A Grammar of The German Language

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A
GRAMMAR
OF THE
GERMAN LANGUAGE .
BY
GEORGE HENRY NOEHDEN , LL . D.
FROM THE EIGHTH LONDON EDITION,

BY REV . C. H. F. BIALLOBLOTZKY, PH.D.
WITH
ALTERATIONS AND LARGE ADDITIONS , CHIEFLY FROM THE

GRAMMARS OF DR. BECKER.
BY
REV . BARNAS SEARS, D. D.

PRESIDENT OF THE NEWTON THEOLOGICAL INSTITUTION .
ANDOVER :
ALLEN , MORRILL & WARDWELL .
NEW YORK : DAYTON AND NEWMAN .
BOSTON : CROCKER AND BREWSTER ; GOULD , KENDALL AND LINCOLN ;
JAMES MUNROE AND CO - NEW HAVEN : A. H. MALTBY.
PHILADELPHIA : PERKINS AND PURVES .
CINCINNATI : G , L , WEED .
1842.
Edua T 1718 , 42,610
EducI 1268.42
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$
1932 , Nov. 27
Gift of " T. E. 7 :111
of Cambridge..
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by

ALLEN , MORRILL AND WARDWELL,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Massachusetts.
ANDOVER :
Allen, Morrill & Wardwell , Printers.
ADVERTISEMENT
TO THE
EIGHTH LONDON EDITION .
This Eighth Edition, which has been carefully revised and

improved by an eminent linguist, will, it is hoped, support the
high character which Noehden's German Grammar has for many
years deservedly enjoyed in this country. It is, indeed, a com
plete and philosophical Introduction to the knowledge of the
German Language, for the use of Englishmen. The erudition
of the Author supplied him with appropriate elucidations from
other Languages, which cannot but be acceptable to the Stu
dent, as the Grammatical Structure of one Language is best
impressed on the memory in proportion to its being shown to
be analogous to that of another.
August, 1838 .
1
-
PREFACE
то
THE AMERICAN EDITION .
It was not till after the enterprising publishers had com

menced the printing of this work, that the editor was requested
to revise it, and incorporate the improvements of the later Ger
man grammarians. He consented, not without diffidence, and
undertook the revision of the whole work, not excepting the
pages that had already gone to press. But no sooner had he
made a beginning than he perceived that a much greater task
was to be performed than had been anticipated. The chasm
between the state of German grammar as it was when this
book was written, and as it is now in consequence of the
extensive and profound investigations of the two Grimms and
their school of German philology, was so wide, that it became
obvious that a greater license must be taken with the work of
Nöhden than was originally contemplated. The whole body
of the work, therefore, has undergone great changes, and after
a few of the first pages, the brackets, in which the editor's own
words were included, were omitted. In addition to the nume
rous modifications which will be found on almost every page,
whole sections and chapters have in some cases been intro
vi PREFACE .
duced, and in others substituted. Numerous works have been

consulted in the preparation of these pages, from some of which
brief extracts have been occasionally made without particular
acknowledgement. But of none has so great a use been made
as of the Larger and Smaller Grammars of Dr. K. F. Becker,*
who has been selected as the best representative of the present
improved state of grammatical learning in Germany.
The chief objection, perhaps, which will be made to this
Grammar in its present form, will be its want of perfect uni
formity in method and style of execution. But nothing short
of recasting the entire production would have sufficed to remove
all the little incongruities arising from a difference of author
ship ; and such a revision did not come within the plan of the
publishers. It was originally designed to retain the entire
frame -work of Nöhden , and to remove, add, or alter in the de
tails, whatever should appear necessary . It was found expe
dient , however, in Part I, in some instances to leave our author
as a guide, and to introduce an outline better adapted to receive
the new materials which had multiplied upon our hands ; and in
Part II, it appeared still more difficult to build upon so narrow
a foundation , any other than an incomplete system of syntax.
The substance of the syntax of Dr. Becker, was, therefore , after
much reflection substituted in the place of Nöhden's, but not
without some little inconvenience in respect to arrangement, as
will appear from that part of the syntax which relates to the
Schulgrammatik der deutschen Sprache. Von Dr. Karl Ferdi

nand Becker, Mitglied des Frankfurter Gelehrten -Vereins für deutsche
Sprache. Vierte neubearbeitete Ausgabe, Frankfurt am Main . 1839 .
8vo.-- And his Ausführliche deutsche Grammatik als Kommentar
der Schulgrammatik. 3 Vols. 8vo. 1836-1839.
PREFACE, yii
article. To obviate the practical difficulties resulting from

such occasional deviations from uniform arrangement, a very
copious alphabetical index has been prepared, of which it will
be well for the student to make frequent vse . Trifling incon
gruities, relating mostly to doubtful points, have in a few in
stances been suffered to remain . Should a new edition be
called for, these and a few other slight blemishes, occasioned by

the necessity of preparing the latter part of the work when the
former part was already printed , will be removed .
It may not appear obvious to all, why the syntax here pre
sented is arranged in a manner so different from that to which
we have been accustomed . The great merit of Becker consists,
in no small degree, in bis philosophical analysis of the language,

and his classification of its elements upon essential principles
instead of accidental forms. He has hereby removed the ne
cessity of making that part ofgrammar, which treats of syntax,
an aggregate of detached observations with no other limits than
such as the convenience or fancy of the author should suggest.
Not only has he arranged the phenomena of the language under
a few comprehensive principles, by means of a more perfect
analysis, but what is equally important, he has embraced all
those parts which relate appropriately to grammatical construc
tion . This system of classification now prevails in Germany,
in Latin and Greek as well as German grammars, and, if
we are correctly informed , will also appear in a translation of
Kühner’s Greek Grammar ; indeed, it is already exhibited in
part in Prof. Stuart's Grammar of the New Testament Dialect.
It will be perceived that by his method an unusual facility is
furnished for explaining most of the idioms of the language ;
viji PREFACE .
and to this feature of the syntax the attention of the student is

particularly invited. These idioms may be found in the index,
either in the alphabetical order of their principal words, or still
more certainly under the article, “ Idiomatic expressions.” Some
errors in translation, which have occurred in the course of the
work, are pointed out at the end of the volume. Any notice
of mistakes or defects which may be furnished publicly or pri-
vately by the lovers of German literature will be thankfully re
ceived, and should another edition become necessary, the means
of improvement thus furnished will be added to the editor's own
corrections to render the work more worthy of public favor.
THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
Newton , Nov. 1 , 1842.
INTRODUCTION .
CONCERNING THE LANGUAGE WHICH IS THE SUBJECT

OF THIS GRAMMAR.
The Language which this Grammar proposes to teach ,

was originally a dialect, peculiar to a small district in Ger.
many , and is to this day distinguished , from the other modes
of speech , by the name of High GERMAN . It began first to
rise into notice, at the time of the Reformation ; but, since
the sixteenth century, it has been cultivated in different pro
vinces, and ultimately adopted, as their common tongue, by
all. It is become the language of literature, and of general
communication ; whereas the remaining idioms are confined
to the colloquial intercourse of the inhabitants of the different
provinces, and even there, in a considerable degree, excluded
from the use of the well-educated and higher classes. High
German is the language of the whole nation , and must , by
preference, be understood, when The German is mentioned.
. It is my design , in the following pages, briefly to exhibit
the history of this dialect, and to say a few words on its na
ture and properties.
The province, formerly known by the name of the Electo
rate of Saxony, was the place that gave it birth . That part
of Germany had , at an early period , come to be inhabited by
people of Slavonic descent ;* who were, in the tenth century,
* A people, called Slavonians, derived originally from the

vicinity of the Caspian Sea, had, in remote times, migrated to
1
2 Introduction .
mixed with a colony ofGermans from Franconia,* established

among them. The Franconians eventually became the mas
ters of the country, and as such introduced their language.
But it experienced some change, by being communicated to
the prior inhabitants. Their tongue, like that of other Sla
vonic tribes, was probably soft and harmonious ; and would ,
to a certain degree, impart these qualities to any new lan
guage, with which it might come in collision. The dialect of
Franconia belongs to those of Upper ( or Southern ) Germany,
which are all , more or less, spoken with broad , guttural, and
hissing sounds. They differ, in this respect, from the pronun
ciation of Lower (or Northern ) Germany , which is smooth and
fluent. But the idiom , formed in the Electorate of Saxony , be
sides that admixture of softness, derived from the Slavonians,
was also tempered by the intercourse , which the people of that
district maintained with other parts of Germany . Their in
dustry , and superior civilization , brought them into contact
with numerous strangers, whose customs and language, to a
manner ,
certain degree, mingled with their own . In this
much of the original roughness of the Upper German was
worn away ; and the High German modelled into a form ,
better calculated for the purposes of literature , and conversa
tion , than its predecessor the Upper German .
Germany, and occupied different parts of that country ; among

others, the district in question. This district borders upon Bo
hemia , where the mass of the population is Slavonic, and
where, to this day, a pure Slavonic dialect is spoken. In my
journey through Bohemia , in the Spring 1815 , I was much
struck with that language, the sounds of which are so soft and
harmonious, that I do not hesitate to say, they rival those of the
Italian .
* A tract, in the middle, between North and South Germany,

