Global Positioning System

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"GPS" redirects here. For other uses, see GPS (disambiguation).
For a generally accessible and less technical introduction to the topic, see Introduction to the
Global Positioning System.

Artist's conception of GPS Block II-F satellite in orbit

Civilian GPS receiver ("GPS navigation device") in a marine application.

Automotive navigation system in a taxicab.

GPS receivers are now integrated in many mobile phones.

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation satellite system that
provides reliable location and time information in all weather and at all times and anywhere on
or near the Earth there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is
maintained by the United States government and is freely accessible by anyone with a GPS
receiver.

The GPS System was created and realized by the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) and was
originally based on and run with 24 satellites. It was established in 1973 to reduce the large
number of navigation aids and to overcome the limitations of previous navigation systems.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Structure
• 2 Applications
• 3 History
o 3.1 Timeline and modernization
• 4 Basic concept of GPS
o 4.1 Position calculation introduction
o 4.2 Correcting a GPS receiver's clock
• 5 System segmentation
o 5.1 Space segment
o 5.2 Control segment
o 5.3 User segment
• 6 Communication
o 6.1 Message format
o 6.2 Data updates
o 6.3 Satellite frequencies
 6.3.1 Demodulation and decoding
• 7 Navigation
o 7.1 Development of the GPS equations
o 7.2 Methods of solution of the GPS equations
 7.2.1 Multidimensional Newton-Raphson for GPS
 • 8 Error sources and analysis
o 8.1 Signal arrival time measurement
o 8.2 Atmospheric effects
o 8.3 Multipath effects
o 8.4 Ephemeris and clock errors
o 8.5 Geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP)
 8.5.1 Derivation of DOP equations
o 8.6 Selective availability
o 8.7 Relativity
 8.7.1 Special and general relativity
 8.7.2 Sagnac distortion
o 8.8 Natural sources of interference
o 8.9 Artificial sources of interference
• 9 Accuracy enhancement and surveying
o 9.1 Augmentation
o 9.2 Precise monitoring
o 9.3 Timekeeping
o 9.4 Carrier phase tracking (surveying)
• 10 Applications
o 10.1 Military
o 10.2 Civilian
• 11 Awards
• 12 Other systems
• 13 See also
o 13.1 Civilian applications
• 14 Notes
• 15 References
• 16 Further reading

• 17 External links

[edit] Structure
The GPS consists of three parts: the space segment, the control segment, and the user segment.
The U.S. Air Force develops, maintains, and operates the space and control segments. GPS
satellites broadcast signals from space, which each GPS receiver uses to calculate its three-
dimensional location (latitude, longitude, and altitude) plus the current time.[1]

The space segment is composed of 24 to 32 satellites in medium Earth orbit and also includes the
boosters required to launch them into orbit. The control segment is composed of a master control
station, an alternate master control station, and a host of dedicated and shared ground antennas
and monitor stations. The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied
military users of the secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil,
commercial, and scientific users of the Standard Positioning Service (see GPS navigation
devices).
[edit] Applications
GPS has become a widely used aid to navigation worldwide, and a useful tool for map-making,
land surveying, commerce, scientific uses, tracking and surveillance, and hobbies such as
geocaching and waymarking. The precise time reference provided by GPS is used in many
applications including the scientific study of earthquakes and as a time synchronization source
for cellular network protocols.

In addition, GPS has, in the words of the website gps.gov, become a mainstay of transportation
systems worldwide, providing navigation for aviation, ground, and maritime operations. Disaster
relief and emergency services depend upon GPS for location and timing capabilities in their life-
saving missions. The accurate timing provided by GPS facilitates everyday activities such as
banking, mobile phone operations, and even the control of power grids. Farmers, surveyors,
geologists and countless others perform their work more efficiently, safely, economically, and
accurately using the free and open GPS signals.[2]

[edit] History

The design of GPS is based partly on similar ground-based radio navigation systems, such as
LORAN and the Decca Navigator developed in the early 1940s, and used during World War II.
In 1956 Friedwardt Winterberg[3] proposed a test of general relativity using accurate atomic
clocks placed in orbit in artificial satellites. To achieve accuracy requirements, GPS uses
principles of general relativity to correct the satellites' atomic clocks. Additional inspiration for
the GPS came when the Soviet Union launched the first man-made satellite, Sputnik in 1957. A
team of U.S. scientists led by Dr. Richard B. Kershner were monitoring Sputnik's radio
transmissions. They discovered that, because of the Doppler effect, the frequency of the signal
being transmitted by Sputnik was higher as the satellite approached, and lower as it continued
away from them. They realized that since they knew their exact location on the globe, they could
pinpoint where the satellite was along its orbit by measuring the Doppler distortion (see Transit
(satellite)).

The first satellite navigation system, Transit, used by the United States Navy, was first
successfully tested in 1960. It used a constellation of five satellites and could provide a
navigational fix approximately once per hour. In 1967, the U.S. Navy developed the Timation
satellite which proved the ability to place accurate clocks in space, a technology that GPS relies
upon. In the 1970s, the ground-based Omega Navigation System, based on phase comparison of
signal transmission from pairs of stations,[4] became the first worldwide radio navigation system.
However, limitations of these systems drove the need for a more universal navigation solution
with greater accuracy.
While there were wide needs for accurate navigation in military and civilian sectors, almost none
of those were seen as justification for the billions of dollars it would cost in research,
development, deployment, and operation for a complex constellation of navigation satellites.
However during the Cold War arms race, the nuclear threat to the very existence of the United
States was the one need that did justify this cost in the view of the US Congress. And this
deterrent effect is why GPS was funded. The nuclear triad consisted of the US Navy's
submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) along with the US Air Force's strategic bombers
and intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). Considered vital to the nuclear deterrence
posture, accurate determination of the SLBM launch position was a force multiplier. Precise
navigation would enable US submarines to get an accurate fix of their positions prior to
launching their SLBMs.[5] The US Air Force with two-thirds of the nuclear triad also had
requirements for a more accurate and reliable navigation system. The Navy and Air Force were
developing their own technologies in parallel to solve what was essentially the same problem. To
increase the survivability of ICBMs, there was a proposal to use mobile launch platforms so the
need to fix the launch position had similarity to the SLBM situation. In 1960, the Air Force
proposed a radio-navigation system called MOSAIC (Mobile System for Accurate ICBM
Control) that was essentially a 3-D LORAN. A follow-on study called Project 57 was worked in
1963 and it was "in this study that the GPS concept was born." That same year the concept was
pursued as Project 621B, which had "many of the attributes that you now see in GPS"[6] and
promised increased accuracy for Air Force bombers as well as ICBMs. Updates from the Navy
Transit system were too slow for the high speeds that the Air Force operated at. The Navy
Research Laboratory continued advancements with their Timation (Time Navigation) satellites,
first launched in 1967, and with the third one in 1974 carrying the first atomic clock put into
orbit.[7]

With these parallel developments out of the 1960s, it was realized that a superior system could
be developed by synthesizing the best technologies from 621B, Transit, Timation and SECOR in
a multi-service program. Over the Labor Day weekend in 1973, a meeting of about 12 military
officers at the Pentagon discussed the creation of a Defense Navigation Satellite System (DNSS).
It was at this meeting that "the real synthesis that became GPS was created." Later that year, the
DNSS program was named Navstar. With the individual satellites being associated with the
name Navstar (as with the predecessors Transit and Timation), a more fully encompassing name
was used to identify the constellation of Navstar satellites. This more complete name was
Navstar-GPS which was later shortened simply to GPS.[8]

After Korean Air Lines Flight 007, carrying 269 people, was shot down in 1983 after straying
into the USSR's prohibited airspace,[9] in the vicinity of Sakhalin and Moneron Islands, President
Ronald Reagan issued a directive making GPS freely available for civilian use, once it was
sufficiently developed, as a common good.[10] The first satellite was launched in 1989, and the
24th and last satellite was launched in 1994.

Initially, the highest quality signal was reserved for military use, and the signal available for
civilian use was intentionally degraded ("Selective Availability", SA). This changed with U.S.
President Bill Clinton ordering Selective Availability turned off at midnight May 1, 2000,
improving the precision of civilian GPS from 300 meters (about 1000 feet) to 20 meters (about
65 feet). The U.S. military by then had the ability to deny GPS service to potential adversaries on
a regional basis.[11]

[edit] Timeline and modernization

Summary of satellites[12]

Satellite launches
Launch Currently in orbit
Block
Period Suc- Fail- In prep- Plan- and healthy
cess ure aration ned

I 1978–1985 10 1 0 0 0

II 1989–1990 9 0 0 0 0

IIA 1990–1997 19 0 0 0 10 of the 19 launched

IIR 1997–2004 12 1 0 0 12 of the 13 launched

IIR-M 2005–2009 8 0 0 0 7 of the 8 launched

IIF 2010–2011 1 0 11 0 0 of the 1 launched

IIIA 2014–? 0 0 0 12 0

IIIB 0 0 0 8 0

IIIC 0 0 0 16 0

Total 59 2 11 36 29

(Last update: 24 May 2010)

PRN 01 from Block IIR-M is unhealthy

PRN 25 from Block IIA is unhealthy
PRN 32 from Block IIA is unhealthy
[13]
For a more complete list, see list of GPS satellite launches

• In 1972, the U.S. Air Force Central Inertial Guidance Test Facility (Holloman AFB),
conducted developmental flight tests of two prototype GPS receivers over White Sands
Missile Range, using ground-based pseudo-satellites.
• In 1978, the first experimental Block-I GPS satellite was launched.
• In 1983, after Soviet interceptor aircraft shot down the civilian airliner KAL 007 that
strayed into prohibited airspace due to navigational errors, killing all 269 people on
board, U.S. President Ronald Reagan announced that the GPS would be made available
for civilian uses once it was completed.[14][15]
 • By 1985, ten more experimental Block-I satellites had been launched to validate the
concept.
• On February 14, 1989, the first modern Block-II satellite was launched.
• In 1992, the 2nd Space Wing, which originally managed the system, was de-activated and
replaced by the 50th Space Wing.
• By December 1993, the GPS achieved initial operational capability.[16]
• By January 17, 1994 a complete constellation of 24 satellites was in orbit.
• Full Operational Capability was declared by NAVSTAR in April 1995.
• In 1996, recognizing the importance of GPS to civilian users as well as military users,
U.S. President Bill Clinton issued a policy directive[17] declaring GPS to be a dual-use
system and establishing an Interagency GPS Executive Board to manage it as a national
asset.
• In 1998, U.S. Vice President Al Gore announced plans to upgrade GPS with two new
civilian signals for enhanced user accuracy and reliability, particularly with respect to
aviation safety and in 2000 the U.S. Congress authorized the effort, referring to it as GPS
III.
• In 1998, GPS technology was inducted into the Space Foundation Space Technology Hall
of Fame.
• On May 2, 2000 "Selective Availability" was discontinued as a result of the 1996
executive order, allowing users to receive a non-degraded signal globally.
• In 2004, the United States Government signed an agreement with the European
Community establishing cooperation related to GPS and Europe's planned Galileo
system.
• In 2004, U.S. President George W. Bush updated the national policy and replaced the
executive board with the National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning,
Navigation, and Timing.[18]
• November 2004, QUALCOMM announced successful tests of assisted GPS for mobile
phones.[19]
• In 2005, the first modernized GPS satellite was launched and began transmitting a second
civilian signal (L2C) for enhanced user performance.
• On September 14, 2007, the aging mainframe-based Ground Segment Control System
was transitioned to the new Architecture Evolution Plan.[20]
• The most recent launch was on May 28, 2010.[21] The oldest GPS satellite still in
operation was launched on November 26, 1990, and became operational on December
10, 1990.[22]
• On May 19, 2009, the U. S. Government Accountability Office issued a report warning
that some GPS satellites could fail as soon as 2010.[23]
• On May 21, 2009, the Air Force Space Command allayed fears of GPS failure saying
"There's only a small risk we will not continue to exceed our performance standard."[24]
• On January 11, 2010, an update of ground control systems caused a software
incompatibility with 8000 to 10000 military receivers manufactured by a division of
Trimble Navigation Limited of Sunnyvale, Calif.[25]

[edit] Basic concept of GPS

A GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the signals sent by the GPS satellites
high above the Earth. Each satellite continually transmits messages which include

• the time the message was transmitted

• precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
• the general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites (the almanac).

