  1

6.6 Frequency Response and Bode Plot

N ( s) 2
Transfer Function H ( s)  D( s ) H (s)  2
s  3s  1
Frequency Response
2 Why?
Amplitude Response: | H ( j ) |
(1   )  3 
2 2 2 2
Real positive number: function of 
1 3
Phase Response: H ( j )   tan
12
Interest of this section
Page 6-21
In particular, obtain
What are these?
Important Question: What is a Bode Plot?
How to obtain them without much computations?

Asymptotes only!
1. Bode plots of factors

(1) Constant factor k:
Page 6-22
(2) s
1
s 1 : | H |dB  20 log10 | | 20 log10 | j | 20 log10 
j
Can we plot it?
S N : Can we plot | H |dB ~  for them?
Phase s: H ( j )  90o
S  N : H ( j )   N  90o
Page 6-23
1
(3) Ts  1
step 1: Coordinate systems

step 2: corner frequency
1
c 
T
step 3: Label 0.1c, c , 10c
step 4: left of c : | H |dB  0

Point 1
Line
(   c , | H |dB  0)
step 5: right of c : (  10 , | H |dB  20dB )
Point 2
c
Why?
| H ( j ) |dB  20 log10 | H ( j ) |
1 1
 20 log10 | |s  j  20 log10 | |
Ts  1 1  jT
 20 log10 | 1  jT | 20 log10 1   2T 2
If
1
T  1 (   c )
T
 1   2T 2  1 | H ( j ) |dB  20 log10 1  0
Page 6-24
If
1
T  1 (   c )
T
 1   2T 2  T | H ( j ) |dB  20 log10 T
10
  10 c   T  10  20 log10 10  20dB
T
T  100 c | H ( j ) |dB  20 log10 100  40dB
1
Example:
0.2 s  1
What is T : T = 0.2
What is c : c = 1/T = 5
Example : 0.2s + 1
Example : (0.2s + 1)2, (0.2s + 1)-2
Page 6-25
Example : (Ts + 1)±N
(4) (T 2 s 2  2Ts  1) 1 (Complex --- Conjugate poles)
Step 3 : Before    c : | H |dB  0

Right of    c :
Line point 1: (    c , | H |dB  0 )
point 2: (   10 c , | H |dB  40dB )
Example: (0.2 2 s 2  2  0.2 s  1) 1
Actual | H |dB ~  and  (show Fig 6-20)

What’s resonant frequency: reach maximum:  c 1  2 2
Under what condition we have a resonant frequency:
Page 6-26
  2 / 2  0.707
H ( j ) ~  : see fig 6-21
What about : (T 2 s 2  2Ts  1)  N ?
2. Bode plots: More than one factors
Can we sum two | H |dB ~  plots into one?

Can we sum two H ( j ) ~  plots into one?
Yes!
Page 6-27
3. MatLab
100( s  2) 100 s 
H ( s )  
s( s 2  5s  25) s 3
 5s 2
 N um   0 0 100 200 ;
 den  1 5 25 0 ;
 b od e( num , den )
Show result in fig 6-24
6.7 Block Diagrams
1. What is a block diagram?
Concepts: Block, block transfer function,

Interconnection, signal flow, direction
Summer
System input, system output
Simplification, system transfer function
2. Block
Page 6-28
Assumption: Y(s) is determined

by input (X(s)) and block transfer
function (G(s)). Not affected by
the load.
Should be vary careful in
analysis of practical systems about the accuracy of this assumption.
3. Cascade connection
4. Summer
5. Single-loop system
Page 6-29
C (s) C (s)
?  G( s) or C ( s)  G ( s ) R( s) ? N 0!
R( s) R( s)
C ( s )  G ( s ) E ( s )!
Let’s find T ( s )  C ( s ) / R( s ) Closed-loop transfer function

Equation (1) C ( s)  G( s) E ( s)
Equation (2) E ( s )  R ( s )  H ( s )C ( s )
C ( s )  G ( s )( R ( s )  H ( s )C ( s ))
 G ( s ) R ( s )  G ( s ) H ( s )C ( s )
 (1  G ( s ) H ( s ))C ( s )  G ( s ) R ( s )
G ( s)
 T ( s )  C ( s ) / R( s) 
1  G( s) H ( s)
6. More Rules and Summary: Table 6-1
Page 6-30
Page 6-31
Example 6-14: Find Y(s)/X(s)
G1 (G3  G2G4 )
Y ( s) 1  G1H1 G1 (G3  G2G4 )
 