inhabited by a tribe called Franken, that is, Franks, or Franco
nians. The Emperor Henry I, a prince of distinguished merit,
did much for the internal improvement of Germany ; it was in
his time that the colony alluded to was settled in Saxony.
History of the High German . 3
Before we proceed further in our remarks, it will be proper

to advert to the name which was given to this idiom , in con
tradistinction to the others. It is by that appellation, discrimi
nated from the Low German , which is the native language
of the northern parts of Germany. * That of the south of
Germany was called Upper German ; t from this the High
German likewise differs. But the name seems to have been
chiefly assigned in opposition to the Low German , because
that new dialect appertained to a country situated higher up,
that is to say , more to the south. In this manner there ex
isted, about the time of the Reformation, three grand divi
sions of the German language , viz. the Upper German (das
Oberdeutsche), the Low German (das Niederdeutsche, or
Plattdeutsche ), and the High German (das Hochdeutsche).I
Previously to that era , most literary productions, composed
in the German tongue , were written in the Upper German ,
which was the vehicle of literature throughout the country.
The High German was the native dialect of Luther ; and , by
* These are, what were formerly called the circles of West

j halia and Lower Saxony ; and the northern provinces of the
Upper Saxon circle, viz. Pomerania and Brandenburgh.
[Though no exact territorial division existed, we should not
greatly err, if we were to draw an imaginary line, in a north
easterly direction, from the Rhine to the Elbe and a little be
yond, following the course of the Mayn and the Saale, or from
Mayence to Halle and Berlin, and assign all the territory north
west of this to the Lower Saxons. Along the Baltic coast the
Slavonic language long prevailed.-Ed . ]
+ This belongs to Franconia, Austria, Bavaria, Suabia, the
southern part of the Upper Saxon circle, Silesia, and some of
the Rhenish countries.
| Hochdeutsch, signifying High German , is pronounced Hoch
Doitch. This is sometimes erroneously rendered , in English,
by High Dutch, a mistake which must have arisen from the
similarity of the words Deutsch and Dutch ; though they are es
sentially different in meaning, the former denoting German, and
the latter Hollandish.
4 Introduction .
the influence of his example, it began to be raised to a com

petition with the former idiom , and was soon spread over the
whole nation. The Bible, and other works of high interest ,
at that period , published in this dialect, and the number of
protestant divines who issued from Saxony , tended to make
it known , even in remoter places. It was read and under
stood in every province , and , by degrees, cultivated as the
general language of all Germany. It drove the Upper Ger
man from that preeminence, which it had hitherto occupied,
and , in its stead , possessed itself of the fields of literature and
science. The effect of those circumstances,* which had
concurred to exalt the Upper German above the other dia
lects, had ceased ; and it was compelled to give way to a new
rival. The Low German was, at no time, much employed
in writing ; though this idiom , if it had been attended to ,
might perhaps have produced a language, for softness and TOM
harmony, far superior to the two others.
2
If we would define the character of the High German , in
its present state , we must say, that it does not exclusively
belong to any particular province, or district, but is the pro- .
perty and lawful possession of the whole nation . It has, since
it is generally come into use, received improvements from all
quarters , and is no longer to be considered in the light, in
which it first appeared. If there be a difference, between the
FERAT
several provinces, respecting any particular point, in the **
mode of speaking, it should be adjusted, not according to the
peculiar usage of one or the other, but upon general princi
* In the 11th, 12th , and 13th centuries, the age when the
moderu languages of Europe began to be used in writing, the
crown of the Empire was enjoyed by natives of the South, or
Upper Germany. The Upper German, therefore, was the lan
guage of the court ; —this was one reason. The vicinity of
France and Italy gave to the southern provinces of Germany,
at the revival of letters, a great advantage over the north, and
they made early attempts in literary compositions. This was
another circumstance that favored the Upper German .
Character and Properties of the High German . 5
ples, which apply to language, on philosophic and impartial

grounds. By this observation we ought to be guided , when
we determine the question , in which parts the best German ,
that is to say , the best High German , is to be met with. It
will not satisfy us , after the foregoing considerations , to be
told , that we must look for example and authority to the prac
tice of that district, from which it derived its origin. This
cannot be logically admitted ; but whatever, in case of doubt,
may be decided by the rules and analogy of general grammar,
must inevitably be acknowledged as paramount to the influ
ence of any local custom ; and that province ought certainly
to be thought to possess the German in its greatest perfection
and purity, which the least deviates from these rules , and this
analogy.
It was , for a long time, taken for granted that the High
German was best spoken in that part of the country , com
monly called Upper Saxony, and , especially , at Meissen and
Dresden . And that must have been true , at its origin
and first progress. But as soon as the language was fa
miliarized in the other provinces, there arose a possibility
that it might, in its advancement, meet with a set of people,
out of its native district, who , from particular circumstances,
would be able to do it more justice than those, to whom it
owed its primary existence. Such a chance was afforded it
among the inhabitants of Lower Saxony ; who , from the fa
vorable disposition of their organs of speech , were better
qualified to follow the dictates of general rule and analogy,
than any of their neighbors. It would then of necessity hap
pen , that if there were instances in which the Upper Saxons
violated the rules of general analogy , when the Lower Saxons
were capable of observing them , the latter must, in those in
stances, have the preference. On the other hand , it is also
obvious, that when the Upper Saxons are guilty of deviations
from the genuine standard of pronunciation, the Lower Sax
ons may , reciprocally, have their peculiarities, likewise in
1*
6 1 Introduction .
opposition to the law prescribed. That law is, that the pro
nunciation should be brought as near to the orthography of
the language, as it is possible; that the sounds should cor
respond with the letters ; and that the further any province
récedes from that line, the more distant it is from the claim
of a good pronunciation.
In drawing a comparison between the pretensions of the
Upper and Lower Saxons, it is my wish to act with the ut
most fairness , according to the preceding observations ; I
shall , therefore, enumerate the principal faults of both com
petitors , which will lead to such a result, as may enable the
foreigner to draw his own conclusion .
The errors of the Upper Saxons are these :
1. Ą want of distinction between soft and hard letters ; as
between B and P, D and T , G and K. The hard sounds,
in general, prevail . B is pronounced by them like P, D
like T, and G like K. The nature of this misnomer will
readily be understood by the English reader, who will recog
nize in it his friends, Captain Fluellen ,* and Mr. Morgan .
But it is a grievous defect ! Baum is metamorphosed into
Paum, Buch into Puch, Ball into Pall. In the same man
ner, they speak ter, tie, tas, for der, die, das; tienen for die
nen ; tumm for dumm . Thus they substitute K for G, and
say Kott instead of Gott, kehen instead of gehen .
2. The hissing aspiration ( like the English sh ) which is
given to the letter S before p and t, especially in the begin
ning of words, I consider as the second objection. Stehen ,I
for example, is made to sound like shtehen ; sprechen like
shprechen ; Durst || like Dursht.
3. In the third place we may notice the want of discrimi
nation between the diphthong ü and the vowel i, which seems
* See Shakspeare's Henry V.

† See Roderick Random and Peregrine Pickle.
| To stand . § To speak. || Thirst.
Pronunciation of the Upper Saxons.
to prevail among the Upper Saxons. They pronounce both

alike, namely, as the ee of the English ; but ü should be
sounded very differently, as will be shown, when we speak of
this letter.
4. Lastly, I would remark the hurried pronunciation of the
prefix ge in the preterite participles ; where the e is so en
tirely slurred over , as if it did not exist. For example , gelobt,
praised ; geliebt, loved ; gelehrt, learned ; they speak klobt,
kliebt, klehrt. This is wrong, because the vowel e, though it
has, in this prefix, a short and somewhat obscure sound ,
should still be pronounced and be made audible.
It would be foreign to the subject to touch upon other in
accuracies , which may be said to be only failings of the vul
gar.* I shall, therefore, proceed to point out the defects with
· which the pronunciation of the Lower Saxons is to be
charged.
1. It has a tendency to assume soft letters in the room of
hard ones, when the former are improper. Thus D is heard
for T , as Dag for Tag, Duch for Tuch, etc.
2. The hissing aspiration is sometimes omitted, where , in
conformity with the established orthography , it ought to be
received. A Lower Saxon will be inclined to say slagen
for schlagen ; sneiden for schneiden, etc.
3. The third variation from the rule is perhaps the most
frequent, and the most serious. It concerns the letter G, in
the true pronunciation of which many persons are found to
err. Some express it by the sound of j, which is like the
English y , in the beginning of some words, such as year,
yake, yellow . Gott, God, is accordingly spoken as if written
jott ( English yott ); Garten , garden , as if jarten ( i. e. yarten ),
etc. Others. pronounce the g like ch, which is a guttural
sound , as will be mentioned in its place. But the right mode
* Of this description is m substituted for w, as mir wollen for

„wir wollene
Introduction .
of uttering the letter g, is that which is perceived in the