The receiver utilizes the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each message and
computes the distances to each satellite. These distances along with the satellites' locations are
used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which algorithm is used, to compute the
position of the receiver. This position is then displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or
latitude and longitude; elevation information may be included. Many GPS units show derived
information such as direction and speed, calculated from position changes.

Three satellites might seem enough to solve for position, since space has three dimensions and a
position near the Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error
multiplied by the very large speed of light[26]—the speed at which satellite signals propagate—
results in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for the
receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively hidden by most
GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS applications do however
use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal timing, and synchronization of cell phone
base stations.

Although four satellites are required for normal operation, fewer apply in special cases. If one
variable is already known, a receiver can determine its position using only three satellites. (For
example, a ship or plane may have known elevation.) Some GPS receivers may use additional
clues or assumptions (such as reusing the last known altitude, dead reckoning, inertial
navigation, or including information from the vehicle computer) to give a less accurate
(degraded) position when fewer than four satellites are visible.[27][28][29]

[edit] Position calculation introduction

To provide an introductory description of how a GPS receiver works, errors will be ignored in
this section. Using messages received from a minimum of four visible satellites, a GPS receiver
is able to determine the times sent and then the satellite positions corresponding to these times
sent. The x, y, and z components of position, and the time sent, are designated as
where the subscript i is the satellite number and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4. Knowing the indicated
time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the transit time of the message
as . Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c, the distance traveled or
pseudorange, can be computed as .

A satellite's position and pseudorange define a sphere, centered on the satellite with radius equal
to the pseudorange. The position of the receiver is somewhere on the surface of this sphere. Thus
with four satellites, the indicated position of the GPS receiver is at or near the intersection of the
surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the GPS receiver would be at a precise
intersection of the four surfaces.
If the surfaces of two spheres intersect at more than one point, they intersect in a circle. The
article trilateration shows this mathematically. A figure, Two Sphere Surfaces Intersecting in a
Circle, is shown below.

Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle

The intersection of a third spherical surface with the first two will be its intersection with that
circle; in most cases of practical interest, this means they intersect at two points.[30] Another
figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, illustrates the
intersection. The two intersections are marked with dots. Again the article trilateration clearly
shows this mathematically.

Surface of sphere Intersecting a circle (not disk) at two points

For automobiles and other near-earth-vehicles, the correct position of the GPS receiver is the
intersection closest to the Earth's surface.[31] For space vehicles, the intersection farthest from
Earth may be the correct one.

The correct position for the GPS receiver is also the intersection closest to the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite.

[edit] Correcting a GPS receiver's clock

The method of calculating position for the case of no errors has been explained. One of the most
significant error sources is the GPS receiver's clock. Because of the very large value of the speed
of light, c, the estimated distances from the GPS receiver to the satellites, the pseudoranges, are
very sensitive to errors in the GPS receiver clock. This suggests that an extremely accurate and
expensive clock is required for the GPS receiver to work. On the other hand, manufacturers
prefer to build inexpensive GPS receivers for mass markets. The solution for this dilemma is
based on the way sphere surfaces intersect in the GPS problem.

Diagram depicting satellite 4, sphere, p4, r4, and da

It is likely that the surfaces of the three spheres intersect, since the circle of intersection of the
first two spheres is normally quite large, and thus the third sphere surface is likely to intersect
this large circle. It is very unlikely that the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth
satellite will intersect either of the two points of intersection of the first three, since any clock
error could cause it to miss intersecting a point. However, the distance from the valid estimate of
GPS receiver position to the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite can be
used to compute a clock correction. Let denote the distance from the valid estimate of GPS
receiver position to the fourth satellite and let denote the pseudorange of the fourth satellite.
Let . is the distance from the computed GPS receiver position to the surface of the
sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite. Thus the quotient, , provides an estimate of

(correct time) − (time indicated by the receiver's on-board clock),

and the GPS receiver clock can be advanced if is positive or delayed if is negative. However, it
should be kept in mind that a less simple function of may be needed to estimate the time error
in an iterative algorithm as discussed in the Navigation section.

[edit] System segmentation

Unlaunched GPS satellite on display at the San Diego Aerospace museum

The current GPS consists of three major segments. These are the space segment (SS), a control
segment (CS), and a user segment (US).[32]

[edit] Space segment

See also: GPS satellite and List of GPS satellite launches

A visual example of the GPS constellation in motion with the Earth rotating. Notice how the
number of satellites in view from a given point on the Earth's surface, in this example at 45°N,
changes with time.

The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites, or Space Vehicles (SV) in
GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in three circular orbital
planes,[33] but this was modified to six planes with four satellites each.[34] The orbital planes are
centered on the Earth, not rotating with respect to the distant stars.[35] The six planes have
approximately 55° inclination (tilt relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60° right
ascension of the ascending node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's
intersection).[36] The orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of
sight from almost everywhere on Earth's surface.[37]

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 kilometers (about 12,550 miles or 10,900

nautical miles; orbital radius of approximately 26,600 km (about 16,500 mi or 14,400 NM)),
each SV makes two complete orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day.
[38]
This was very helpful during development, since even with just four satellites, correct
alignment means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military
operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat zones.

As of March 2008,[39] there are 31 actively broadcasting satellites in the GPS constellation, and
two older, retired from active service satellites kept in the constellation as orbital spares. The
additional satellites improve the precision of GPS receiver calculations by providing redundant
measurements. With the increased number of satellites, the constellation was changed to a
nonuniform arrangement. Such an arrangement was shown to improve reliability and availability
of the system, relative to a uniform system, when multiple satellites fail.[40] About eight satellites
are visible from any point on the ground at any one time (see animation at right).

[edit] Control segment

The control segment is composed of

1. a master control station (MCS),

2. an alternate master control station,
3. four dedicated ground antennas and
4. six dedicated monitor stations.

The MCS can also access U.S. Air Force Satellite Control Network (AFSCN) ground antennas
(for additional command and control capability) and NGA (National Geospatial-Intelligence
Agency) monitor stations. The flight paths of the satellites are tracked by dedicated U.S. Air
Force monitoring stations in Hawaii, Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, Colorado
Springs, Colorado and Cape Canaveral, along with shared NGA monitor stations operated in
England, Argentina, Ecuador, Bahrain, Australia and Washington DC.[41] The tracking
information is sent to the Air Force Space Command's MCS at Schriever Air Force Base 25 km
(16 miles) ESE of Colorado Springs, which is operated by the 2nd Space Operations Squadron (2
SOPS) of the United States Air Force (USAF). Then 2 SOPS contacts each GPS satellite
regularly with a navigational update using dedicated or shared (AFSCN) ground antennas (GPS
dedicated ground antennas are located at Kwajalein, Ascension Island, Diego Garcia, and Cape
Canaveral). These updates synchronize the atomic clocks on board the satellites to within a few
nanoseconds of each other, and adjust the ephemeris of each satellite's internal orbital model.
The updates are created by a Kalman filter which uses inputs from the ground monitoring
stations, space weather information, and various other inputs.[42]

Satellite maneuvers are not precise by GPS standards. So to change the orbit of a satellite, the
satellite must be marked unhealthy, so receivers will not use it in their calculation. Then the
maneuver can be carried out, and the resulting orbit tracked from the ground. Then the new
ephemeris is uploaded and the satellite marked healthy again.

[edit] User segment

GPS receivers come in a variety of formats, from devices integrated into cars, phones, and
watches, to dedicated devices such as those shown here from manufacturers Trimble, Garmin
and Leica (left to right).

The user segment is composed of hundreds of thousands of U.S. and allied military users of the
secure GPS Precise Positioning Service, and tens of millions of civil, commercial and scientific
users of the Standard Positioning Service. In general, GPS receivers are composed of an antenna,
tuned to the frequencies transmitted by the satellites, receiver-processors, and a highly stable
clock (often a crystal oscillator). They may also include a display for providing location and
speed information to the user. A receiver is often described by its number of channels: this
signifies how many satellites it can monitor simultaneously. Originally limited to four or five,
this has progressively increased over the years so that, as of 2007, receivers typically have
between 12 and 20 channels.[43]

A typical OEM GPS receiver module measuring 15×17 mm.

GPS receivers may include an input for differential corrections, using the RTCM SC-104 format.
This is typically in the form of an RS-232 port at 4,800 bit/s speed. Data is actually sent at a
much lower rate, which limits the accuracy of the signal sent using RTCM. Receivers with
internal DGPS receivers can outperform those using external RTCM data. As of 2006, even low-
cost units commonly include Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) receivers.

A typical GPS receiver with integrated antenna.

Many GPS receivers can relay position data to a PC or other device using the NMEA 0183
protocol, or the newer and less widely used NMEA 2000.[44] Although these protocols are
officially defined by the NMEA,[45] references to these protocols have been compiled from public
records, allowing open source tools like gpsd to read the protocol without violating intellectual
property laws. Other proprietary protocols exist as well, such as the SiRF and MTK protocols.
Receivers can interface with other devices using methods including a serial connection, USB, or
Bluetooth.

Further information: GPS navigation device

[edit] Communication
The navigational signals transmitted by the GPS satellites encode a variety of information
including satellite positions, the state of the internal clocks, and the health of the network. These
signals are transmitted on two separate carrier frequencies that are common to all satellites in the
network. Two different encodings are used, a public encoding that enables lower resolution
navigation, and an encrypted encoding used by the U.S. military.

[edit] Message format

GPS broadcast signal

Each GPS satellite continuously broadcasts a navigation message at a rate of 50 bits per second
(see bitrate). The first part of the message encodes the week number and the time within the
week,[46] as well as the data about the health of the satellite. The second part of the message, the
ephemeris, provides the precise orbit for the satellite. The last part of the message, the almanac,
contains coarse orbit and status information for all satellites in the network as well as data related
to error correction.

Each complete message is composed of 30-second frames, distinct groupings of 1,500 bits of
information. Each frame is further subdivided into 5 subframes of length 6 seconds and with 300
bits each. Each subframe contains 10 words of 30 bits with length 0.6 seconds each. Each 30
second frame begins precisely on the minute or half minute as indicated by the atomic clock on
each satellite.[47]

GPS message format

Subframe Words Description

Telemetry and handover words

1 1–2
(TLM and HOW)

Satellite clock,
3–10
GPS time relationship

Telemetry and handover words

2–3 1–2
(TLM and HOW)

Ephemeris
3–10
(precise satellite orbit)
 Telemetry and handover words
4–5 1–2
(TLM and HOW)

Almanac component
3–10 (satellite network synopsys,
error correction)

The first two words of every subframe provide synchronization data allowing the receiver to
recognize the beginning of the subframe and identify which subframe is being transmitted. The
remainder of the data in each subframe contains the actual data. Subframe 1 describes the
satellite clock and its relationship to GPS time. Subframes 2 and 3 provide the ephemeris data,
giving the satellite's own precise orbit. Subframes 4 and 5 provide the almanac data, giving a
coarse description of the orbits for all satellites in the network, data to allow for correction of
distortions due to the atmosphere, and data for relating GPS time to Coordinated Universal Time
(UTC).