X ( s ) 1  G1 (G3  G2G4 ) H 1  G1H1  H 2G1 (G3  G2G4 )
2
1  G1H1
Example 6-15: Armature- Controlled dc servomotor

Input : Ea (armature voltage)
Output :  (angular shift)
Page 6-32
Can we obtain  / E a ?
Example 6-16 Design of control system
Design of K such that closed loop system stable.
k ( s  1 / 2) 5
o ( s) s s ( s  1) 5k ( s  0.5) 5k ( s  0.5)
  2  3 2
 i ( s ) 1  k ( s  1 / 2) 5 s ( s  1)  5k ( s  0.5) s  s  5ks  2.5k
s s( s  1)
Routh Array: s 3  s 2  5ks  2.5k
s3 1 5k 5k  2.5k
b1   2.5k
1
s2 1 2.5k
b2  0
s1 b1  2.5k b2  0
2.5k 2.5k  0
s0 c1  2.5k c1   2.5k
2.5k
System stable if k>0. If certain performance is required in addition to the

stability, k must be further designed.
Page 6-33

Chapter 6 Applications of The Laplace Transform

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Chapter 6 Applications of The Laplace Transform

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EE 422G Notes: Chapter 6 Instructor: Zhang

Chapter 6 Applications of the Laplace Transform

Part One: Analysis of Network (6-2, 6-3)

1. Review of Resistive Network

3) KVL and KCL

5) Nodal Analysis and Mesh Analysis

2. Characteristics of Dynamic Network

Dynamic Elements  Ohm’s Law: ineffective

3) Example (Problem 5.9):

Why so simple? Algebraic operation!

Using Laplace Transform

Solution proposed for dynamic network:

3. Laplace transform models of circuit elements.

Important: We can handle these two ‘resistive network elements’!

3) Resistor V(s) = RI(s)

5) Mutual Inductance (Transformers)

(make sure both i1 and i2 either away

Circuit (not transformer) form:

 Laplace transform model: Obtain it by using inductance model

Just ‘sources’ and ‘generalized resistors’ (impedances)!

4. Circuit Analysis: Examples

Key: Remember very little, capable of doing a lot

Example 6-4: Find Norton Equivalent circuit

(Will I(s) be zero? We don’t know yet!) condition: 1 ohm = 3/s

Example 6-5: Loop Analysis (including initial condition)

Question: What are i0 and v0?

Why this direction?

Important: Signs of the sources!

3) Simplified (Standard form)

6.4 Transfer Functions

1. Definition of a Transfer Function

Input : variable used and to be adjusted

Quantitative Description of ‘ how the system processes

The resultant output y(t) to  (t) input: unit impulse response

(3) Facts on Transfer Functions

* Independent of input, a property of the system structure and parameters.

2. Properties of Transfer Function for Linear, Lumped stable systems

(1) Rational Function of s

Lumped, fixed, linear system =>

Roots of N(s), D(s): real or complex conjugate pairs.

(3) H(s) = N(s)/D(s) of bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO) stable

* Degree of N(s)  Degree of D(s)

* Poles: must lie in the left half of the s-plan (l. h. p)

* Any restriction on zeros? No (for BIBO stable system)

3. Components of System Response

N(s) Page 6-13

an s nY ( s )  an [ s n1 y (0)  s n2 y (1) (0)  ...  y ( n1) (0)

D(s): System parameters

Initial-State Response (ISR) or Zero-Input Response (ZIR):

From another point of view:

How to find (1) zero-input response or initial-state response? No problem!

(2) zero-state response? No prolbem!

How to find (1) transient response? All terms which go to 0 as t

(3) Find transient and forced response

4(cos 2t )u (t ) and  2(sin 2t )u (t )

6-5 Routh Array

System H(s) = N(s)/D(s) asymptotically stable  all poles in l.h.p (not

Other method to determine (just) stability without factorization?

(1) Necessary condition

be at least a Re(pj) <= 0 (i.e., Re( j )  Re(Pole j)  0 )

(2) Routh Array

2. Routh Array Criterion

Find how many poles in the right half of the s-plane