English words, got , garden, get, give.
I have stated the prominent imperfections of both the Up
per and the Lower Saxon pronunciation ; and the student
will be enabled to escape the offences to which his attention
has been thus awakened.
As to the internal value of the language, in phraseology
and expression, this is not a local question. There all the
provinces are upon the same level : they all draw their ac
complishment from the mines of literature. Whether a man
write well , or be successful in the choice of words, to express
his thoughts, does not depend upon the spot where he was
born and educated , but upon the proficiency he has made in
letters, the degree of cultivation he has attained , and the ca
pacity of his own mind. In writing, and in a literary point
of view, the High German is everywhere the same. The dif
ference does not lie between the provinces, but between in
dividuals. The best authors furnish the store for the lan
guage ; education teaches how to employ it.
[The German language belongs to the great Indo -Ger

manic family of languages, which seems to have originated
on the banks of the Ganges, and to have spread over many
parts of western Asia, and most of the countries of Europe.
Of the languages of Asia, belonging to this family , the San
scrit and the Zend are the most important. The three prin
cipal European branches are the Graeco- Latin , the Teutonic
and the Slavonic. From these, with different degrees of in
termixture, most of the languages of modern Europe have
descended . The Teutonic branch embraces the ancient
Northern language ( the mother of the Danish , Swedish and
Icelandic ) and the German , with all its dialects, including
the Gothic , the Anglo -Saxon and the Dutch.
The most general division of the German language is into
High German and Low German . The High German , which
History of the Language. 9
has existed from the earliest times of which we have any

knowledge, has in the course of many centuries undergone
considerable changes. There are three periods , in its histo
ry , that are distinctly marked. The first extends from the
earliest times to about the middle of the twelfth century , du
ring which period the language is denominated the Old High
German ( Althochdeutsch ) ; the second extends from the mid
dle of the twelfth to the middle of the fourteenth century , and
the language is then called the Middle High German ( Mittel
hochdeutsch ) ; the last period extends from that time to the
present, which is the age of the Modern High German ( Neu
hochdeutsch ). It was during this last period, about the time
of Luther , that High German was elevated from the rank of
a dialect to that of a national language ; and hence it has
been necessary to designate the modern vulgar dialect of
Upper or Southern Germany by another name, and for this
purpose the word Upper German (Oberdeutsch ) has been
employed . But we must not suppose that the High German
of early times was a single dialect, as the Gothic was ; it was
rather an assemblage of kindred dialects whose number and .
distinctions cannot now be exactly ascertained. Three of
its subordinate dialects, spoken by the Franks, the Alemanns
and the Bavarians, are clearly distinguishable . Among all
the dialects of Germany the Gothic first had the preeminence. *
The Gothic is known to us chiefly through the translation

of the Bible by Ulphilas in the fourtḥ century . This is the
oldest monument of the German language. Its resemblance to
the modern German, and even to the English language,may be
seen from the following words from the Lord's Prayer : Atta
upsar thu in himipam. veihnai namo thein. Qimai thiudipassus
theins. vairthai vilja theins sve in bimina jah ana airthai. Att a
unsar correspond to Vater unser. Thu is the German du and
the English thou, and shows the connection of the two latter.
In is the same as in German and English . Himinam , dative
plural from himins, corresponds to Himmel. Veihnai is from
veihan which is the same as the German Weihen . Namo thein ,
thy name. Qimai or quimai from quiman to come. Thiudinas
10 Introduction .
After the fall of the Gothic kingdoms, the language of the

AST
Franks, though rude and unpolished, had the ascendency .
The Saxon ( Low German ) flourished in the ninth century ,
at least so far as to rival the other dialects. It is proper here
to remark that the history of the Low German, or Old Saxon ,
lies in much greater obscurity than that of the High German .
Several relics of the language have , it is true , been preserv
ed ; * but neither the time nor the place of their composition
sus theins, thy kingdom . Vairthai, be, or become, from vairthan ,

which, in German, is werden . Vilja, will, German, Wille. Sve
in himina, as in heaven . Jah ana airthai, also, or so on earth.
Many nouns, pronouns and particles in modern German drop
the final syllable or vowel, as in the two last words. So unde ,
ihme, deme, umbe, for und, ihm , dem , um in the German of a later
period .
* Old Low German . - Form of renouncing the devil prescri
bed by the council of Liptinas in 842. Forsachistu (versagest
du ) diabolae ? R. Ec ( ich) forsacho diabolae. End allum dio
bol gelde ( und aller Teufelsgilde ) ? R. End ec forsacho allum
diobol geldae. End allú dioboles uuercum (Werken ) ? R. End
ec forsacho allum dioboles uuercum and uuordum (and words).
Old High German . — A translation of the Lord's Prayer with
a commentary, written about 800 A. D. in the Bavarian dialect,
has been preserved. We give, as a specimen, the same pas
sage as that already presented from Ulphilas, adding a modern
German version for the sake of comparison .
( Old German. ) (Modern German. ) Pamel
Fater unser der ist in himil Vater unſer, der iſt in den
om . Kaeuuihit uuerde din na- | Himmeln . Geweihet werde
mo. piqueme rihi din . uuesse , dein Náme . Es fomme dein
uuillo din, sama ist in himile Reich . Es werde dein Wille,
enti in erdu. wie er iſt im Himmel auch
auf Erden .
It will be observed that f and v are interchanged with each
other, as also k and g. The letter i is frequently equivalent to
the modern ei. The letter u was written twice for w. H stands
for ch . Enti, like ende and unde, is the original form of und,
and, etc. Uuesse is from the old form wësen , synonymous with
seyn .
Dialects of the German. · 11
can be fixed with certainty. For this reason it is impossible

to define positively all the districts in which the Low German
was anciently spoken.
The Middle High German was the Suabian dialect, * which
is scarcely distinguishable from the Alemann . It was the lan
guage of chivalry, of the Minnesingers and Meistersingers
who graced the court of the Hohenstaufen . The Suabian
dialect, had been softened and considerably modified by lite
rary intercourse with the Low Germans. This change was
going on during the whole of the twelfth century ,t and con
stituted the chief difference between the Old High German
and the Middle High German. From the middle of the
* Suabian Dialect of the Thirteenth Century. — Extract from

a sermon of Berthold, who lived from about 1200 to 1272.
Welhes (welches ) iſt der acker, dem das himelrich gelichet
( Himmelreich gleichet ) ? Daz ( bas ) iſt die heilige friſtens
heit (christendom ). Daz iſt davon (of which this is true) daz
nieman (daß Niemand ) zum bimelriche fümet ( kommt )
wanne (except) 13 ( aus ) der heiligen friſtenheit. Ez get
nit ( es geht nicht) weges zuin himelrich uz der heidenſchaft
(heathenism ) noch uz der jüden ee (Jewish law ), noch uz der
Feberie .-Welbes iſt der ſchatz der da inue ( darin ) verbors
gen lit ( liegt) ? Daz iſt eines jeglichen reinen kriſten men
idhen ſele (Seele ).
† Transition from the Old High German to the Middle High
German . — A Fragment from the twelfth century.
Uor (vor) allen dingen sol mennesche eruorscon uuelichiu
sige diu ware gewizzeda (soll der Mensch erforschen welche
sei die wahre Wissenschaft ), unte diu (und die ) ware wisheit
(Weisheit) ; wante (for) diu wisheit dirre werlte ( of this world )
ist ein tumbheit uore gote ( eine Dummheit vor Gott). Diu
ware gewizzede ist daz (dass) du dich pecherest ( bekehrest) uon
den suntoń (von den Sünden ) die des tiuuels dienest ( Teufel's
Dienst) sint (sind) ; unte diu ware wisheit ist daz (dass ) du got
ubest ( servest) nach der warheit siner ( seiner) gehote. The
letter u often stands for v, sc for sch, u for e ( in feminine termina
tions ), t for d , p for b, etc.
12 . Introduction .
fourteenth centuryf the language and its literature declined

rapidly ; the former incorporated into itselfmuch of the harsh
Austrian dialect, and the latter became a trade. In the mean
time the Low German had been rising into higher considera
tion ( it had been sinking ever since the ninth century ) , and
was again made the instrument of poetical and historical com
positions.
Thus, at the time of Luther, all the leading dialects , spo
ken in Germany, stood side by side, dividing among them
selves the honor belonging to the language of literature.
Through him and others, some of whom preceded , and some
followed him , the intermediate dialect spoken in Saxony , of
Upper German extraction , but modified by the influence of
the Low German which was spoken in the immediate vicini
ty, was improved and elevated, and made the common lan
guage of books for all Germany . This is the origin of the
Modern High German , as distinguished from the old German
on the one hand, and the modern vulgar or Upper German
on the other. That this great change, though effected in ·
great part by Luther and the writers of the Reformation , was
in progress at an earlier period, is proved by Luther's own
words. He says, in his Table Talk : “ I have for myself no
special or peculiar form of the German language ; but I em
ploy the common German, which can be understood both in
Upper and in Lower Germany. I adopt the language of the
* Tauler, (born 1294, died 1361 ,) wrote about this time.