All satellites broadcast at the same frequencies. Signals are encoded using code division multiple
access (CDMA) allowing messages from individual satellites to be distinguished from each other
based on unique encodings for each satellite (which the receiver must be aware of). Two distinct
types of CDMA encodings are used: the coarse/acquisition (C/A) code, which is accessible by
the general public, and the precise (P) code, that is encrypted so that only the U.S. military can
access it.

The almanac consists of coarse orbit and status information for each satellite in the constellation,
an ionospheric model, and information to relate GPS derived time to Coordinated Universal
Time (UTC). Each frame contains a part of the almanac (in subframes 4 and 5) and the complete
almanac is transmitted by each satellite in 25 frames total (requiring 12.5 minutes).[48] The
almanac serves several purposes. The first is to assist in the acquisition of satellites at power-up
by allowing the receiver to generate a list of visible satellites based on stored position and time,
while an ephemeris from each satellite is needed to compute position fixes using that satellite. In
older hardware, lack of an almanac in a new receiver would cause long delays before providing a
valid position, because the search for each satellite was a slow process. Advances in hardware
have made the acquisition process much faster, so not having an almanac is no longer an issue.
The second purpose is for relating time derived from the GPS (called GPS time) to the
international time standard of UTC. Finally, the almanac allows a single-frequency receiver to
correct for ionospheric error by using a global ionospheric model. The corrections are not as
accurate as augmentation systems like WAAS or dual-frequency receivers. However, it is often
better than no correction, since ionospheric error is the largest error source for a single-frequency
GPS receiver. Each satellite transmits not only its own ephemeris, but transmits an almanac for
all satellites.

[edit] Data updates

The ephemeris is updated every 2 hours and is generally valid for 4 hours, with provisions for
updates every 6 hours or longer in non-nominal conditions. The time needed to acquire the
ephemeris is becoming a significant element of the delay to first position fix, because, as the
hardware becomes more capable, the time to lock onto the satellite signals shrinks, but the
ephemeris data requires 30 seconds (worst case) before it is received, due to the low data
transmission rate.

The almanac is updated typically every 24 hours. Additionally data for a few weeks following is
uploaded in case of transmission updates which delay data upload.

[edit] Satellite frequencies

GPS Frequencies

Frequency
Designation Description
(MHz)

Mix of Navigation Message,

L1 1575.42
C/A code and P(Y) code

P(Y) code, plus the new L2C

L2 1227.60 code on the Block IIR-M and newer
satellites since 2005

Used by Nuclear Detonation (NUDET)

Detection System Payload (NDS);
L3 1381.05
signals nuclear detonations/high-energy infrared events.
Used to enforce nuclear test ban treaties

L4 1379.913 Being studied for additional ionospheric correction

L5 1176.45 Proposed for use as a civilian safety-of-life (SoL) signal*

*This frequency falls into an internationally protected range for

aeronautical navigation, promising little or no interference under all
circumstances. The first Block IIF satellite to provide this signal
launched at 0500 May 28th 2010(GMT).[49]
(see GPS modernization)

All satellites broadcast at the same two frequencies, 1.57542 GHz (L1 signal) and 1.2276 GHz
(L2 signal). The satellite network uses a CDMA spread-spectrum technique where the low-
bitrate message data is encoded with a high-rate pseudo-random (PRN) sequence that is different
for each satellite. The receiver must be aware of the PRN codes for each satellite to reconstruct
the actual message data. The C/A code, for civilian use, transmits data at 1.023 million chips per
second, whereas the P code, for U.S. military use, transmits at 10.23 million chips per second.
The L1 carrier is modulated by both the C/A and P codes, while the L2 carrier is only modulated
by the P code.[50] The P code can be encrypted as a so-called P(Y) code which is only available to
military equipment with a proper decryption key. Both the C/A and P(Y) codes impart the
precise time-of-day to the user.
[edit] Demodulation and decoding

Demodulating and Decoding GPS Satellite Signals using the Coarse/Acquisition Gold code.

Since all of the satellite signals are modulated onto the same L1 carrier frequency, there is a need
to separate the signals after demodulation. This is done by assigning each satellite a unique
binary sequence known as a Gold code, and the signals are decoded, after demodulation, using
modulo 2 addition of the Gold codes corresponding to satellites n1 through nk, where k is the
number of channels in the GPS receiver and n1 through nk are the PRN identifiers of the
satellites. Each satellite's PRN identifier is unique and in the range from 1 through 32.[51] The
results of these modulo 2 additions are the 50 bit/s navigation messages from satellites n1 through
nk. The Gold codes used in GPS are a sequence of 1,023 bits with a period of one millisecond.
These Gold codes are highly mutually orthogonal, so that it is unlikely that one satellite signal
will be misinterpreted as another. As well, the Gold codes have good auto-correlation properties.
[52]

There are 1,025 different Gold codes of length 1,023 bits, but only 32 are used. These Gold
codes are quite often referred to as pseudo random noise since they contain no data and are said
to look like random sequences[53]. However, this may be misleading since they are actually
deterministic sequences.

If the almanac information has previously been acquired, the receiver picks which satellites to
listen for by their PRNs. If the almanac information is not in memory, the receiver enters a
search mode and cycles through the PRN numbers until a lock is obtained on one of the
satellites. To obtain a lock, it is necessary that there be an unobstructed line of sight from the
receiver to the satellite. The receiver can then acquire the almanac and determine the satellites it
should listen for. As it detects each satellite's signal, it identifies it by its distinct C/A code
pattern.

The receiver uses the C/A Gold code with the same PRN number as the satellite to compute an
offset, O, that generates the best correlation. The offset, O, is computed in a trial and error
manner. The 1,023 bits of the satellite PRN signal are compared with the receiver PRN signal. If
correlation is not achieved, the 1,023 bits of the receiver's internally generated PRN code are
shifted by one bit relative to the satellite's PRN code and the signals are again compared. This
process is repeated until correlation is achieved or all 1,023 possible cases have been tried.[54] If
all 1,023 cases have been tried without achieving correlation, the frequency oscillator is offset to
the next value and the process is repeated.

Since the carrier frequency received can vary due to Doppler shift, the points where received
PRN sequences begin may not differ from O by an exact integral number of milliseconds.
Because of this, carrier frequency tracking along with PRN code tracking are used to determine
when the received satellite's PRN code begins.[54] Unlike the earlier computation of offset in
which trials of all 1,023 offsets could potentially be required, the tracking to maintain lock
usually requires shifting of half a pulse width or less. To perform this tracking, the receiver
observes two quantities, phase error and received frequency offset. The correlation of the
received PRN code with respect to the receiver generated PRN code is computed to determine if
the bits of the two signals are misaligned. Comparisons with correlation computed with receiver
generated PRN code shifted half a pulse width early and half a pulse width late are used to
estimate adjustment required.[55] The amount of adjustment required for maximum correlation is
used in estimating phase error. Received frequency offset from the frequency generated by the
receiver provides an estimate of phase rate error. The command for the frequency generator and
any further PRN code shifting required are computed as a function of the phase error and the
phase rate error in accordance with the control law used. The Doppler velocity is computed as a
function of the frequency offset from the carrier nominal frequency. The Doppler velocity is the
velocity component along the line of sight of the receiver relative to the satellite.

As the receiver continues to read successive PRN sequences, it will encounter a sudden change
in the phase of the 1,023 bit received PRN signal. This indicates the beginning of a data bit of the
navigation message.[56] This enables the receiver to begin reading the 20 millisecond bits of the
navigation message. Each subframe of the navigation frame begins with a Telemetry Word
which enables the receiver to detect the beginning of a subframe and determine the receiver
clock time at which the navigation subframe begins. Also each subframe of the navigation frame
is identified by bits in the handover word (HOW) thereby enabling the receiver to determine
which subframe.[57][58] There can be a delay of up to 30 seconds before the first estimate of
position because of the need to read the ephemeris data before computing the intersections of
sphere surfaces.

After a subframe has been read and interpreted, the time the next subframe was sent can be
calculated through the use of the clock correction data and the HOW. The receiver knows the
receiver clock time of when the beginning of the next subframe was received from detection of
the Telemetry Word thereby enabling computation of the transit time and thus the pseudorange.
The receiver is potentially capable of getting a new pseudorange measurement at the beginning
of each subframe or every 6 seconds.

Then the orbital position data, or ephemeris, from the navigation message is used to calculate
precisely where the satellite was at the start of the message. A more sensitive receiver will
potentially acquire the ephemeris data more quickly than a less sensitive receiver, especially in a
noisy environment.[59]

This process is repeated for each satellite to which the receiver is listening.
[edit] Navigation
This section may be confusing or unclear.
Please help clarify the article. Suggestions may be on the talk page. (May 2010)
This section may require copy-editing.

This section discusses position calculation for the C/A code but the concept is similar for the
P(Y) code.

[edit] Development of the GPS equations

To describe the basic concept of how a GPS receiver works, the errors are at first ignored. Using
messages received from four satellites, the GPS receiver is able to determine the satellite
positions and time sent. The x, y, and z components of position and the time sent are designated
as where the subscript i denotes which satellite and has the value 1, 2, 3, or 4.
Knowing the indicated time the message was received , the GPS receiver can compute the
transit time of the message as . Assuming the message traveled at the speed of light, c,
the distance traveled, can be computed as . Knowing the distance from GPS
receiver to a satellite and the position of a satellite implies that the GPS receiver is on the surface
of a sphere centered at the position of a satellite. Thus the indicated position of the GPS receiver
is at or near the intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. In the ideal case of no errors, the
GPS receiver will be at an intersection of the surfaces of four spheres. Excluding the unrealistic
case (for GPS purposes) of two coincident spheres, the surfaces of two spheres if they intersect
in more than one point intersect in a circle as depicted in the illustration below. Two points at
which the surfaces of the spheres intersect are clearly marked on the figure. The distance
between these two points is the diameter of the circle of intersection.
Two sphere surfaces intersecting in a circle

This can be seen more clearly by considering how a side view of the intersecting spheres would
look. This view would look exactly the same as the figure because of the symmetry of the
spheres. And in fact a view from any horizontal direction would look exactly the same.
Therefore the surfaces of the two spheres actually do intersect in a circle.

The article, trilateration, shows mathematically how the equation for this circle of intersection is
determined. A circle and sphere surface in most cases of practical interest intersect at two points,
although it is conceivable that they could intersect in 0 or 1 point. We are here excluding the
unrealistic case for GPS purposes of three colinear (lying on same straight line) sphere centers.
Another figure, Surface of Sphere Intersecting a Circle (not disk) at Two Points, is shown below
to aid in visualizing this intersection. Again trilateration clearly shows this mathematically. The
correct position of the GPS receiver is the one that is closest to the fourth sphere. This paragraph
has described the basic concept of GPS while ignoring errors. The next problem is how to
process the messages when errors are present.

Surface of a sphere intersecting a circle (i.e., the edge of a disk) at two points

Let denote the clock error or bias, the amount by which the receiver's clock is slow. The GPS
receiver has four unknowns, the three components of GPS receiver position and the clock bias
. The equation of the sphere surfaces are given by:

Another useful form of these equations is in terms of the pseudoranges, which are simply the
ranges approximated based on GPS receiver clock's indicated (i.e., uncorrected) time so that
. Then the equations becomes:

[edit] Methods of solution of the GPS equations

 • Bancroft's method is perhaps the most important method of solving the GPS equations
since it involves an algebraic as opposed to numerical method.[60] The method requires
requires at least four satellites but more can be used.

