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AIR POLLUTION
ELECTROSTATIC PRECIPITATORS

ü Have knowledge of air pollution:

Types, sources, properties, impacts, standards

ü Learn about transport and the environment

ü Be knowledgeable about the fate and dispersion of

air pollutants in the environment

ü Gain familiarity with indoor air quality

ü Be knowledgeable about air pollution control

Methods and equipment

CONCEPT

CL = Cout CL

Mout
C0 = Cinitial
Min
Mremoved

x=L

x+Δx
x

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Cutaway View of a Single-Stage

Parallel Plate ESP

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OUTLINE

• Introduction • Design Considerations

» Generalities » Corona
» Advantages and » Particulate resistivity
disadvantages » Internal configuration
» Design steps
• Theory » Removal of particle
» Assumptions dust
» Governing equations » Flue gas conditioning
» Sparking

INTRODUCTION
Generalities
• A well established industry from units as small as for an
AC system to large power plants

• Process description:
1. Ionization of contaminated air flowing between
electrodes
2. Charging, migration, and collection of particulates
on oppositely charged plates
3. Removal of particulates from plates by washing or
knocking down (mechanical periodic rapping
horizontally or vertically)

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INTRODUCTION
Advantages

• Very high removal efficiency, even for very small particles

• Can handle very large volumes with low pressure drop

• Dry and wet collection (fumes/mists)

• Can handle a wide range of temperatures

• Relatively low operating costs, except at very high efficiencies

INTRODUCTION
Disadvantages

• High capital costs (a large ESP can cost 50M USD)

• Cannot control gaseous emissions

• No flexibility: once installed, little changes in operating

conditions can be introduced

• Needs a large space

• Might not work on particulates with high electrical resistivity

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THEORY
Assumptions
CL = Cout CL

Mout
C0 = Cinitial
Min
Mremoved

x=L

x+Δx
x

• Constant velocity u through the ESP (x-direction), with no longitudinal mixing

• Particulates are uniformly distributed in the y and z directions at every x location
• Charging and collecting fields are constant and uniform
• Particles quickly attain terminal velocity w in the y direction
• Re-entrainment of collected particles is negligible

THEORY
Governing equations
CL = Cout CL

• Mass balance C0 =
Mo
ut

Cinitial Mi
Mremoved
Min - Mout = Mremoved
n

x=
Qin Cin - Qout C out = Mr x
x+Δ
L

D D
uH C x - uH C x + Dx = Mr = w(HDx )C Dx
2 2 x+
D 2
uH (C x - C x + Dx ) = wHDxC Dx
2 x+
2

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THEORY
Governing equations (cont’d)

• As Dx ® 0 :
D
-u dC = wdxC CL = Cout CL
2 Mo
dC 2 wH C0 =
ut

= - dx Cinitial Mi
n
Mremoved
C uDH
CL
dC 2 wH L x=

ò = - ò dx x+Δ
L

C
C uDH 0
x x

0
CL 2 wH
ln = - L
Co uDH

C 2 wH
THEORY ln L = - L
C uDH
Governing equations (cont’d) o CL
CL = Cout
Mo
• 2HL = Plate Area = Ap C0 =
ut

Cinitial Mi
n
Mremoved
• uDH = flow rate in one channel = Qc
x=
wA p L
CL CL - wA p Qc x+Δ
ln =- Þ =e x x
C0 Qc C0

C 0 - CL C 0 CL - wAp Qc
h= = - =1-e ¬ Deutsch equation
C0 C0 C0
w = drift velocity or Vt (terminal velocity)
h = fractional collection efficiency

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THEORY
Governing equations (cont’d)

Terminal drift velocity =

characteristics time x electrostatic force/unit mass:

Fe dvr vr Fe
vt = w = t ' + =
dt t ¢ Mp
Mp
æ rp - r f ö t’= C rpd2p/18µ
Fe = Mp çç ÷g (Gravitational)
÷
è rp ø
Vc2 Fe
Fe = Mp (Centrifugal) > 100
R FG

THEORY
Governing equations (cont’d)
F
Fe = qE co v t = w = t' e
Fe = electrostatic force, N Mp
Eco = collecting field strength, V/m t’= C rpd2p/18µ

q = charge on the particle, coulombs (C)

Fe
For dp ~ 1µ Þ > 3000 CL = Cout C
FG C0 =
M
M
ou
L

FE = Fe
t
Cinitial M remove
in
d
electrostatic force/unit mass
Mp x
=
x+
x L
Δx

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F
THEORY v t = w = t' e
Mp
Governing equations (cont’d) t’= C rpd2p/18µ

pdp3 Fe = qE co
Mp = rp v p = rp
6 FE = Fe
Mp
q = pdp2e oKEch
e0 = permittivity of free space = 8.85 x 10-10 C/V-m
Ech = charging field strength, V/m
CL = Cout C
3e
K = constant K =
M L