Extract from bis Sermon on theYoke of Christ. Die ewig
warheit unſer herr Jeſus Chriſtus batt geſpreden in dem
ewangelio, durch s . Mattheum . Mein jody iſt ſüß und
mein bürd ( Bürde ) iſt leicht. Difer warbeit wideſprechen
all natürlich menſchen , alſo ferr als ( so far as) ſie die natur
trägt . Und
Und ſprechen
ſp , das ( daß ) gotts ioch bitter ſey , und
ſein bürd ſchwer. Und muß es doct) war (wahr ) ſein,
wann ( for) es hat die warheit ſelber geſprodien. Wann
(when ) ein ding das da ſer ( ſebr) druckt, und das man
ſchwerlich nach im zeücht (ihm zieht ) das heißt ein bürden .
Modern High German .. 13
Saxon court , which is the language of all the kings and

princes of Germany. All the Free Cities and all the courts
of Germany write the language of the Saxons and of our
court. Therefore, this more than any other, is the common
language of Germany.” The nature of the Modern High
German , and its relation to the dialects, are well described
by Becker in his Larger German Grammar. “ The High
German , as the language of the cultivated part of the nation ,
is entirely distinct from any of the vulgar dialects ; but it is ,
at the same time, far from being foreign, or hostile to them.
On the contrary, the dialects are the living stock from which
it derives its support and nourishment. The High German
can adopt no word or phrase , which has not first had a natu
ral existence in one of the dialects. The conventional usage
of the learned , who have separated the High German from
the language of the rulgar, can only decide what word or
phrase, from this or that dialect , shall be received into the
High German . Each language has within itself the law of
its development, and usage , growing out of this, becomes the
rule by which we are to decide whether a word is according
to the genius of a language, or contrary to it. But we must
not confound the vulgar German , with the High German ,
usage. A language has its natural life and development in
the mouths of the people ; and is here least corrupted with
foreign admixture . Hence the usage of the people at large
is the truest expression of what belongs to the nature of the
language. Every form in a dialect is , in itself, legitimate,
and is true German . These forms of the various dialects,
do , indeed, differ from each other, and from those of the High
German . But to pronounce a form of language illegitimate
because it is not High German , is absurd. So much for the
vulgar German usage. But it is otherwise with the High
, German usage . In so far as this is selected out of the vul
gar language by the conventional usage of the learned , it is
less the result of a natural development than of arbitrary
2
14 Introduction .
legislation. Besides, the language of the learned is subject

to foreign influences, by which are introduced words and
forms of expression altogether different from those of the na
tive language. Among these influences may be mentioned
that of ancient and of ( foreign ) modern literature , that of the
arts and sciences as well as of the social, political and reli
gious spirit of the age.” In conclusion we will transfer from
the School Grammar of the same author specimens of the
principal modern dialects. They all contain the same Scrip
ture passage, namely, Mark 4: 3—5.
HIGH GERMAN .
Hört zu ! Siehe es ging ein Säemann aus zu ſäen, und
es begab ſich, indem er jäete , fiel Etliches an den Weg ; da
famen die Vögel unter dem Himmel und fraßen es auf.
Etliches fiel in das Steiníchte , da es nicht viel Erde hatte
u . ſ. f.
UPPER GERMAN. LOWER GERMAN.
Suabian .' Heared zue ! Lu Lower Saxon . Härt tan !
eg ’ s iſcht a Säema ausg Et gink ein Saiemann ut tau
gange z ' ſäed, und es hodt ſih ſaien, un et begaf ſeck, as he
g'gian, wie a g'ſäed bodt, iſcht ſaiete, feelen en Deel Rören
Obbes an'n Wög g'falle ; do innen Weg ; da kämen de
ſend d’Vögl underm Himl Vögel unner'den Himmel un
komme und honds aufg?fröße. fraten ſe up . En Deel Kös
Öbbes iſcht i’s Stuinig g'- renféelen in dat Steinige ,da
et nich veel Eere hadde u . f. f.
falle u . f. f.
Bavarian. Loßts enk ſogng ! Westphalian. Höret tau !
A moi is a Baur ufs Sahn Sü et chink ’n Säggemann
nausganga, und wie r-a denn ut to . ſäggen , un et begaff
do g'faht hot, is eam a Thoai ſeck, derwile hei fäggede, feu
Samma-r -ann Weg no g's en Däl an den Weg ; do
foin ; do ſann d’Vögl vonn keimen de Vügel unner dem
Himmi ro kommo, und ham : Himel un fratten et up. En
matn aufg’fröß'n . A Thoi Däl fell in dat Steinichte, 1
is eam in an ſdhtoaninga do et nich veel Ere hadde
Bohn g'foin u. ſ. F. u . . f. Ed . ]
1
1
GERMAN GRAMMAR.
PART I.
COMPREHENDING
THE ELEMENTS OF THE LANGUAGE .
CHAPTER I.
ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND PRONUNCIATION ,

CONTAINING
1. The Alphabet.
2. The Orthography.
3. The Pronunciation of Letters.
4. The Pronunciation of Words, or the Accent.
SECTION I.
ON THE ALPHABET.
The Germans employ three sorts of characters, for writing

and printing ; two of which may be called properly German,
and the third Roman , or Latin . The latter is that, which is
used by the English, and other nations of Europe ; the two
former are corruptions of the same, one appropriated for
16 On Orthography and Pronunciation . P. I. Ch. 1 .
printing, and the other for hand- writing. That for printing
resembles the Black Letter of this country, and the Ecriture
Ronde et Financière, or, as it is by some called , the Lettres
de Forme, of the French . * The character for hand -writing
differs, as will be seen from the plate annexed. Both
Both ,, how
ever , as has been intimated , are derived from the same foun
tain. The peculiar quality is , being pointed and ' angular.
They are the productions of the twelfth and thirteenth centu
ries ; and remain as specimens of that taste, which is known
by the name of Gothic, and prevailed from the period men
tioned, for a long space of time, over the greatest part of
Europe.
Those characters have maintained themselves in Germany,
where they have been much improved. Yet they still want
the simplicity and elegance of their original. For this rea
son , many German works have, in more recent times , been
printed in the Roman type ; that practice, however, is hither
to not become general , and the greatest number of publica
tions continue to appear in the ancient habit.t I shall, there
fore, to render it familiar to the student, retain it in the Ger
man words that may be introduced in the course of this
Grammar. The character, which serves for current hand
writing , is, as far as I know, with very few exceptions, uni
versally predominant in the German nation ; and, though the
printed letter should decline, this will probably, from its sup
posed convenience, be preserved.
* Guttenberg and his associates called them Lettres Bour

geoises.
† And it is to be doubted, whether that innovation would be
of any advantage, if generally adopted. By disaccustoming the
eye from the old type, many valuable productions of literature,
unles reprinted, would be rendered less easy to read, and might
be prejudiced in their general utility.
Of late years, however, the disposition of disusing that
character, and substituting for it the Roman letter, instead of
Sect. 1 . On Orthography. 17
There exists, besides, a particular alphabet for engrossing,

which, together with the current hand, is exhibited in the
Plate.
In writing Latin , or any modern language of Europe be
sides their own, the Germans us not their particular charac
ter , but the Roman ; with which the people at large are
equally well acquainted.
increasing, has considerably diminished ; and now by far the

greatest number of German books is printed in the old type.
With this some alterations have been attempted, in order to em
bellish it, which , perhaps, have altogether not improved it.
:
*
2
THE PRINTED ALPHABET.
ca
Characters. Signification . Names.

A a A a Au* * Not like the
B 6 Bb broad au in caught,
Beyt taught, but rather
6 Cc Tsey like the open au in
D d Dey aunt . See the pro
Еe Eyt nunciation ofA , in
the next section.
ff F f ; ff Ef; Ef- ef
g G g Gey , or Gay t ey,in this and
Hb ; ch. Hh ; ch Hau ; Tsey-hau the following in
I i E stances , to be pro
J j Yot nounced as it is in
ff ; of K k ; ck the pronoun they.
Kau ; Tsey-Kau
LI L 1 EI # To sound like
Mm M m Em the acute e of the
N n Nn En Germans. See the
Oo O next section .
P P PP Pey
Qa Qq Koo
R Ꭱ r Err
SI ſ sis ; Ess ; Ess -ess
sz ; st Ess-tset ; Ess -tey
et T t Tey
U u U u Oo
VV V v Fou
Ww W W Veys ş See the pro
& r X x Iks nunciation of this
Ý y Y y Ypsilon letter, in the next
section.
3 3; Ķ Z z ; tz Tset ; Tey -tset
à di ae oe ue 11 || Refer to the
sound of these
or diphthongs, in the
next section.
å ö ü
Sect. 1 . On the Alphabet. 19
OBSERVATIONS.
1. In the printed alphabet, some letters are apt to be mis

taken by beginners, and to be confounded one with another.
To facilitate the discrimination , I will place them here to
gether, and point out the difference.
B ( B ) , and V ( V ) .
The latter is open in the middle, the former joined across.
C ( C ) , and E ( E ).
E (E) has a little horizontal stroke in the middle, project
ing to the right, and 5 ( C ) has not.
G ( G ) , and S ( S ) .
These letters, being of rather a round form , are sometimes
taken for one another, particularly the G for the S. But
S ( S ) has an opening above, G (G ) is closed, and has be
sides a perpendicular stroke within.
Í ( K ), N (N ) , R (R ).
K ( K ) is rounded at the top, N ( N ) is open in the middle,
R ( R ) is united about the middle.
M ( M ) , and D ( W ).
M ( M ) is open at the bottom , W (W ) is closed.
6 (b) and h ( h).