Two numerical methods of computing GPS receiver position and clock bias are (1) by using
trilateration [61][62] and one dimensional numerical root finding and (2) multidimensional Newton-
Raphson calculations. These two methods along with their advantages are discussed.

• The receiver can solve by trilateration [61][62] and one dimensional numerical root finding.
[63]
This method involves using trilateration to determine the intersection of the surfaces
of three spheres. It is clearly shown in trilateration that the surfaces of three spheres
intersect in 0, 1, or 2 points. In the usual case of two intersections, the solution which is
nearest the surface of the sphere corresponding to the fourth satellite is chosen. The
surface of the earth can also sometimes be used instead, especially in the case of civilian
GPS receivers since it is illegal in the United States to track vehicles of more than
60,000 feet (18,000 m) in altitude. Let da denote the signed distance from the receiver
position indicated by trilateration to the fourth satellite (i.e. da = r4 - p4) as defined in the
section "Correcting a GPS receiver's clock". The distance, da, is a function of the clock
correction since when the clock is corrected, the computed time intervals of transmission
of the satellite messages to the receiver are changed and thus the pseudoranges are
changed. Thus we can use the notation, da(correction) to denote this function. The
problem we have is to find the value of correction such that

This is the familiar problem of finding the zeroes of a one dimensional non-linear function of a
scalar variable. There are many numerical methods for solving this type of problem such as those
found in the chapter on root finding in [63]. These methods involve iteration. One advantage of
this method is that it involves one dimensional as opposed to multidimensional numerical root
finding.

• The receiver can utilize a multidimensional root finding method such as the Newton-
Raphson method.[63] Linearize around an approximate solution, say

from iteration k, then solve four linear equations derived from the

quadratic equations above to obtain . This use of the

Newton-Raphson method is an advantage since it is more rapidly convergent than other
methods of numerical root finding.[63] A disadvantage of this multidimensional root
finding method as compared to single dimensional root findiing is that according to,[63]
"There are no good general methods for solving systems of more than one nonlinear
equations." For a more detailed description of the mathematics see Multidimensional
Newton Raphson.

• When more than four satellites are available, a decision must be made on whether to use
the four best or more than four taking into considerations such factors as number of
 channels, processing capability, and geometric dilution of precision. Using more than
four results in an over-determined system of equations with no unique solution, which
must be solved by least-squares or a similar technique.[60] If all visible satellites are used,
the results are always at least as good as using the four best, and usually better. Also the
errors in results can be estimated through the residuals. With each combination of four or
more satellites, a geometric dilution of precision (GDOP) factor can be calculated, based
on the relative sky directions of the satellites used.[64] As more satellites are picked up,
pseudoranges from more combinations of four satellites can be processed to add more
estimates to the location and clock offset. The receiver then determines which
combinations to use and how to calculate the estimated position by determining the
weighted average of these positions and clock offsets. After the final location and time
are calculated, the location is expressed in a specific coordinate system such as latitude
and longitude, using the WGS 84 geodetic datum or a local system specific to a country.
[65]

• Finally, results from other positioning systems such as GLONASS or the upcoming
Galileo can be used in the fit, or used to double check the result. (By design, these
systems use the same bands, so much of the receiver circuitry can be shared, though the
decoding is different.)

[edit] Multidimensional Newton-Raphson for GPS

The equations used in multidimensional Newton-Raphson are as follows:

Let and denote the true coordinates of GPS receiver position at time, . Let denote the
unknown clock error or bias, the amount by which the receiver's clock is slow. Let the
coordinates of each satellite, and the time the message was sent, be , let the GPS
clock's indicated received time be and c be the speed of light. The
pseudorange is computed as:

Assume the message travels at the speed of light, then the pseudorange satisfies the equation:

When an approximate solution, rather than the exact solution,

is used in equation 1, there is a residual, . Transforming to the right hand side of the
equation there results,
A solution will have been found when is zero or sufficiently close to zero for
.

In order to linearize equation 2, the partial derivatives are computed as:

where

Linearizing the right hand side of equation 2 about the approximate solution,

there results

where is the residual due to linearization which is in addition to the residual, , due to an
approximate solution.

In order to drive closer to zero choose the values such

that

That is choose the values

such that the residual in equation 2 changes by approximately .

Let

Substituting and transposing to the left hand side of the equation, there results

Equations 6 provide a set of four linear equations in four unknowns, the delta terms. They are in
a form for solution. Using the values of and
determined by this linear equation solution,

is evaluated using:

Then set in equations 2 through 6, plug the terms

from equations 7 into equations 2, set in equations 7, and reevaluate the residuals in
equations 2. This procedure is repeated until the residuals are sufficiently small in magnitude.

[edit] Error sources and analysis

Main article: Error analysis for the Global Positioning System
Sources of User Equivalent Range Errors (UERE)

Source Effect (m)

Signal arrival C/A ±3

Signal arrival P(Y) ±0.3

Ionospheric effects ±5

Ephemeris errors ±2.5

Satellite clock errors ±2

Multipath distortion ±1

Tropospheric effects ±0.5

C/A ±6.7

P(Y) ±6.0

Geometric Error Diagram Showing Typical Relation of Indicated Receiver Position, Intersection
of Sphere Surfaces, and True Receiver Position in Terms of Pseudorange Errors, PDOP, and
Numerical Errors

User equivalent range errors (UERE) are shown in the table. There is also a numerical error with
an estimated value, , of about 1 meter. The standard deviations, , for the
coarse/acquisition and precise codes are also shown in the table. These standard deviations are
computed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the individual components (i.e.,
RSS for root sum squares). To get the standard deviation of receiver position estimate, these
range errors must be multiplied by the appropriate dilution of precision terms and then RSS'ed
with the numerical error. Electronics errors are one of several accuracy-degrading effects
outlined in the table above. When taken together, autonomous civilian GPS horizontal position
fixes are typically accurate to about 15 meters (50 ft). These effects also reduce the more precise
P(Y) code's accuracy. However, the advancement of technology means that today, civilian GPS
fixes under a clear view of the sky are on average accurate to about 5 meters (16 ft) horizontally.

The term user equivalent range error (UERE) refers to the error of a component in the distance
from receiver to a satellite. These UERE errors are given as ± errors thereby implying that they
are unbiased or zero mean errors. These UERE errors are therefore used in computing standard
deviations. The standard deviation of the error in receiver position, , is computed by
multiplying PDOP (Position Dilution Of Precision) by , the standard deviation of the user
equivalent range errors. is computed by taking the square root of the sum of the squares of the
individual component standard deviations.

PDOP is computed as a function of receiver and satellite positions. A detailed description of how
to calculate PDOP is given in the section, geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP).

for the C/A code is given by:

The standard deviation of the error in estimated receiver position , again for the C/A code is
given by:

The error diagram on the left shows the inter relationship of indicated receiver position, true
receiver position, and the intersection of the four sphere surfaces.

[edit] Signal arrival time measurement

The position calculated by a GPS receiver requires the current time, the position of the satellite
and the measured delay of the received signal. The position accuracy is primarily dependent on
the satellite position and signal delay.

To measure the delay, the receiver compares the bit sequence received from the satellite with an
internally generated version. By comparing the rising and trailing edges of the bit transitions,
modern electronics can measure signal offset to within about one percent of a bit pulse width,

, or approximately 10 nanoseconds for the C/A code. Since GPS signals

propagate at the speed of light, this represents an error of about 3 meters.
This component of position accuracy can be improved by a factor of 10 using the higher-chiprate
P(Y) signal. Assuming the same one percent of bit pulse width accuracy, the high-frequency

P(Y) signal results in an accuracy of or about 30 centimeters.

[edit] Atmospheric effects

Inconsistencies of atmospheric conditions affect the speed of the GPS signals as they pass
through the Earth's atmosphere, especially the ionosphere. Correcting these errors is a significant
challenge to improving GPS position accuracy. These effects are smallest when the satellite is
directly overhead and become greater for satellites nearer the horizon since the path through the
atmosphere is longer (see airmass). Once the receiver's approximate location is known, a
mathematical model can be used to estimate and compensate for these errors.

Ionospheric delay of a microwave signal depends on its frequency. This phenomenon is known
as dispersion and can be calculated from measurements of delays for two or more frequency
bands, allowing delays at other frequencies to be estimated.[66] Some military and expensive
survey-grade civilian receivers calculate atmospheric dispersion from the different delays in the
L1 and L2 frequencies, and apply a more precise correction. This can be done in civilian
receivers without decrypting the P(Y) signal carried on L2, by tracking the carrier wave instead
of the modulated code. To facilitate this on lower cost receivers, a new civilian code signal on
L2, called L2C, was added to the Block IIR-M satellites, which was first launched in 2005. It
allows a direct comparison of the L1 and L2 signals using the coded signal instead of the carrier
wave.

The effects of the ionosphere generally change slowly, and can be averaged over time. Those for
any particular geographical area can be easily calculated by comparing the GPS-measured
position to a known surveyed location. This correction is also valid for other receivers in the
same general location. Several systems send this information over radio or other links to allow
L1-only receivers to make ionospheric corrections. The ionospheric data are transmitted via
satellite in Satellite Based Augmentation Systems (SBAS) such as WAAS (available in North
America and Hawaii), EGNOS (Europe and Asia) or MSAS (Japan), which transmits it on the
GPS frequency using a special pseudo-random noise sequence (PRN), so only one receiver and
antenna are required.

Humidity also causes a variable delay, resulting in errors similar to ionospheric delay, but
occurring in the troposphere. This effect both is more localized and changes more quickly than
ionospheric effects, and is not frequency dependent. These traits make precise measurement and
compensation of humidity errors more difficult than ionospheric effects.[citation needed]

Changes in receiver altitude also change the delay, due to the signal passing through less of the
atmosphere at higher elevations. Since the GPS receiver computes its approximate altitude this
error is relatively simple to correct, either by applying a function regression or correlating
margin of atmospheric error to ambient pressure using a barometric altimeter.[citation needed]
[edit] Multipath effects

GPS signals can also be affected by multipath issues, where the radio signals reflect off
surrounding terrain; buildings, canyon walls, hard ground, etc. These delayed signals can cause
inaccuracy. A variety of techniques, most notably narrow correlator spacing, have been
developed to mitigate multipath errors. For long delay multipath, the receiver itself can recognize
the wayward signal and discard it. To address shorter delay multipath from the signal reflecting
off the ground, specialized antennas (e.g., a choke ring antenna) may be used to reduce the signal
power as received by the antenna. Short delay reflections are harder to filter out because they
interfere with the true signal, causing effects almost indistinguishable from routine fluctuations
in atmospheric delay.

Multipath effects are much less severe in moving vehicles. When the GPS antenna is moving, the
false solutions using reflected signals quickly fail to converge and only the direct signals result in
stable solutions.

[edit] Ephemeris and clock errors

While the ephemeris data is transmitted every 30 seconds, the information itself may be up to
two hours old. If a fast time to first fix (TTFF) is needed, it is possible to upload a valid
ephemeris to a receiver, and in addition to setting the time, a position fix can be obtained in
under ten seconds. It is feasible to put such ephemeris data on the web so it can be loaded into
mobile GPS devices.[67] See also Assisted GPS.

The satellite's atomic clocks experience noise and clock drift errors. The navigation message
contains corrections for these errors and estimates of the accuracy of the atomic clock. However,
they are based on observations and may not indicate the clock's current state.