C0 = ou

(1.5 to 2.4) e+2 Cinitial

M
in
M
d
t
remove

e = dielectric constant for

x
the particle relative to free space x+
=
x L
Δx

F
THEORY v t = w = t' e
Mp
Governing equations (cont’d) t’= C rpd2p/18µ

Fe
2
Fe = qE co FE = M
Cr d p
Fe Fe p p qEco
v = w = t' = Ct = pdp3
t Mp Mp 18µ Mp Mp = rp v p = rp
3e 6
2 2
Cr d pd e ( )EchEco 3e
=
p p p 0 e+2 q = pdp2e oKEch K=
18µ 3 e+2
pd
p
r
p 6
e CL = Cout C
Cd e ( )EchEco Cd e KEchEco M L

=
p 0 e+2 or
=
p 0
C0 = ou
µ 3µ M Mt
Cinitial in
remove
d

2
d e KE x
~ p 0 avg C=1 (no slippage) =
x+
3µ x
Δx L

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THEORY
Governing equations (cont’d)
• Thus, theoretical drift velocity is proportional to
the particle diameter and (approximately) to the
square of the field strength

~ constant
Cd e K
• Theoretically, p o 2
w=V = E
t 3µ avg
CL = Cout C
• Eavg ~ ΔV/(D/2) M L

C0 = ou
M Mt
Cinitial in
remove
d

x
=
x+
x L
Δx

THEORY Eavg ~ ΔV/(D/2)

Sparking
• If DV ® ¥ and D ® 0, then Eavg ® ¥ Þ w ® ¥

• What would prevent us from doing so?

SPARKING

• As Eavg increases, the frequency of the sparking increases

Sparks are energetic events that disrupt the "dust cake"
Þ h decreases

• As Eavg decreases to eliminate sparks Þ h decreases

Þ ESP control systems are set at 50 - 100 sparks/min

(counted experimentally)

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THEORY
Sparking (cont’d)
• Sparking is highly dependent on the Resistivity (P) of the
particulates collected on the plate:
P = 1/conductivity

• Resistivity is a measure of the resistance to electrical

conduction, and strongly influences particle collection
efficiency through particle re-entrainment after it loses its
charge

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Resistivity

• So it is important to measure P
• Best measured in the field because
Plab > (100-1000) Pfield have been reported

Dust from gas to

be treated

Resistance x Area normal to current flow

Resistivity =
Path length in the direction of current flow

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Resistivity (cont’d)
A VA
P =R =
L i L
• Material overall variation: 10-3 < P < 1019 ohm-cm
• Coal Fly Ash: 108 < P < 1013 ohm-cm
• Design becomes difficult if: P > 1011 ohm-cm
• P is a function of:
» Temperature
» Surface conductivity (Resistivity)
» Volume conductivity (Resistivity)
» Sulfur content

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Resistivity (cont’d)
• If T increases, surface conductivity increases, and
volume conductivity decreases

1
=
P

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Resistivity (cont’d)
Variation of fly-ash resistivity with coal sulfur content and flue gas temperature

Optimum range: 250-350

At T<250°C Þ sulfuric acid condensation on cold surfaces

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction

−wAp Qc CL
CL = Cout
η =1−e Mo
ut
C0 =
Cd e K Cinitial Mi
Mremoved
p o 2 n
w=V = E
t 3µ avg
x=
L
x+Δ
x x
Sparking: Eavg ~ ΔV/(D/2)

A VA
Permittivity P: a function of: P =R =
Temperature L i L
Surface & Volume conductivity (Resistivity)
Sulfur content

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Introduction

• Design of an ESP includes:

» Sizing the configuration of the plates
» Calculating electrical needs
» Determining structural needs
» Specifying the rapping, dust removal, and
performance-monitoring systems

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Plate sizing
• Consider one section of n plates in parallel across
the entire width of the ESP. There are n-1 active
plates in this section.
• For an ESP with Ns sections in the direction of
flow, the total collection area is:
A = A p (n − 1)N S = A p (N − N S )
Ap = two-sided plate area (=2HLp)
N = number of plates in parallel
across the width of the ESP
Ns = number of sections in the direction of flow

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EXAMPLE 1

a. Calculate the total collection area for a 98% efficient ESP that is
treating 10000 m3/min of air. The effective drift velocity is 6 m/min
b. Assuming the plates are 6 m high and 3 m long and that there are
two sections in the direction of flow, calculate the number of plates
required.
a. Rearranging the Deutsch equation
- Awe -Q - 10000m3 / min
ln(1 - h) = ® A= ln(1 - h) = ln(0.02) = 6520m2
Q we 6m / min
b. As Ns=2, A = Ap (N - 2)
Rearranging A 6520
N= +2= + 2 = 183.1 = 184plates
Ap 3x6x2