b ( b ) is perfectly closed below , h ( h ) is somewhat open ,
and ends at the bottom , on one side , with a hair stroke. I
have known 0 (d ) confounded with b ( b ) , but the difference
between these letters is sufficiently marked, even for the com
monest attention.
f (f) and 1 ( s ) .
f (f) has a horizontal line across.
20 . On Orthography and Pronunciation . P. I. Ch. 1 .
m ( m ) and w ( w ) .
m ( m ) is entirely open at the bottom , w ( w) is partly closed.
r ( r ) and r ( x).
r (x) has a little hair stroke below, on the left.
v (v ) and y ( y ).
v ( v ) is closed ; y (y ) is somewhat open below , and ends
with a hair-stroke.
2. The copperplate exhibits three varieties of German

hand - writing :
No. 1. is known by the name of Fractur-Schrift, i. e. the
Broken Letter, because the characters are formed by inter
rupted touches of the pen . It is used for inscriptions, and
for the first lines of any formal writing.
No. 2. called Canzley - Schrift, i. e . Chancery Writing,
serves commonly for engrossing.
No. 3. is the current hand.
Of these three alphabets, both the capital and the small
letters are represented ; and an example is added to show
them in connection.
SECTION II.
ON ORTHOGRAPHY.
ORTHOGRAPHY has, in the German , as in other languages,
been exposed to variation and change. To avoid these, and
to give to the external form of language, a proper degree of
consistency, the following rules should be kept in view :
First, such characters, in writing, should be used, as, by
*
their import, approach the nearest to the best pronunciation .
But
* It may be thought, that in laying down this rule, I am pro

Sect. 2. On Orthography . . 21
Secondly, a regard must, at the same time, be had to deri

vation and etymology.
In the third place, we ought not, without necessity, and
preponderating reasons, to depart from the general practice,
which has been once introduced.
If these rules had been followed, those many innovations ,
which have embarrassed German orthography, would not
have taken place. It was the ignorance of those principles,
that led to imaginary reforms. Most of them were but mis
conceived changes, which had their source in the fancy, per
verseness, and vanity of individuals. It would not be fit to
enter into a detail of these deviations ; let it suffice to put the
student on his guard. The books with which he is first brought
acquainted , should be models of a just orthography ; the va
riations, which he will afterwards notice, in his reading, he
ought to examine according to the foregoing rules.
We have now to advert to some peculiarities, which exist
in Gerinan orthography.
1. All nouns substantive are written with capital letters,
that is to say , the letter which begins any such noun ,must be
a capital. * And not only words which are properly substan
ceeding in a circle ; for I have elsewhere said, that you should

speak as you write, and here it seems to be recommended, that
you should write as you speak. Orthography and pronuncia
tion must reciprocally assist each other ; and it will happen,
that in the case of a difference, the one may be ascertained,
when the other appears doubtful ; or, it is sometimes more easy
to fix the one, than the other. That which is first established ,
will lend its assistance to the other. In this manner, I think,
there remains no fallacy. The rule itself is sanctioned by the
authority of Quintilian, who says, Inst. Or. 1. 7. Ego (nisi quod
consuetudo gbtinuerit) sic scribendum quidque judico, quomodo 80
nat. Hic enim usus est literarum , ut constodiant voces, et velut de
positum reddant legentibus ; itaque id exprimere debent quod dicturi
sumus .
* This practice formerly. also prevailed in English. DR.
FRANKLIN (see his Private Correspondence, published in Lon
tives, fall under the operation of this law, but likewise all that
are employed, at any time , in that quality. They assume
this particular appearance of substantives, wherever they sup
ply their place. Of this description are :
( a ) Adjectives, either when a substantive is understood ;
as , Der Weiſe, the wise (man ) ; der Große, the great (man ) ;
die Schöne, the fair ( woman ) ; or , when they are themselves
employed abstractedly , with the power of a substantive ; as ,
das Schwarz, the black, i . e. the color black ; das Grün,
the green, i. e. the color green ; das Rund, the round sub
stance , rotundity. To the adjectives may be added the in
definite pronouns , Jemand, Niemand, Jedermann , Etwas
and Nichts ( but not in such expressions as etwas Wein,
nichts Gutes ); the indefinite numerals, Ade, Alles, Einige,
Mancher, Viele, and the like ; the possessive pronouns, as ,
die Meinigen , my friends ; die Deinigen , thy friends ; die
Seinigen, his friends ; die Unſrigen , our friends, or our peo
ple ; die Eurigen, your friends ; die Ihrigen , their friends.
Thus, das Mein, that which is mine (meum ); das Dein,
that which is thine ( tuum ), etc.
( 6 ) The infinitives, when they are made to express the sub
stantive acts of their verbs, for which the English make use
don, 1817, 4to. p. 127, 128) greatly commends it ; and pointedly

reprobates the injudicious alterations, adopted by printers, in
modern times, of printing all words alike. Distinguishing the
substantives in that manner, afforded , he says, a facility for un
derstanding what was read, especially to those that were not very
familiarly acquainted with the language. He observes that in
the English books, printed between the Restoration and the
reign of George II. the substantives all begin with capital let
ters as in German. [This is a modern practice in German, as
may be inferred from the specimens of old German given in the
Introduction. At first, important words only, whether substan
tives or not, were so marked ; and though Luther, in his later
writings leaned strongly to the present custom , it did not be
come universal till the eighteenth century. Spener, von Zieg
ler, Arnold, and Zinzendorf adopted it but in part .-- Ed.]
Sect. 2. On Orthography . 23
of the participle. Das Leſen , the act , or employment, of

reading ; das Schreiben, the act of writing ; das Gehen,
the act of walking ; das Reiſen, the act of travelling.
( c ) Any other part of speech which , by an article, or pro
noun, prefixed, acquires the character of a substantive. Das
Aber, the word but ; das Ich, the pronoun I ( ego ), etc.
Proper names have, in all European languages, and conse
quently also in the German, capital letters for their initials.
But the adjectives, derived from , or belonging to, such pro
per names, are written as follows ; ( 1 ) those derived from
the names of persons always with a capital, as die Kantiſche
Philoſophie, the Kantian philosophy ; (2 ) those derived from
the names of countries with a small letter, as ſpaniſche Wolle,
Spanish wool ; (3) those derived from the names of towns
sometimes with a capital, sometimes with a small letter , as
das Halliſche Waiſenhaus , the Halle Orphan -house, die hals
liſche Zeitung, the Halle Gazette, though a capital is here
more commonly used .
2. In English , the first personal pronoun ( I) is always
written capitally ; in German , the corresponding pronoun
( ich ) has not this prerogative, except where it begins a sen
tence , or is to be distinguished by an emphasis. On the other
hand , the pronouns of address, such as thou, you , which in
English have , usually , only small letters , are begun with capi
tals in German , as, Du, Ibr, Er, Sie . This is the effect
of an imaginary politeness, by which also possessive and de
monstrative pronouns, when they are used as the means of
speaking to another person, are decorated with capital letters.
For example, in these sentences, I have received your letter,
I have seen your father, etc. , the pronoun Your would be
written with a capital.
3. The Punctuation , in German orthography, differs only
in some trifling particulars from the English. The dissimi
larity refers principally to the comma , and is as follows :
(a) The English frequently confine adverbs, conjunctions,

and prepositions with their cases , between commas. The
usage of German orthography would admit no comma before
and after such words.
(6 ) The Germans rarely put a comma, in the middle of a
sentence, before the conjunction und, and ; where the En
glish generally add that sign of distinction .
(c ) In German, a comma is invariably placed before a rela
tive pronoun, which is, in English , very often omitted.
( d) The infinitive mood with the preposition zu, to, pre
ceding it, is separated by a comma from the verb which
governs it. Examples: Id freue mich , Sie zu ſehen , I re- ,
joice to see you ; er fürchtet ſich , ſeinen Vater zu belei
digen, he fears to offend his father ; er glaubt , dieſen Satz
erwieſen zu haben, he thinks he has demonstrated this posi
tion ; um dieſen Zweck zu erreichen , opferte er alle anderen
Rückſichten auf, to attain this object, he sacrificed all other
considerations. In the last example, the infinitive with zu
stands in the first member of the sentence , and the comma
is , there , put after it. This separating comma before the in
finitive, is, however, only required when that mood is accom
panied with other words, which it governs, as in the instances
above. When it stands alone with zu, as in ich wünſche zu
ſchlafen, I wish to sleep ; er verſucht zu tanzen , he attempts
to dance ; er wagt zu reiten, he ventures to ride on horse
back ; ich verlange zu wiſſen , I desire to know ; hört auf zu
reden , cease to talk ; and especially when this infinitive is
governed by a substantive or adjective: as, Luſt zu ſpielen ,
an inclination to play ; das Vergnügen Sie zu ſebent, the
pleasure of seeing you ; der Wunſch gelobt zu werden , the
wish ofbeing praised ; begierig zu wiſſen, anxious to know :
in those circumstances , the comma is oaitted .
The other signs of punctuation are used in the same man
ner by the Germans as by the English.
Sect. 2. On Orthography. 25
4. The sign of Apostrophe ( ' ) is to be used