These problems tend to be very small, but may add up to a few meters (tens of feet) of
inaccuracy.[68]

For very precise positioning (e.g., in geodesy), these effects can be eliminated by differential
GPS: the simultaneous use of two or more receivers at several survey points. In the 1990s when
receivers were quite expensive, some methods of quasi-differential GPS were developed, using
only one receiver but reoccupation of measuring points. At the TU Vienna the method was
named qGPS and adequate software of post processing was developed.

[edit] Geometric dilution of precision computation (GDOP)

The concept of geometric dilution of precision was introduced in the section, error sources and
analysis. Computations were provided to show how PDOP was used and how it affected the
receiver position error standard deviation.

When visible GPS satellites are close together in the sky (i.e., small angular separation), the DOP
values are high; when far apart, the DOP values are low. Conceptually, satellites that are close
together cannot provide as much information as satellites that are widely separated. Low DOP
values represent a better GPS positional accuracy due to the wider angular separation between
the satellites used to calculate GPS receiver position. HDOP, VDOP, PDOP and TDOP are
respectively Horizontal, Vertical, Position (3-D) and Time Dilution of Precision.

Figure 3.1 Dilution of Precision of Navstar GPS data from the U.S. Coast Guard provide a
graphical indication of how geometry affect accuracy.

We now take on the task of how to compute the dilution of precision terms. As a first step in
computing DOP, consider the unit vector from the receiver to satellite i with components

, , and where the distance from receiver to the satellite, , is

given by:

where denote the position of the receiver and denote the position of
satellite i. These x, y, and z components may be components in a North, East, Down coordinate
system a South, East, Up coordinate system or other convenient system. Formulate the matrix A
as:

The first three elements of each row of A are the components of a unit vector from the receiver
to the indicated satellite. The elements in the fourth column are c where c denotes the speed of
light. Formulate the matrix, Q, as

This computation is in accordance with Chapter 11 of The global positioning system by

Parkinson and Spilker where the weighting matrix, P, has been set to the identity matrix. The
elements of the Q matrix are designated as:[69]
The Greek letter is used quite often where we have used d. However the elements of the Q
matrix do not represent variances and covariances as they are defined in probability and
statistics. Instead they are strictly geometric terms. Therefore d as in dilution of precision is used.
PDOP, TDOP and GDOP are given by

, and

in agreement with "Section 1.4.9 of PRINCIPLES OF SATELLITE POSITIONING".

The horizontal dilution of precision, , and the vertical dilution of

precision, , are both dependent on the coordinate system used. To correspond

to the local horizon plane and the local vertical, x, y, and z should denote positions in either a
North, East, Down coordinate system or a South, East, Up coordinate system.

[edit] Derivation of DOP equations

The equations for computing the geometric dilution of precision terms have been described in the
previous section. This section describes the derivation of these equations. The method used here
is similar to that used in "Global Positioning System (preview) by Parkinson and Spiker"

Consider the position error vector, , defined as the vector from the intersection of the four
sphere surfaces corresponding to the pseudoranges to the true position of the receiver.
where bold denotes a vector and , , and denote unit vectors along
the x, y, and z axes respectively. Let denote the time error, the true time minus the receiver
indicated time. Assume that the mean value of the three components of and are zero.

where are the errors in pseudoranges 1 through 4 respectively. This

equation comes from linearizing the equation relating pseudoranges to receiver position, satellite
positions, and receiver clock errors as shown in.[70] Multiplying both sides by there results
 .

Transposing both sides:

Post multiplying the matrices on both sides of equation (2) by the corresponding matrices in
equation (3), there results

Taking the expected value of both sides and taking the non-random matrices outside the
expectation operator, E, there results:

Assuming the pseudorange errors are uncorrelated and have the same variance, the covariance
matrix on the right side can be expressed as a scalar times the identity matrix. Thus

since

Note: since
Substituting for there follows

From equation (7), it follows that the variances of indicated receiver position and time are

and

The remaining position and time error variance terms follow in a straightforward manner.

[edit] Selective availability

GPS includes a (currently disabled) feature called Selective Availability (SA) that adds
intentional, time varying errors of up to 100 meters (328 ft) to the publicly available navigation
signals. This was intended to deny an enemy the use of civilian GPS receivers for precision
weapon guidance.

SA errors are actually pseudorandom, generated by a cryptographic algorithm from a classified

seed key available only to authorized users (the U.S. military, its allies and a few other users,
mostly government) with a special military GPS receiver. Mere possession of the receiver is
insufficient; it still needs the tightly controlled daily key.

Before it was turned off on May 1, 2000, typical SA errors were about 50 m (164 ft) horizontally
and about 100 m (328 ft) vertically.[71] Because SA affects every GPS receiver in a given area
almost equally, a fixed station with an accurately known position can measure the SA error
values and transmit them to the local GPS receivers so they may correct their position fixes. This
is called Differential GPS or DGPS. DGPS also corrects for several other important sources of
GPS errors, particularly ionospheric delay, so it continues to be widely used even though SA has
been turned off. The ineffectiveness of SA in the face of widely available DGPS was a common
argument for turning off SA, and this was finally done by order of President Clinton in 2000.

Another restriction on GPS, antispoofing, remains on. This encrypts the P-code so that it cannot
be mimicked by an enemy transmitter sending false information. Few civilian receivers have
ever used the P-code, and the accuracy attainable with the public C/A code is so much better than
originally expected (especially with DGPS) that the antispoof policy has relatively little effect on
most civilian users. Turning off antispoof would primarily benefit surveyors and some scientists
who need extremely precise positions for experiments such as tracking the motion of a tectonic
plate.
DGPS services are widely available from both commercial and government sources. The latter
include WAAS and the U.S. Coast Guard's network of LF marine navigation beacons. The
accuracy of the corrections depends on the distance between the user and the DGPS receiver. As
the distance increases, the errors at the two sites will not correlate as well, resulting in less
precise differential corrections.

During the 1990-91 Gulf War, the shortage of military GPS units caused many troops and their
families to buy readily available civilian units. This significantly impeded the U.S. military's
own battlefield use of GPS, so the military made the decision to turn off SA for the duration of
the war.

In the 1990s, the FAA started pressuring the military to turn off SA permanently. This would
save the FAA millions of dollars every year in maintenance of their own radio navigation
systems. The amount of error added was "set to zero"[72] at midnight on May 1, 2000 following
an announcement by U.S. President Bill Clinton, allowing users access to the error-free L1
signal. Per the directive, the induced error of SA was changed to add no error to the public
signals (C/A code). Clinton's executive order required SA to be set to zero by 2006; it happened
in 2000 once the U.S. military developed a new system that provides the ability to deny GPS
(and other navigation services) to hostile forces in a specific area of crisis without affecting the
rest of the world or its own military systems.[72]

Selective Availability is still a system capability of GPS, and could, in theory, be reintroduced at
any time. In practice, in view of the hazards and costs this would induce for U.S. and foreign
shipping, it is unlikely to be reintroduced, and various government agencies, including the FAA,
[73]
have stated that it is not intended to be reintroduced.

One interesting side effect of the Selective Availability hardware is the capability to add
corrections to the outgoing signal of the GPS cesium and rubidium atomic clocks to an accuracy
of approximately 2 × 10−13 This represented a significant improvement over the raw accuracy of
the clocks.[citation needed]

On 19 September 2007, the United States Department of Defense announced that future GPS III
satellites will not be capable of implementing SA,[74] eventually making the policy permanent.[75]

[edit] Relativity
Satellite clocks are slowed by their orbital speed but sped up by their distance out of the Earth's
gravitational well.

A number of sources of error exist due to relativistic effects[76] that would render the system
useless if uncorrected. Three relativistic effects are the time dilation, gravitational frequency
shift, and eccentricity effects. For example, the relativistic time slowing due to the speed of the
satellite of about 1 part in 1010, the gravitational time dilation that makes a satellite run about 5
parts in 1010 faster than an Earth based clock, and the Sagnac effect due to rotation relative to
receivers on Earth. These topics are examined below, one at a time.

[edit] Special and general relativity

According to the theory of relativity, due to their constant movement and height relative to the
Earth-centered, non-rotating approximately inertial reference frame, the clocks on the satellites
are affected by their speed. Special relativity predicts that the frequency of the atomic clocks
moving at GPS orbital speeds will tick more slowly than stationary ground clocks by a factor of

, or result in a delay of about 7 μs/day, where the orbital velocity is v = 4 km/s,

and c = the speed of light. The time dilation effect has been measured and verified using the
GPS.

The effect of gravitational frequency shift on the GPS due to general relativity is that a clock
closer to a massive object will be slower than a clock farther away. Applied to the GPS, the
receivers are much closer to Earth than the satellites, causing the GPS clocks to be faster by a
factor of 5×10^(-10), or about 45.9 μs/day. This gravitational frequency shift is noticeable.

When combining the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift, the discrepancy is about 38
microseconds per day, a difference of 4.465 parts in 1010.[77] Without correction, errors in position
determination of roughly 10 km/day would accumulate. In addition the elliptical, rather than
perfectly circular, satellite orbits cause the time dilation and gravitational frequency shift effects
to vary with time. This eccentricity effect causes the clock rate difference between a GPS
satellite and a receiver to increase or decrease depending on the velocity orbital altitude[clarification
needed]
of the satellite.
To compensate for the discrepancy, the frequency standard on board each satellite is given a rate
offset prior to launch, making it run slightly slower than the desired frequency on Earth;
specifically, at 10.22999999543 MHz instead of 10.23 MHz.[78] Since the atomic clocks on board
the GPS satellites are precisely tuned, it makes the system a practical engineering application of
the scientific theory of relativity in a real-world environment.[79] Placing atomic clocks on
artificial satellites to test Einstein's general theory was proposed by Friedwardt Winterberg in
1955.[80]

[edit] Sagnac distortion

GPS observation processing must also compensate for the Sagnac effect. The GPS time scale is
defined in an inertial system but observations are processed in an Earth-centered, Earth-fixed
(co-rotating) system, a system in which simultaneity is not uniquely defined. A Lorentz
transformation is thus applied to convert from the inertial system to the ECEF system. The
resulting signal run time correction has opposite algebraic signs for satellites in the Eastern and
Western celestial hemispheres. Ignoring this effect will produce an east-west error on the order
of hundreds of nanoseconds, or tens of meters in position.[81]

[edit] Natural sources of interference

Since GPS signals at terrestrial receivers tend to be relatively weak, natural radio signals or
scattering of the GPS signals can desensitize the receiver, making acquiring and tracking the
satellite signals difficult or impossible.

Space weather degrades GPS operation in two ways, direct interference by solar radio burst noise
in the same frequency band[82] or by scattering of the GPS radio signal in ionospheric
irregularities referred to as scintillation.[83] Both forms of degradation follow the 11 year solar
cycle and are a maximum at sunspot maximum although they can occur at anytime. Solar radio
bursts are associated with solar flares and Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs) [84] and their impact
can affect reception over the half of the Earth facing the sun. Scintillation occurs most frequently
at tropical latitudes where it is a night time phenomenon. It occurs less frequently at high
latitudes or mid-latitudes where magnetic storms can lead to scintillation.[85] In addition to
producing scintillation, magnetic storms can produce strong ionospheric gradients that degrade
the accuracy of SBAS systems.[86]

[edit] Artificial sources of interference

In automotive GPS receivers, metallic features in windshields,[87] such as defrosters, or car

window tinting films[88] can act as a Faraday cage, degrading reception just inside the car.