Because each section must have an integral number of plates, round up

to 184 plates (92 in each section in the direction of flow)

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Internal configuration (cont’d)

Ranges for
ESP design
parameters

Back to Example 3 And, Pressure drop DP 0.1-0.5 in H2O

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f ~ 2.5 mm

w = 1 - 10 m/min

~ 8 - 15 m
1.2 - 2.5 for fly ash
m/min
L/H ~ 0.5 - 1.5
15 – 40 cm

Q Q
W = NdD

Len L Lex
3–5m 3–5m
R = L/ H

Q A a = 2HL pNsNd
N = Ns = RH / L p
d uDH

L o = NsL p + (Ns - 1)L s + L en + L ex

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design steps

1. Determine number of ducts / channels for

gas flow
Q=N q
d
Q = total gas flow rate, m3/min
q = uDH q = flow rate per channel, m3/min
Q
N =
d uDH
Nd is first calculated by assuming a value for H
and choosing representative values of u and D

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design steps (cont’d)

2. Determine the overall length of the

precipitator
L o = NsL p + (Ns - 1)L s + L en + L ex

L0 = overall length, m
Ns = number of sections in direction of flow
Lp = plate length, m
Ls = spacing between electrical sections, m
Len = entrance section length, m
Lex = exit section length, m

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design steps (cont’d)
3. Determine the number of sections and the actual
collection area
Ns = RH / L p A a = 2HL pNsNd
Ns = number of sections in direction of flow
R = aspect ratio (total plate length/plate height)
Aa = actual collection area, in m2
Several plate sizes and number of ducts are tried until one combination is
found such that Aa is equal to (or slightly greater than) the required
collection area
4. Determine Power Consumption
m3/s kN/m2
kN-m/s QDP
P = ~ 1 kPa (0.1-0.5 in H2O)
kW Fan h

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design steps (cont’d)

æ 1.17 ö
Pcurrent = Qç115.8 + ÷
è Pt ø
wA (kW)
P = S
current K ~ 0.5 - 0.7 for fly ash

5. Check if all design criteria are satisfied

6. Plates, Wires, Hoppers, Rapping

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EXAMPLE 3

• For a 99% efficient precipitator treating 20000 m3/min of

gas needing a total collection area of 14000 m2, estimate
the overall width, length, and height of the ESP. Use
typical values for plate height, channel width, gas velocity,
and aspect ratio. Assume plates are available in heights
from 6-12 m and are 3 m long.

» Choosing typical values, we assume H=12m, D=25cm,

u=100m/min, and the aspect ratio = 1

20000m3 / min Q
Nd = = 67ducts N =
(100m / min)(0.25m)(12m) d uDH
(1)(12) Ns = RH / L p
Ns = = 4 sec tions
3
A a = 2HLpNsNd
Aa = 2(12)(3)(4)(67) = 19296m2

EXAMPLE 3 (cont’d)

» However, 19296 m2 is excessively higher than the required 14000

m2. In this case, it seems best to change the plate size. Since the
aspect ratio must remain above 1 for this high efficiency, we try a
plate height of 10 m. Thus,
20000 Q
Nd = = 80ducts N =
(100)(0.25)(10) d uDH
(1)(10) Ns = RH / L p
Ns = = 3.3 sec tions (roundupto4)
3
A a = 2HL pNsNd
A a = 2(10)(3)(4)(80) = 19200m2

which is not significantly better. Continuing this process, we might

end up with a design calling for plates 8m x 3m, 100 ducts, and 3
sections. The final design plate area with 3 sections would be
14400 m2, and the final aspect ratio would be about 1.1.

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EXAMPLE 3 (cont’d)
» We can now check some of the other design parameters against typical ranges.
14400m2 m2
SpecificCo llectionAr ea = 3
= 0.72 3
20000m / min m / min
14400
PlateAreaPerElectricalSet = = 4800m2
3
The plate area per set is not beyond reason. However, rather than have one set
extend across the entire width of the ESP, we could divide the width into 2, 3, or 4
parallel chambers, thus giving 6, 9, or 12 independent electrical sets. This
additional sectionalization is prudent. In the case of electrical failure of one or two
sections, the latter approach would allow continued operation of the ESP at a
reasonably high efficiency. If the first approach were followed, electrical outage of
just one set would reduce operating collection area by 33%.

In summary, our estimate of the overall width of the ESP is 100x0.25m=25m. The
overall length is about 18-20m, assuming entrance and exit lengths of 3-5m each.
The overall height is about 16m, which allows space below the plates for the
hoppers and dust transport system, and space above the plates for the rappers
and transformer-rectifier sets.

End of Lecture

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