( a) In the genitive case of foreign proper names ending
in a vowel. It is then prefixed to the genitive termination ,
as , Agricola's Feldzüge, Agricola's campaigns ; Plato's
Geſpräche, Plato's dialogues. This use of the apostrophe is
now becoming common in German proper names, where the
genitive termination is generally s , but sometimes ns , and
ens ; as, Leſſing's Trauerſpiele, Lessing's tragedies ; Hölty's
Gedichte, Hölty's poems ; Gök'ns Predigten, Götz's ser
mons ; Uz'ens Schriften , the writings of Uz . The plural
number of foreign proper names, which end in a vowel , have
s with an apostrophe annexed ; as, the Florida's, the Mira
beau's ; and this rule extends to such appellations as the
Abbé's.
The application of the apostrophe is often to be recom
mended, on the ground that it leads to an easy discrimination
of proper names. For example, by means of this sign , we
are enabled to ascertain, that the nominative case of Göß'ens
is Göße, and not Gößen ; of Uz'ens, U ;, not Uze, or Uzen .
But to gain this advantage, it must be carefully and accu
rately placed before the genitive termination . As it is cer
tainly useful in some proper names, I see no reason , why we
should not admit it in all, though the practice is, as yet, not
generally established ; indeed it might also serve for a dis
tinction to proper names from common appellatives.
(6 ) The apostrophe should be employed , when the vowel
e or i is, by contraction , thrown away , where properly it ought
to remain. For example, Er ſprach's , for ſprach es, he spoke
it ; ſage mir’s, for mir es, tell it me ; Freund ' und Feind ”,
for Freunde und Feinde, friends and foes ; bös ' und hals
ſtarrig, for böſe, bad and obstinate ; heil'ger, hön'ſche, He
gel'ſche for heiliger, höniſche, Hegeliſche, holy , scornful, He
gelian . In the inflection both of nouns and verbs, a similar
contraction is frequent ; but, in general, not indicated by the
apostrophe ; as, des Buchs , for Buches , of the book ; er lobt,
3
for lobet, he praises ; er lobte, for lobete ; gelobt, for ge

lobet. Only in the verbal inflection et after the letter s ,
where the pronunciation might suffer a change, if the omis
sion of the e were not understood, it should be marked , as in
er reiſt, for reiſet, he travels ; in which the letter s should
be pronounced soft, as it would be before the e, previously to
the contraction . If the word were written reiſt, without the
apostrophe , there would be a risk of the s being uttered sharp
ly , as in er reißt, he tears.
5. The Hyphen , or sign of conjunction (-, or - ) is made
Use of
( a) When a word, at the end of a line, must be divided for
want of space. The division takes place, according to the
syllables, as in English, only with the difference that this par
tition is solely determined by the pronunciation. When
there is a consonant between two vowels , it is generally as
signed , as the beginning letter to the second syllable. For
example, the word writing would be thus separated, in Ger
man , wri-ting ; whereas in English , regard is had to etymo
logy, conformably to which it is divided writing.
• ( 6 ) In compound words. Formerly it was used when a
foreign word was compounded either with another foreign
word, or with a German word ; as, Kriminal Justiz , Konſis :
torial- Ratly, Councilor of the Consistory ; and when a word
was compounded with a proper name ; as, Neu - Brandens
burg, Dber -Lauſit. It is at present employed almost uni
formly in compound words, whose component parts are vir
tually words in apposition ; as , Fürſt- Biſchof, Prince Bishop ;
Prinz-Regent, Heßen - Darmſtadt. Here belong such words
as , kaiſerlich -föniglich, imperial and royal, Fürſtlich -Lippiſch ;
and in those double compounds where the sense depends on
the mode of division ; as, General- Stabſarzt as distinguish
ed from Generalſtabs -Arzt. In the former, the word genes
ral relates to Arzt, and gives the physician's rank ; in the
latter it qualifies Stab, and shows to what staff the physician
Sect. 3. Pronunciation of Letters. 27
belongs. In other compounds it is often used, though there

is no necessity for it. Freundſchaftsbund, the league of
friendship , is , in the latest authors, quite as common as
Freundſchafts - Bund.
( c ) When two or more compound words, having their last
component the same, stand together, and when the last com
ponent is omitted in the prior word or words, and expressed
only in the last ; as, Styreib- und Redekunſt , the art of writ
ing and speaking. The component Kunſt belongs to both
words, Schriebkunſt, art of writing, Nedekunſt, art of speak
ing ; but it is only once expressed .
SECTION III.
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF LETTERS.

*
If the rule of Quintilian ,* “ Let words be so uttered,
that each letter may denote its appropriate sound ,” were es
tablished in all languages, the present subject would be at
tended with fewer difficulties than it actually is. As to the
German language, it is but justice to remark , that the power
and the meaning of the letters, and the nature of the sounds,
are less vague and undetermined than is the case , more or
less, in several other modern tongues. But it is not an easy
undertaking , in general , to teach pronunciation by writing ,
without the assistance of a teacher's voice. You act upon
the eye , instead of the ear , which is the proper organ for this
species of instruction . The only way of imparting it, in that
manner , is by comparing the letters and sounds of the lan
guage which is to be learnt, with those of a language already
1 known . Such a comparison, however , is not always to be
* Inst. Or. I. 11 :-Expressa sint verba, ut suis quæque literæ

bonis enuntientur.
obtained . One language may have sounds, to which nothing

similar is to be found in another. In such circumstances,
some have thought , that a delineation , or description , of the
form and changes which the organs of speech assume, in pro
nouncing, would lead to a successful imitation of the sounds ;
but, on experience, it will be found, that this is a very preca
rious help to depend on. The task is much facilitated , when a
comparison with several foreign languages may be resorted to ;
and of this expedient we shall , to a certain degree, avail our
selves , throughout this section. The whole attempt will still
remain imperfect: and the student cannot expect to make
himself master of the pronunciation , unless by an intercourse
with the natives. But notwithstanding these discouraging
circumstances , the contents of the present division will not
appear to be without their use. They will induce a more at
tentive consideration of the subject than perhaps would be
afforded by oral instruction alone. This will undoubtedly
be wanted to supply the deficiencies of the former ; but the
written rules will , reciprocally, prove a beneficial support to
the lessons of the master. With this persuasion, I have
thought it worth while to enter , with some degree of minute
ness , into the following details.
VOWELS.
A , e, i, o, u, y ; å, ö, ü .
The letters ä, ö, ü , are called softened vowels, or vowels
with the Umlaut, change of sound. They are not formed by
any combination of different sounds, and are , therefore, not
diphthongs. They are simple letters and have simple sounds,
though the external signs by which they are represented have
led some to class them , not with the vowels, but with the diph
thongs.
While the vowels in German are all capable of variation
in length, their measure, when long or short , is not uniform
Sect. 3 . Pronunciation of Letters. 29
as in Latin and Greek , but the long vowels have different de

grees of length , and the long and short vowels often approach
so near to each other as to make the pronunciation depend
more on accent than on quantity. The long and short sounds
of the vowels differ from each other not so much in their na
ture as in their duration . The short sound of e, i and o as in
denn , for ; mit, with ; Gott, God ; do, indeed , appear to be
the same as the short English sounds of the same vowels.
But in the best German pronunciation , these short vowels
have a deep sound not heard in the corresponding English
vowels, a peculiarity which is often observable in the German
pronunciation of English, and which arises from retaining all
the qualities of the long sound of the letter except its dura
tion and distinctness.
Strictly speaking all the vowels except e have one uniform
sound . This sound is preserved not only in long and short
vowels, but in vowels that are doubled and in other combi
nations ( not diphthongs ) which modify the sounds of the vow
els in English. In the word, Boot, boat, the oo has not the
sound of oo in English as in boot, but that of the long Ger
man o as in our word boat. So aa is simply a long ; ce is e
long, and uu is u long. In English the letter r often modi
fies the sound of the preceding vowel , as in bird, word , her ;
but in German no such modifications are allowable. The
word Berlin must be pronounced Běrleén ; dir, to thee,
must be pronounced deer ; Wort, word, must be pronounced
vört.
A.
This vowel and the vowel i, when they are long, have in
2 English a sound, which they have not in any other European
language. The sound of the German a is given with tolera
ble accuracy in the English words half , aunt, father, gaunt
let, when these words have their full broad sound. It will be
the most convenient to give both the long and the short
3*
30 On Orthography and Pronunciation . P. I. Ch . 1 .
sounds of the vowels at the same time. The reader will,

meanwhile, bear in mind what has been said above, namely,
that these sounds differ rather in their duration than in their
nature.
A has two sounds,
1. Long, as in Staf, sheep ; I a -den , to load ; like a in
the English word half.
2. Short, as in Fall, fall ; bat, had, which has no corres
ponding sound in English.
The vowel e is, in regard to pronunciation, the most diffi