Man-made EMI (electromagnetic interference) can also disrupt or jam GPS signals. In one well-
documented case it was impossible to receive GPS signals in the entire harbor of Moss Landing,
California due to unintentional jamming caused by malfunctioning TV antenna preamplifiers.[89]
[90]
Intentional jamming is also possible. Generally, stronger signals can interfere with GPS
receivers when they are within radio range or line of sight. In 2002 a detailed description of how
to build a short-range GPS L1 C/A jammer was published in the online magazine Phrack.[91]
The U.S. government believes that such jammers were used occasionally during the 2001 war in
Afghanistan, and the U.S. military claims to have destroyed six GPS jammers during the Iraq
War, including one that was destroyed with a GPS-guided bomb.[92] A GPS jammer is relatively
easy to detect and locate, making it an attractive target for anti-radiation missiles. The UK
Ministry of Defence tested a jamming system in the UK's West Country on 7 and 8 June 2007.[93]

Some countries allow the use of GPS repeaters to allow the reception of GPS signals indoors and
in obscured locations; however, under EU and UK laws, the use of these is prohibited as the
signals can cause interference to other GPS receivers that receive data from both GPS satellites
and the repeater.

Due to the potential for both natural and man-made noise, numerous techniques continue to be
developed to deal with the interference. The first is to not rely on GPS as a sole source.
According to John Ruley, "IFR pilots should have a fallback plan in case of a GPS malfunction".
[94]
Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) is a feature included in some receivers,
designed to provide a warning to the user if jamming or another problem is detected. The U.S.
military has also deployed since 2004 their Selective Availability / Anti-Spoofing Module
(SAASM) in the Defense Advanced GPS Receiver (DAGR).[95] In demonstration videos the
DAGR was shown to detect jamming and maintain its lock on the encrypted GPS signals during
interference which caused civilian receivers to lose lock.

[edit] Accuracy enhancement and surveying

Main article: GPS augmentation

[edit] Augmentation

Main article: GNSS Augmentation

Augmentation methods of improving accuracy rely on external information being integrated into
the calculation process. There are many such systems in place and they are generally named or
described based on how the GPS sensor receives the information. Some systems transmit
additional information about sources of error (such as clock drift, ephemeris, or ionospheric
delay), others provide direct measurements of how much the signal was off in the past, while a
third group provide additional navigational or vehicle information to be integrated in the
calculation process.

Examples of augmentation systems include the Wide Area Augmentation System, Differential
GPS, Inertial Navigation Systems and Assisted GPS.

[edit] Precise monitoring

The accuracy of a calculation can also be improved through precise monitoring and measuring of
the existing GPS signals in additional or alternate ways.
After SA, which has been turned off, the largest error in GPS is usually the unpredictable delay
through the ionosphere. The spacecraft broadcast ionospheric model parameters, but errors
remain. This is one reason the GPS spacecraft transmit on at least two frequencies, L1 and L2.
Ionospheric delay is a well-defined function of frequency and the total electron content (TEC)
along the path, so measuring the arrival time difference between the frequencies determines TEC
and thus the precise ionospheric delay at each frequency.

Receivers with decryption keys can decode the P(Y)-code transmitted on both L1 and L2.
However, these keys are reserved for the military and authorized agencies and are not available
to the public. Without keys, it is still possible to use a codeless technique to compare the P(Y)
codes on L1 and L2 to gain much of the same error information. However, this technique is slow,
so it is currently limited to specialized surveying equipment. In the future, additional civilian
codes are expected to be transmitted on the L2 and L5 frequencies (see GPS modernization).
Then all users will be able to perform dual-frequency measurements and directly compute
ionospheric delay errors.

A second form of precise monitoring is called Carrier-Phase Enhancement (CPGPS). The error,
which this corrects, arises because the pulse transition of the PRN is not instantaneous, and thus
the correlation (satellite-receiver sequence matching) operation is imperfect. The CPGPS
approach utilizes the L1 carrier wave, which has a period of

which is about one-

thousandth of the C/A Gold code bit period of

, to act as an additional
clock signal and resolve the uncertainty. The phase difference error in the normal GPS amounts
to between 2 and 3 meters (6 to 10 ft) of ambiguity. CPGPS working to within 1% of perfect
transition reduces this error to 3 centimeters (1 inch) of ambiguity. By eliminating this source of
error, CPGPS coupled with DGPS normally realizes between 20 and 30 centimeters (8 to
12 inches) of absolute accuracy.

Relative Kinematic Positioning (RKP) is another approach for a precise GPS-based positioning
system. In this approach, determination of range signal can be resolved to a precision of less than
10 centimeters (4 in). This is done by resolving the number of cycles in which the signal is
transmitted and received by the receiver. This can be accomplished by using a combination of
differential GPS (DGPS) correction data, transmitting GPS signal phase information and
ambiguity resolution techniques via statistical tests—possibly with processing in real-time (real-
time kinematic positioning, RTK).

[edit] Timekeeping

While most clocks are synchronized to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), the atomic clocks on
the satellites are set to GPS time. The difference is that GPS time is not corrected to match the
rotation of the Earth, so it does not contain leap seconds or other corrections which are
periodically added to UTC. GPS time was set to match Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) in
1980, but has since diverged. The lack of corrections means that GPS time remains at a constant
offset with International Atomic Time (TAI) (TAI - GPS = 19 seconds). Periodic corrections are
performed on the on-board clocks to correct relativistic effects and keep them synchronized with
ground clocks.

The GPS navigation message includes the difference between GPS time and UTC, which as of
2009 is 15 seconds due to the leap second added to UTC December 31, 2008. Receivers subtract
this offset from GPS time to calculate UTC and specific timezone values. New GPS units may
not show the correct UTC time until after receiving the UTC offset message. The GPS-UTC
offset field can accommodate 255 leap seconds (eight bits) which, given the current rate of
change of the Earth's rotation (with one leap second introduced approximately every 18 months),
should be sufficient to last until approximately the year 2300.

As opposed to the year, month, and day format of the Gregorian calendar, the GPS date is
expressed as a week number and a seconds-into-week number. The week number is transmitted
as a ten-bit field in the C/A and P(Y) navigation messages, and so it becomes zero again every
1,024 weeks (19.6 years). GPS week zero started at 00:00:00 UTC (00:00:19 TAI) on January 6,
1980, and the week number became zero again for the first time at 23:59:47 UTC on August 21,
1999 (00:00:19 TAI on August 22, 1999). To determine the current Gregorian date, a GPS
receiver must be provided with the approximate date (to within 3,584 days) to correctly translate
the GPS date signal. To address this concern the modernized GPS navigation message uses a 13-
bit field, which only repeats every 8,192 weeks (157 years), thus lasting until the year 2137 (157
years after GPS week zero).

[edit] Carrier phase tracking (surveying)

Utilizing the navigation message to measure pseudorange has been discussed. Another method
that is used in GPS surveying applications is carrier phase tracking. The period of the carrier
frequency times the speed of light gives the wave length, which is about 0.19 meters for the L1
carrier. With a 1% of wave length accuracy in detecting the leading edge, this component of
pseudorange error might be as low as 2 millimeters. This compares to 3 meters for the C/A code
and 0.3 meters for the P code.

However, this 2 millimeter accuracy requires measuring the total phase, that is the total number
of wave lengths plus the fractional wavelength. This requires specially equipped receivers. This
method has many applications in the field of surveying.

We now describe a method which could potentially be used to estimate the position of receiver 2
given the position of receiver 1 using triple differencing followed by numerical root finding, and
a mathematical technique called least squares. A detailed discussion of the errors is omitted in
order to avoid detracting from the description of the methodology. In this description differences
are taken in the order of differencing between satellites, differencing between receivers, and
differencing between epochs. This should not be construed to mean that this is the only order
which can be used. Indeed other orders of taking differences are equally valid.
The satellite carrier total phase can be measured with ambiguity as to the number of cycles. Let
denote the phase of the carrier of satellite j measured by receiver i at time . This
notation has been chosen so as to make it clear what the subscripts i, j, and k mean. In view of
the fact that the receiver, satellite, and time come in alphabetical order as arguments of and to
strike a balance between readability and conciseness, let so as to have a
concise abbreviation. Also we define three functions, : which perform differences
between receivers, satellites, and time points respectively. Each of these functions has a linear
combination of variables with three subscripts as its argument. These three functions are defined
below. If is a function of the three integer arguments, i, j, and k then it is a valid argument
for the functions, : , with the values defined as

,
, and
.

Also if are valid arguments for the three functions and a and b are constants
then is a valid argument with values defined as

,
, and
.

Receiver clock errors can be approximately eliminated by differencing the phases measured from
satellite 1 with that from satellite 2 at the same epoch as shown in BETWEEN-SATELLITE
DIFFERENCING. This difference is designated as

Double differencing can be performed by taking the differences of the between satellite
difference observed by receiver 1 with that observed by receiver 2. The satellite clock errors will
be approximately eliminated by this between receiver differencing. This double difference is:

Triple differencing can be performed by taking the difference of double differencing performed
at time with that performed at time . This will eliminate the ambiguity associated with the
integral number of wave lengths in carrier phase provided this ambiguity does not change with
time. Thus the triple difference result has eliminated all or practically all clock bias errors and
the integer ambiguity. Also errors associated with atmospheric delay and satellite ephemeris
have been significantly reduced. This triple difference is:
Triple difference results can be used to estimate unknown variables. For example if the position
of receiver 1 is known but the position of receiver 2 unknown, it may be possible to estimate the
position of receiver 2 using numerical root finding and least squares. Triple difference results for
three independent time pairs quite possibly will be sufficient to solve for the three components of
position of receiver 2. This may require the use of a numerical procedure such as one of those
found in the chapter on root finding and nonlinear sets of equations in Numerical Recipes.[63]
Also see Preview of Root Finding. To use such a numerical method, an initial approximation of
the position of receiver 2 is required. This initial value could probably be provided by a position
approximation based on the navigation message and the intersection of sphere surfaces.
Although multidimensional numerical root finding can have problems, this disadvantage may be
overcome with this good initial estimate. This procedure using three time pairs and a fairly good
initial value followed by iteration will result in one observed triple difference result for receiver
2 position. Greater accuracy may be obtained by processing triple difference results for
additional sets of three independent time pairs. This will result in an over determined system
with multiple solutions. To get estimates for an over determined system, least squares can be
used. The least squares procedure determines the position of receiver 2 which best fits the
observed triple difference results for receiver 2 positions under the criterion of minimizing the
sum of the squares.

[edit] Applications
The Global Positioning System, while originally a military project, is considered a dual-use
technology, meaning it has significant military and civilian applications.

[edit] Military

The military applications of GPS include:

• Navigation: GPS allows soldiers to find objectives, even in the dark or in unfamiliar
territory, and to coordinate the movement of troops and supplies. Commanders use the
Commanders Digital Assistant and lower ranks use the Soldier Digital Assistant.[96][97][98]
[99]

• Target tracking: Various military weapons systems use GPS to track potential ground and
air targets before they are flagged as hostile.[citation needed] These weapon systems pass GPS
co-ordinates of targets to precision-guided munitions to allow them to engage the targets
accurately. Military aircraft, particularly in air-to-ground roles, use GPS to find targets
(for example, gun camera video from AH-1 Cobras in Iraq show GPS co-ordinates that
can be looked up in Google Earth).
• Missile and projectile guidance: GPS allows accurate targeting of various military
weapons including ICBMs, cruise missiles and precision-guided munitions. Artillery
projectiles with embedded GPS receivers able to withstand accelerations of 12 000 g or
about 118 km/s2 have been developed for use in 155 mm howitzers.[100]
• Search and Rescue: Downed pilots can be located faster if they know their position.
• Reconnaissance and Map Creation: The military use GPS extensively to aid mapping and
reconnaissance.
 • The GPS satellites also carry a set of nuclear detonation detectors consisting of an optical
sensor (Y-sensor), an X-ray sensor, a dosimeter, and an electromagnetic pulse (EMP)
sensor (W-sensor) which form a major portion of the United States Nuclear Detonation
Detection System.[101][102]

[edit] Civilian

See also: GNSS applications and GPS navigation device

This antenna is mounted on the roof of a hut containing a scientific experiment needing precise
timing.