cult to reduce to rule. Its various sounds depend partly on
derivation , partly on divided and fluctuating usage, and part
ly on accent. In modern German the letter e is the repre
sentative of different vowels in the old German , of which i
and a are the principal ; and this is the origin of its different
sounds. In the earlier periods of the modern High German
the acute e represented the older rowel i, and the open e the
older vowel a . Thus, in the first syllable of ſter-ben , to die,
the e was acute because in the old German it was written
ſt i r -pan ; and in the first syllable of Er-be, inheritance, the
e was open because in the old German it was written a r-be.
So nehmen , to take , comes from niman ; leſen , to read, from
liſan ; and geben, to give , from giban . These words, in the
first and last syllables , represent both of the sources from
which the modern vowel e is derived. But as the final sylla
bles are unaccented, the vowel here takes the obscure sound
mentioned below .
At a later period the two original sounds of e, the acute
and the open began to be regulated by other principles than
that of etymology. Accent , quantity , and the consonants fol
lowing it, began to have a decided influence . Add to this,
For rules respecting long and short vowels, see the end of
the next chapter.
that the usage of the North and the South of Germany was
divided, and that even now there is a tendency, perhaps, to
drop the distinction entirely , certainly to diminish the num
ber of cases in which it is observed. Weber, in his large
dictionary of 1838 says, “ According to the more recent ele
gant pronunciation , such words as weben, flebt, and ſtrebt
( weave, cleave, strive ) are uttered with a sharp sound.”
These two sounds of the long e, the close or acute and the
open , cannot be distinguished by comparison with any cor
responding sounds in our language. Nor is it easy to furnish
any rules which shall embrace all the instances where the
one or the other sound is to be given . The rule most com
monly given , is the following: the vowel e is close or acute
when it stands before the letter h, as in Ehre, honor ; when
it is doubled, as in Seele, soul ; and when it standsin a mon
osyllable ending in a single consonant. It is open when it
concludes the first syllable of a word of two syllables, as I es
ben, to live ; B e - ſen, broom . But a critical lexicon alone
can guide the student in this intricate matter.
All the sounds of the letter e may be arranged thus :
1. Long, ( 1 ) The close or acute sound , the e fermé of the
French, as in the first syllable of ſe-hen, to see.
(2 ) The open sound which is nearly the e ouvert of the
French , as in the first syllable of Wesſen , being.
The open e very nearly resembles the softened vowel
ä, which is like the e ouvert of the French.
2. Short, nearly like e in our word help, as in Bett, bed ;
Feld, field.
3. Obs cure, * in all unaccented syllables, like å in the Eng
lish word sofà, except before liquids where it sounds
like e in the last syllable of the English word heaven .
This e is generally found in prefixes, like ge in geliebt,
* It is altogether a false impression which some have re

ceived that this sound of e may be disregarded in pronuncia
tion.
loved ; and in terminations, as in the last syllables of

Lieb -e, love ; gebae n , to give . In the word be-freunds
e-t e n, they befriended , it occurs in all the syllables ex
cept the second. This sound of e is likewise short ;
yet the chief characteristic is not its quantity, but its
peculiar sound. It must not, therefore, be supposed
that these two short sounds correspond to the two long
sounds given above.
f.
The letter i has two sounds,
1. Long, as in mir, to me, pronounced mere.
2. Short, as in mit, with ; Kind , child , resembling the Eng
short i in pin. Perhaps the sound is more exactly
given by ee in the English word been , when rapidly ut
tered.
The long i stands alone only in the following ( originally )
German words ; viz. Igel, hedgehog ; dir, to thee ; mir, to
me ; wir, we ; in a few words of foreign origin , as Bibel,
Bible ; Tiger, tiger, etc. and in siren, the termination ap
pended to foreign verbs adopted in German ; as, curiren,
to cure ; ſtudiren, to study. The four pronouns, ihm , ihn,
ihr, ihren add the letter h as the sign of i long. In all other
cases the long sound of i is expressed by ie, which is there
fore not a diphthong. There are a few instances in which
the e, the sign of length , is omitted in order to distinguish
two similar words, as wider, against , and wieder, again.
Variations from these rules are unauthorized by present usage.
The simple i in ie is restored, when , in declining , the word
receives an additional e . For it is not usual to write i with
two e’s after it. Therefore, die Poeſie, the poetry , in the
plural die Poeſien, pronounced Poeſi- en, because it stands
for Poeſie- en ; die Gopie, the transcript, pl . Copi-en ; die
Melodie, the melody , plur. die Melodi- en ; das Knie, the
knee, plur. die Kni-e, for die Knie-e. Thus, id ) ſchrie, I
cried ; ſie ſcyri-en, they cried , for ſie ſchrie - en . In such in

stances, i and e are sounded by themselves. Likewise, in
the following words : Das Hi-eroglyph, the hieroglyphic ;
die Hiſtori-e, the history ; die Comödi-e, the comedy ; die
lilice, the lily ; Schleſi-en , Silesia ; Spani-en , Spain ; der
Spani-er, the Spaniard ; die Ari-e, the air , music.
is 1. Long, as in Ro-re, rose ; Strom , a river , and has the

same sound as in the English word bone.
2. Short, as in Roß, horse ; Op-fer, sacrifice, which is not
exactly the same as the English short o in got, but
has the sound of the long German o without its du
ration.
u.
This vowel is the same in German , as in the Italian , Span
ish and Portuguese languages ; that is to say , when long, it
sounds like the English o , in to , do, move, prove. When
short, it resembles the obtuse u of the English, in bull, full,
bushel.
It is never pronounced like the long u, in use, mule, fuel;
nor like the short, in dull, gull, custard.
Ý
as a vowel , by itself, has the sound of the French u , and the
German ü, of which see below. Thus it is, generally, pro
nounced in words derived from the Greek , in which it stands
for the vyidov.* It occurs, however , but seldom , and , I be
* The Romans probably pronounced it in the same manner.

For they confounded it with the vowel u , which seems to have
had the sound of the French u . This appears in the word Syl
la , which was also spelt Sulla ; and in lacryme, which was like
wise written lacrumæ, from the Greek duxqvu. Thus Suria, for
Syria, in some editions of Tacitus. Ann . II. 77, 78, 79, 81 , 82,
83. Clupeus, for clypeus, or in an abbreviated state (upon some
lieve, only in foreign terms and proper names. The Dutch

have it in their language, and pronounce it as the long Eng
lish i. The French assign to it the sound of their i ( English
ee ) , and call it the Greek i, I grec. In imitation of them , it
is by some Germans spoken in the same manner, viz . like i .
But the other mode is , undoubtedly, to be preferred.
Most frequently the y is seen in coalition with the vowel
e, and it thus forms a diphthong, equivalent to the German
ei, or the long i of the English. As it expressess no other
sound than the last mentioned, for which the language already
has a sign , it appears to be superfluous. And we may ob
serve of this letter in the German alphabet, what Johnson*
said of it in the English , namely, that “ we might want it
without inconvenience, but that we have it. ” It seems to
have been introduced into German orthography, as a substi
tute for long i, being originally written ii or ij. Hence it
is , in the vulgar schools, sometimes called ii, or double i ;
and by common penmen often marked with two dots, j.
Therefore, they write Juny, July, instead of Junii, Julii,
which properly are the Latin genitive cases. The power of
í being given to y), is evident in the following words : Hoya ,
Hoyersmerda, names of towns; and in the interjections,
huy ! denoting a rapid motion, pfuy ! denoting shame, fie !
which are pronounced as Hoia or Hoja, Hoiersmerda or
Hojersmerda , hui, pfui. This explains the nature of the y,
in cornposition with the e ; and accounts , at the same time,
in some degree , for its use in the English language.
ancient coins) Clu . for Cly. See a note by Gruter to Tacit.

Ann . II. 83. ed. Gronov. Amstel. ; 1685 . It seems to be that
sound, which Quintilian ( Inst. Or. 1. 4. ) describes as being be
tween u and i. Medius est quidam Uet I literæ sonus,
* Grammar of the English Tongue.
f The Dutch retain the double i, ij, in their orthography ;

the Danes likewise in some words, as in the propoun hijn .
The softened vowels. With respect to these, it is usual,

in the German characters, to put the e above the small let
ters, å , o , i . In large letters, it is at the side , as de, De , Ue.
Instead of the e at the top, two dots are often employed , to
indicate the diphthong, as å, 8 , . These dots I hold to be
a corruption of the e, from the current hand -writing, which,
when hastily written , resembles two small perpendicular lines.
9e, 4, 8 .
This vowel is,
1. Long , as in Al-t ä -re, altars, and sounds like e in the
French word fête. It differs from the sound of a in the
English word , name, by approaching to that of a in care
as commonly pronounced.
2. Short, as in Han -de, hands, nearly like e in the English
word, rent.
De, o , ö,
is, 1. Long, as in Tö-ne, tones, Gö-the, and sounds like
the French eu in fleur,jeune.
2. Short, as in D eff -nung, aperture, and is pronounced
like the French eu in the word neuf or oeu in oeuf.
Ue, i , ii,
is, 1. Long, as in m ü-de, tired , and has the sound of the
French u in the word vu.
2. Short, as in Glück-e, success, fortune. It differs from
the long ü only in length.
Ai, or Ay,
sounds broader than the English i, in kite, and the German
ei, ey. It occurs only in a few words, such as der Kaiſer,
the Emperor ; der laie, the layman ; der Main , the river
Main ; die Saite , the cord , or string, of an instrument ; der
Rain , the green , or balk ; der Hain, the grove ; die Waiſe,
the orphan ; Baiern , Bavaria ; der Baier, the Bavarian ; der
May, the month of May. In the middle it is to be written ,