Many civilian applications benefit from GPS signals, using one or more of three basic
components of the GPS: absolute location, relative movement, and time transfer.

The ability to determine the receiver's absolute location allows GPS receivers to perform as a
surveying tool or as an aid to navigation. The capacity to determine relative movement enables a
receiver to calculate local velocity and orientation, useful in vessels or observations of the Earth.
Being able to synchronize clocks to exacting standards enables time transfer, which is critical in
large communication and observation systems. An example is CDMA digital cellular telephony:
each base station has a GPS timing receiver to synchronize its spreading codes with other base
stations to facilitate inter-cell handoff and support hybrid GPS/CDMA positioning of mobile
telephones for emergency calls and other applications. GPS enables researchers to explore the
Earth environment including the atmosphere, ionosphere and gravity field. GPS survey
equipment has revolutionized tectonics by directly measuring the motion of faults in
earthquakes.
The U.S. Government controls the export of some civilian receivers. All GPS receivers capable
of functioning above 18 km (60,000 ft) altitude and 515 m/s (1,000 knots) [103] are classified as
munitions (weapons) for which U.S. State Department export licenses are required. These limits
are clearly chosen to prevent use of a receiver in a ballistic missile; they would not prevent use in
a cruise missile since their altitudes and speeds are similar to those of ordinary aircraft.

This rule applies even to otherwise purely civilian units that only receive the L1 frequency and
the C/A code and cannot correct for SA, etc.

Disabling operation above these limits exempts the receiver from classification as a munition.
Different vendors have interpreted these limitations differently. The rule specifies operation
above 18 km and 515 m/s, but some receivers stop operating at 18 km even when stationary.
This has caused problems with some amateur radio balloon launches as they regularly reach
30 km (100,000 feet).

GPS tours are another example of civilian use. The GPS is used to determine which content to
display; for instance, when approaching a point of interest, information about it is displayed.

GPS functionality is supported by many mobile phones. The first handsets with integrated GPS
were launched in the late 1990s and became available to consumers on networks such as those
run by Nextel, Sprint and Verizon in 2002 in response to U.S. FCC mandates for handset
positioning in emergency calls. Capabilities for access by third-party software developers to
these features were provided more slowly, with Nextel opening up those APIs upon launch to
any developer, Sprint following in 2006, and Verizon soon thereafter.

Vehicle tracking systems and GPS Pet Tracking devices use the same network of satellites to
locate a vehicle or a pet. These devices are normally attached to the vehicle, or the collar of the
pet, at all times. A GPS system will then offer 24/7 tracking via mobile or Internet updates. Such
systems may use either a dedicated radio frequency or a cellphone network to transmit location
information.[104]

[edit] Awards
Two GPS developers received the National Academy of Engineering Charles Stark Draper Prize
for 2003:

• Ivan Getting, emeritus president of The Aerospace Corporation and engineer at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, established the basis for GPS, improving on the
World War II land-based radio system called LORAN (Long-range Radio Aid to
Navigation).
• Bradford Parkinson, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at Stanford University,
conceived the present satellite-based system in the early 1960s and developed it in
conjunction with the U.S. Air Force. Parkinson served twenty-one years in the Air Force,
from 1957 to 1978, and retired with the rank of colonel.
One GPS developer, Roger L. Easton, received the National Medal of Technology on February
13, 2006 at the White House.[105]

On February 10, 1993, the National Aeronautic Association selected the Global Positioning
System Team as winners of the 1992 Robert J. Collier Trophy, the most prestigious aviation
award in the United States. This team consists of researchers from the Naval Research
Laboratory, the U.S. Air Force, the Aerospace Corporation, Rockwell International Corporation,
and IBM Federal Systems Company. The citation accompanying the presentation of the trophy
honors the GPS Team "for the most significant development for safe and efficient navigation and
surveillance of air and spacecraft since the introduction of radio navigation 50 years ago."

[edit] Other systems

Main article: Global Navigation Satellite System

Other satellite navigation systems in use or various states of development include:

• Galileo – a global system being developed by the European Union and other partner
countries, planned to be operational by 2014
• Beidou – People's Republic of China's regional system, covering Asia and the West
Pacific[106]
• COMPASS – People's Republic of China's global system, planned to be operational
by 2020[107][108]
• GLONASS – Russia's global navigation system
• IRNSS – India's regional navigation system, planned to be operational by 2012,
covering India and Northern Indian Ocean[109]
• QZSS – Japanese proposed regional system covering only Japan

[edit] See also

Nautical portal

• The American Practical Navigator - Chapter 11 Satellite Navigation

• GPS signals
• GPS tracking
• GPS/INS
• GSM localization
• High Sensitivity GPS
• List of inventions by the military that are now in mass use
• Navigation paradox
• S-GPS
• SIGI

[edit] Civilian applications

 • Geocaching
• Geodashing
• Geotagging
• Geofence
• GPS Aircraft Tracking
• GPS drawing
• GPS navigation software

[edit] Notes
1. ^ [1]
2. ^ [2]
3. ^ Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956)
4. ^ Jerry Proc. "Omega". Jproc.ca. http://www.jproc.ca/hyperbolic/omega.html. Retrieved
2009-12-08.
5. ^ "Why Did the Department of Defense Develop GPS?". Trimble Navigation Ltd.
http://www.trimble.com/gps/whygps.shtml#0. Retrieved 2010-01-13.
6. ^ "Charting a Course Toward Global Navigation". The Aerospace Corporation.
http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/01.html. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
7. ^ "A Guide To The Global Positioning System (GPS) - GPS Timeline". Radio Shack.
http://support.radioshack.com/support_tutorials/gps/gps_tmline.htm. Retrieved 2010-01-
14.
8. ^ Michael Russell Rip, James M. Hasik (2002). The Precision Revolution: GPS and the
Future of Aerial Warfare. Naval Institute Press. p. 65. ISBN 1557509735.
http://books.google.com/?id=mB9W3H90KDUC. Retrieved 2010-01-14.
9. ^ "ICAO Completes Fact-Finding Investigation". International Civil Aviation
Organization. http://www.icao.int/cgi/goto_m.pl?icao/en/trivia/kal_flight_007.htm.
Retrieved 2008-09-15.
10. ^ "United States Updates Global Positioning System Technology". America.gov.
February 3, 2006. http://www.america.gov/xarchives/display.html?p=washfile-
english&y=2006&m=February&x=20060203125928lcnirellep0.5061609.
11. ^ "GPS & Selective Availability Q&A". [3].
http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/GPS_SA_Event_QAs.pdf. Retrieved
2010-05-28.
12. ^ GPS Wing Reaches GPS III IBR Milestone in InsideGNSS November 10, 2008
13. ^ GPS almanac
14. ^ Dietrich Schroeer, Mirco Elena (2000). Technology Transfer. Ashgate. p. 80.
ISBN 075462045X. http://books.google.com/?id=I7JRAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2008-05-
25.
15. ^ Michael Russell Rip, James M. Hasik (2002). The Precision Revolution: GPS and the
Future of Aerial Warfare. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 1557509735.
http://books.google.com/?id=_wpUAAAAMAAJ. Retrieved 2008-05-25.
16. ^ United States Department of Defense. Announcement of Initial Operational
Capability[dead link] Announcement of Initial Operational Capability at the Wayback
Machine (archived November 16, 2003). December 8, 1993.
17. ^ National Archives and Records Administration. U.S. Global Positioning System Policy.
March 29, 1996.
18. ^ National Executive Committee for Space-Based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing
19. ^ "3g.co.uk". 3g.co.uk. 2004-11-10. http://www.3g.co.uk/PR/November2004/8641.htm.
Retrieved 2009-10-13.
20. ^ losangeles.af.mil
21. ^ "United States Naval Observatory (USNO) GPS Constellation Status".
ftp://tycho.usno.navy.mil/pub/gps/gpstd.txt. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
22. ^ United States Naval Observatory. GPS Constellation Status. Retrieved December 20,
2008.
23. ^ Johnson, Bobbie (May 19, 2009). "GPS system 'close to breakdown'". The Guardian.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2009/may/19/gps-close-to-breakdown. Retrieved
2009-12-08.
24. ^ Coursey, David (May 21, 2009). "Air Force Responds to GPS Outage Concerns". ABC
News. http://abcnews.go.com/Technology/AheadoftheCurve/story?id=7647002&page=1.
Retrieved 2009-05-22.
25. ^ Air Force GPS Problem: Glitch Shows How Much U.S. Military Relies On GPS
26. ^ GPS signals travel at the speed of light, so computing the distance for a given elapsed
time is almost a straightforward calculation. However, the speed of light varies slightly
between the partial vacuum of space and the atmosphere. A receiver can approximate
these effects and produce a reasonable estimate. Once a rough position is determined,
some receivers carefully compute the amount of atmosphere the signal traveled through
and adjust the distance accordingly.
27. ^ Georg zur Bonsen, Daniel Ammann, Michael Ammann, Etienne Favey, Pascal
Flammant (2005-04-01). "Continuous Navigation Combining GPS with Sensor-Based
Dead Reckoning". GPS World.
http://www.gpsworld.com/gpsworld/article/articleDetail.jsp?id=154870&pageID=6.
28. ^ "NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). US Government.
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf.
29. ^ "GPS Support Notes" (PDF). January 19, 2007.
http://www.navmanwireless.com/uploads/EK/C8/EKC8zb1ITsNwDqWcqLQxiQ/Suppor
t_Notes_GPS_OperatingParameters.pdf. Retrieved 2008-11-10.
30. ^ It is also possible for a circle and a spherical surface to intersect at zero points, one
point, or in the very special case in which the centers of the three spheres are colinear
(i.e., all three on the same straight line) the sphere surface could intersect the entire
circumference of the circle.
31. ^ The two intersections are symmetrical about the plane containing the three satellites.
Excluding the exceptional case in which the three satellites are all in a plane containing
the center of the earth, one intersection will be nearer the earth than the other.
32. ^ John Pike. "GPS III Operational Control Segment (OCX)". Globalsecurity.org.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/space/systems/gps_3-ocx.htm. Retrieved 2009-12-08.
33. ^ Daly, P.. "Navstar GPS and GLONASS: global satellite navigation systems". IEEE.
http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/iel1/2219/7072/00285510.pdf?arnumber=285510.
34. ^ Dana, Peter H. (1996-08-08). "GPS Orbital Planes" (GIF).
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gif/oplanes.gif.
35. ^ What the Global Positioning System Tells Us about Relativity. Retrieved January 2,
2007.
36. ^ GPS Overview from the NAVSTAR Joint Program Office. Retrieved December 15,
2006.
37. ^ "USCG Navcen: GPS Frequently Asked Questions".
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/faq/gpsfaq.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-31.
38. ^ Agnew, D.C. and Larson, K.M. (2007). "Finding the repeat times of the GPS
constellation". GPS Solutions (Springer) 11 (1): 71–76. doi:10.1007/s10291-006-0038-4.
This article from author's web site, with minor correction.
39. ^ Tis-pf-nisws. "Nanu 2008030". http://cgls.uscg.mil/pipermail/gps/2008-
March/001625.html.
40. ^ Massatt, Paul; Wayne Brady (Summer 2002). "Optimizing performance through
constellation management". Crosslink: 17–21.
http://www.aero.org/publications/crosslink/summer2002/index.html.
41. ^ US Coast Guard General GPS News 9-9-05
42. ^ USNO NAVSTAR Global Positioning System. Retrieved May 14, 2006.
43. ^ Though there are many receiver manufacturers, they almost all use one of the chipsets
produced for this purpose. An example: "GPS Receiver Chip Performance Survey". GPS
Technology Reviews. http://gpstekreviews.com/2007/04/14/gps-receiver-chip-
performance-survey/.
44. ^ NMEA NMEA 2000
45. ^ "Publications and Standards from the National Marine Electronics Association
(NMEA)". National Marine Electronics Association.
http://www.nmea.org/pub/index.html. Retrieved 2008-06-27.
46. ^ time-of-week
47. ^ Satellite message format
48. ^ "Interface Specification IS-GPS-200, Revision D: Navstar GPS Space
Segment/Navigation User Interfaces" (PDF). Navstar GPS Joint Program Office.
http://www.losangeles.af.mil/shared/media/document/AFD-070803-059.pdf. Page 103.
49. ^ [4]. Delta IV finally launches with GPS IIF SV-1 following scrubs NASA
Spaceflight.com. May 27 2010.
50. ^ How GPS works. Konowa.de (2005).
51. ^ "GPS Almanacs, NANUS, and Ops Advisories (including archives)". GPS Almanac
Information. US Coast Guard. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/gps/almanacs.htm. Retrieved
2009-09-09.
52. ^ "George, M., Hamid, M., and Miller A. Gold Code Generators in Virtex
DevicesPDF (126 KB)
53. ^ "GPS - explained (Signals)"
54. ^ a b ""How a GPS Receiver Gets a Lock"". Gpsinformation.net.
http://gpsinformation.net/main/gpslock.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
55. ^ "NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). US Government.
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. Section 1.4.2.4.
56. ^ "NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). US Government.
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. Section 1.4.2.5.
57. ^ "NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). US Government.
http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf. Section 1.4.2.6.
58. ^ "Essentials of Satellite Navigation Compendium"
59. ^ "AN02 Network Assistance". http://www.navsync.com/notes2.html. Retrieved 2007-
09-10.
60. ^ a b Global Positioning Systems
61. ^ a b Position Determination with GPS. Konowa.de (2005).
62. ^ a b How GPS Receivers Work at How Stuff Works
63. ^ a b c d e f Press, Flannery, Tekolsky, and Vetterling 1986, Numerical Recipes, The Art of
Scientific Computing (Cambridge University Press).
64. ^ Peter H. Dana. "Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP) and Visibility". University of
Colorado at Boulder.
http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html#Gdop. Retrieved 2008-07-
07.
65. ^ Peter H. Dana. "Receiver Position, Velocity, and Time". University of Colorado at
Boulder. http://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/gps/gps.html#PosVelTime.
Retrieved 2008-07-07.
66. ^ The same principle, and the math behind it, can be found in descriptions of pulsar
timing by astronomers.
67. ^ SNT080408. "Ephemeris Server Example". Tdc.co.uk.
http://www.tdc.co.uk/index.php?key=ephemeris. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
68. ^ "Unit 1 - Introduction to GPS".
http://seismo.berkeley.edu/~battag/GAMITwrkshp/lecturenotes/unit1/unit1.html#3.
69. ^ Parkinson; Spilker (1996). The global positioning system. American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 9781563471063. http://books.google.com/?
id=lvI1a5J_4ewC.
70. ^ Česky. "Global Positioning System - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia".
En.wikipedia.org. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System#multi_nr.
Retrieved 2009-10-13.
71. ^ Grewal, Mohinder S.; Weill, Lawrence Randolph; Andrews, Angus P. (2001). Global
positioning systems, inertial navigation, and integration. John Wiley and Sons. p. 103.
ISBN 047135032X, 9780471350323. http://books.google.com/?id=ZM7muB8Y35wC,
Chapter 5, p. 103
72. ^ a b "Statement by the President regarding the United States' Decision to Stop Degrading
Global Positioning System Accuracy". Office of Science and Technology Policy. May 1,
2000. http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/FGCS/info/sans_SA/docs/statement.html. Retrieved
2009-02-02.
73. ^ "GNSS - Frequently Asked Questions - GPS: Will SA ever be turned back on?". FAA.
June 13, 2007.
http://www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ato/service_units/techops/navs
ervices/gnss/faq/gps/index.cfm#ad3. Retrieved 2007-12-17.
74. ^ "DoD Permanently Discontinues Procurement Of Global Positioning System Selective
Availability". DefenseLink. September 18, 2007.
http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/release.aspx?releaseid=11335. Retrieved 2008-02-
20.
75. ^ "Selective Availability". National space-based Positioning, Navigation, and Timing
Executive Committee. http://pnt.gov/public/sa/. Retrieved 2008-02-20.
76. ^ Stephen Webb (2004). Out of this world: colliding universes, branes, strings, and other
wild ideas of modern physics. Springer. p. 32. ISBN 0387029303.
http://books.google.com/?id=LzQcsSCdeLgC&pg=PA32.
77. ^ Rizos, Chris. University of New South Wales. GPS Satellite Signals. 1999.
78. ^ The Global Positioning System by Robert A. Nelson Via Satellite, November 1999
79. ^ Pogge, Richard W.; “Real-World Relativity: The GPS Navigation System”. Retrieved
25 January 2008.
80. ^ "Astronautica Acta II, 25 (1956).". 1956-08-10.
http://bourabai.kz/winter/satelliten.htm. Retrieved 2009-10-23.
81. ^ Ashby, Neil Relativity and GPS. Physics Today, May 2002.
82. ^ Cerruti, A., P. M. Kintner, D. E. Gary, A. J. Mannucci, R. F. Meyer, P. H. Doherty, and
A. J. Coster (2008), Effect of intense December 2006 solar radio bursts on GPS receivers,
Space Weather, doi:10.1029/2007SW000375, October 19, 2008
83. ^ Aarons, Jules and Basu, Santimay, Ionospheric amplitude and phase fluctuations at the
GPS frequencies, Proceedings of ION GPS, v 2, 1994, p 1569-1578
84. ^ S. Mancuso and J. C. Raymond, "Coronal transients and metric type II radio bursts. I.
Effects of geometry, 2004, Astronomy and Astrophysics, v.413, p.363-371'
85. ^ Ledvina, B. M., J. J. Makela, and P. M. Kintner (2002), First observations of intense
GPS L1 amplitude scintillations at midlatitude, Geophys. Res. Lett., 29(14), 1659,
doi:10.1029/2002GL014770
86. ^ Tom Diehl, Solar Flares Hit the Earth- WAAS Bends but Does Not Break, SatNav
News, volume 23, June 2004
87. ^ "I-PASS Mounting for Vehicles with Special Windshield Features".
http://www.illinoistollway.com/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/TW_CONTENT_REPOSITORY/
TW_CR_IPASS/LPT-SPECIALWINDSHIELDLIST.PDF.
88. ^ "3M Automotive Films".
http://solutions.3m.com/wps/portal/3M/en_US/WF/3MWindowFilms/Products/ProductC
atalog/?
PC_7_RJH9U5230GE3E02LECFTDQG0V7_nid=9928QS9MGHbeT4DCJBL6BVgl..
Note that the 'Color Stable' films are specifically described as not interfering with satellite
signals.
89. ^ The Hunt for RFI. GPS World. 1 January 2003.
90. ^ "EMC compliance club "banana skins" column 222". Compliance-club.com.
http://www.compliance-club.com/archive/bananaskins/201-225.asp. Retrieved 2009-10-
13.
91. ^ Low Cost and Portable GPS Jammer. Phrack issue 0x3c (60), article 13. Published
December 28, 2002.
92. ^ American Forces Press Service. Centcom charts progress. March 25, 2003.
93. ^ "MoD's tests will send satnav haywire so take a road atlas". The Daily Mail. 2007-06-
06. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-460279/MoDs-tests-send-satnav-haywire-
road-atlas.html.
94. ^ Ruley, John. AVweb. GPS jamming. February 12, 2003.
95. ^ US Army DAGR page
96. ^ Commanders Digital Assistant explanation and photo[dead link]
97. ^ "Latest version Commanders Digital Assistant" (PDF).
http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_CDA.pdf. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
 98. ^ Soldier Digital Assistant explanation and photo[dead link]
99. ^ Sinha, Vandana (2003-07-24). "Commanders and Soldiers' GPS-receivers". Gcn.com.
http://www.gcn.com/print/22_20/22893-1.html. Retrieved 2009-10-13.
100. ^ "XM982 Excalibur Precision Guided Extended Range Artillery Projectile".
GlobalSecurity.org. 2007-05-29.
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/munitions/m982-155.htm. Retrieved
2007-09-26.
101. ^ Sandia National Laboratory's Nonproliferation programs and arms control
technology.
102. ^ Dr. Dennis D. McCrady. "The GPS Burst Detector W-Sensor". Sandia National
Laboratories. http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/10176800-
S2tU7w/native/10176800.pdf.
103. ^ Arms Control Association.Missile Technology Control Regime. Retrieved May
17, 2006.
104. ^ Spotlight GPS pet locator
105. ^ United States Naval Research Laboratory. National Medal of Technology for
GPS. November 21, 2005
106. ^ Beidou coverage
107. ^ Beidou satellite navigation system to cover whole world in 2020
108. ^ New York Times
109. ^ "ASM, News on GIS, GNSS, spatial information, remote sensing, mapping and
surveying technologies for Asia". Asmmag.com. http://www.asmmag.com/news/india-to-
launch-1st-irnss-satellite-by-december. Retrieved 2009-10-13.

[edit] References
• "NAVSTAR GPS User Equipment Introduction" (PDF). US Coast Guard. September
1996. http://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pubs/gps/gpsuser/gpsuser.pdf.

[edit] Further reading

• Parkinson; Spilker (1996). The global positioning system. American Institute of
Aeronautics and Astronautics. ISBN 9781563471063. http://books.google.com/?
id=lvI1a5J_4ewC.

[edit] External links

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Global Positioning System

• Global Positioning System at the Open Directory Project

• GPS.gov—General public education website created by the U.S. Government
• National Space-Based PNT Executive Committee—Established in 2004 to oversee
management of GPS and GPS augmentations at a national level.
 • USCG Navigation Center—Status of the GPS constellation, government policy, and links
to other references. Also includes satellite almanac data.
• Air Force Space Command GPS Operations Center homepage
• The GPS Program Office (GPS Wing)—Responsible for designing and acquiring the
system on behalf of the US Government.
• U.S. Army Corps of Engineers manual: NAVSTAR HTML and PDF (22.6 MB, 328
pages)
• FAA GPS FAQ
• National Geodetic Survey Orbits for the Global Positioning System satellites in the
Global Navigation Satellite System
• GPS SPS Performance Standard—The official Standard Positioning Service specification
(2008 version).
• GPS SPS Performance Standard—The official Standard Positioning Service specification
(2001 version).
• GPS PPS Performance Standard—The official Precise Positioning Service specification.
• Satellite Navigation: GPS & Galileo (PDF)—16-page paper about the history and
working of GPS, touching on the upcoming Galileo
• Average Latitude & Longitude of Countries
• "Sources of Errors in GPS"
• GPS and GLONASS Simulation(Java applet) Simulation and graphical depiction of space
vehicle motion including computation of dilution of precision (DOP)
• University of New South Wales: Carrier Phase Measurement
• University of New South Wales: Carrier Beat Phase

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