ai, at the end ay.
Sometimes this diphthong is employed in der Waizen, the
wheat ; das Getraide, corn in general: though ei is more
usual, and the most correct.
Ei, or Ey,
is pronounced as the long i of the English, in fine, kind.
Ey should be put : 1. At the end of words. 2. For the
purpose of distinguishing terms of the same sound, and of
different significations : as , ſein, his, and ſeyn, to be. 3. In
compounds, when the component has the y before the com
position, as beyſtehen , to assist ; from bey , and ſtehen .*
Di, or Dy,
the same as in English. It is only met with in a few proper
names ; for instance, Groißſch, Boißenburg ; and in die
Boi, a sort of woollen cloth , baize.
Ui,
has, by some writers, been substituted for ü, with which it
has the same sound : but, as the innovation was unnecessary ,
it very deservingly has been neglected . + Duisburg , the name
of a town , is sounded like Düsburg .I
Au,
approaches the sound of the English ou , or ow , in our, loud,
cow , power ; and of the Italian au ; yet it is neither so broad
* But modern writers use the ei in all the words except

proper names, as, Heyne, Heyſe, Meyer, etc.
† Properly speaking, there was nothing new in it ; for the
diphthong occurs in the most ancient German writings. It
was, however, broached as something novel.
See Adelung's Orthography, p . 143.
as the former , nor drawn out so much , in pronouncing , as

the latter. In the Italian au , both vowels may be distinctly
perceived , whereas , in the German they coalesce so closely ,
as to produce one consolidated sound.
Aeu, äu,
has nearly the same sound as the German eu , resembling the
English oi. It ought perhaps to be uttered with lips more
contracted and rounded, than eu .
Eu,
similar to the oi and oy of the English in boil, toil, joint ,
point, boy, toy ; and to the eu of the Italians. Yet there is
a difference between these, and the German sound ; for which
the pronunciation of a native must be consulted . *
* [ Position of the organs in pronouncing the German vowels

and diphthongs. When the sounds of letters are here com
pared, German letters are always meant. The natural series
of the vowels is a, e, i, o, u. There is a certain point in a
scale descending from near the throat to the lips, where each
sound is formed, or at least seems to be so according to the feel
ing of the organs. A is formed nearest the throat ; e in the
back part of the mouth ; i near the teeth ; o between the teeth
and lips ; u on the lips. Again, in uttering the sound, a (ah )
the lips are opened widest ; in e they approach each other
slightly ; in i they approach still nearer, so that they are closed
at the corners ; in o they are rounded ; and in u they are round
ed and protended.
In pronouncing the softened vowel ä we emit the sound from
the middle of the mouth between the points of e and i with the
lips opened as when we give the sound of a (ah ).
The open e differs from the common or close e by approach
ing near to ä. It is sounded from a point a little farther back
than ä and with the lips opened not quite so far.
In ụttering Ö the organs are placed precisely as in pronoun
cing o, and then an e (a) sound is emitted.
In uttering ü the organs are placed as in pronouncing u (oo)
and then an i (e ) sound is emitted.
In ai is heard first a (ah ), which then, by a gentle pressuire
4
CONSONANTS .
1. Simple : b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, ſ, 8, t, v,
w, r , 3 .
2. Compound : ch , chs , ſch , o , gn , in , ph , pf, pf, th, 6,
B , wr .
is exactly like the English b. But when it ends a syllable,

or stands next to the final consonant or consonants, not being
liquids , it generally is a little hardened , and approximates to
the sound of p.*
The original sound , however, is retained in German, at
the end of a syllable, when the next begins with a b : as in
die Ebbe, the ebb ; die Krabbe , the crab ; die Flabbe, die
of the tongue, passes over into i ( e). This sound is heard in

the common pronunciation of the Greek word xai. It is, there
fore, a different sound from that of ei which is precisely the
English i long. In äu are blended not the sounds of ä and u ,
as would naturally be supposed, but a - ï, as if written aü. This
will distinguish it alike from oi, eu and ei.
The sound of eu is given with tolerable accuracy by blending
the English i and the German ü , ( ei - ï of the German ) into one
sound. In all these uses the two elements must run together
and produce but one sound. This description of the position
of the organs is taken mostly from Wenig . – Ed .]
* The practice is common in many languages; it is even
found in the Russian. And it appears from Quintilian ( Inst.
Qr. 1. ), that the Romans pronounced the b, at the end of a syl
lable like p . — Quæri solet in scribendo, præpositiones sonum quem
juncta efficiunt, an quen separata , observare conveniat : ut cum
dico, obtinuit ; secundam enim b litera ratio poscit, aures magis
audiunt p. Thence b at the end of a syllable is found changed,
in Latin, into p, not only when a p follows, but also before other
consonants . Thus Fortuna Opsequens is read on some Roman
coins, instead of Obsequens. See Eckhel, Doctrina Numorum
Veterum , Vol. VII. p. 24 .
labbe, large hanging lips ; or with a d , as, das Gelübde, the

VOW. Likewise in words in which the letter e after b, is, by
a contraction , omitted : as das Diebsgeſindel, a pack of
thieves ; die Screibgebühr, the clerk's or copyist's fee ; die
Schreibart, the style of writing ; die Hebamme, the midwife ;
das Knäblein , the infant boy ; der Knoblaudy, the garlic
for das Diebesgeſindel, die Sdyreibegebühr, die Schreibeart,
die Hebeamme, das Knäbelein, der nobeland ).
B , in the pronunciation of some English words, is left out
before t, as in debt, doubt ; but such elisions do not exist in
German .
ei
before the vowels a, 0, 11, and the diphthong an , and before

a consonant , is pronounced like k ; which is the same as in
English.
Before e, i, y, ä, ö, ü , ei, ey, ie, it is like ts, and the same
as the 3 of the German , and the sharp z of the Italian lan
guage. Thus, Centaur sounds like Tsentaur ; Cicero, l.
Tsitsero ; Cylinder, l . tsylinder ; Ceylon, 1. Tseylon ; Cås
ſar, Tsæsar ; the Latin cælum , 1. tsælum .
In some proper names, it is pronounced like k, before ä,
ö, ü, as in Gärnthen , Carinthia ; Göln, Cologne ; Cöthen ,
Güſtrin , names of places.
From the above it appears, that S partly shares the force
of , and partly that of 3 ; and , consequently, may be con
sidered as superfluous in the alphabet. On this ground , it
has been condemned by some writers , who, in its room , adopt
f and 3, as the occasion requires. It must, however , be pre
served in foreign words and proper names ; and it is also
wanted for the composition of some double consonants : so
that it cannot be entirely relinquished. It should , therefore,
be suffered to remain , where it is established by Jong usage,
though no other reason should be obvious.
40 On Orthography and Pronunciation . P. I. Ch. 1
D.
This consonant is of a similar nature with B : namely, it
sounds like the English d , at the beginning of a syllable, or,
which is the same , before a vowel in the same word ;* and
hardened a little at the end of a syllable. Therefore, das
Bad, the bath , is pronounced nearly like bat ; die hand, the
hand, hant ; der Hund, the dog, hunt. That difference of
pronunciation is also to be met with in other languages.
When a word , ending with d, is, in declining, augmented ,
so that d no longer remains at the end , but begins the next
syllable, then the soft sound is restored. For instance, die
Hand, is pronounced nearly like hant ; plur. die Hände, pr.
hän -de, not hänte , because d is no longer at the end of the
first syllable, but commences the second , or stands before a
vowel , in that word. Thus der Hund, pr . hunt ; pl . die hun:
be, pr. hun -de, not hunte.
This letter keeps its original power, when another d fol
lows; as, der Widder, the ram ; Edderitz, Eddelſe, Eddies
hauſen , names of places ; Nidda, Nidder, names of rivers.
And , likewise, when e or i is left out by contraction ; as, du
fandít, thou didst find ; der Tadler, one who finds fault; der
Adler, the eagle ; der Sdyulduer, the debtor ; die Ordnung,
order, arrangement; die Handlung, the deed , action ; dem
Würd'gen , to the deserving, etc. for fandeſt, Tadeler, etc.
To these may be added the words ending in ling ; as, der
Frembling, the stranger ; blindlings, blindly ; in which o
retains its soft sound.
Di was formerly written in many words which at present
are spelt with d or t ; das Brodt, the bread ; das Schwerdt,
the sword ; are now written Brod or Vrot, Schwert. The
double letter is only continued in a few words ; for instance ,
* Provided the word is not a compound. For in compounds
each component has its separate pronunciation : аs, die Hand
arbeit, the work of the hand, is nearly like hant-arbeit ; die
Mundart, the dialect, 1. munt-art.
in todt, dead ; die Stadt, the town ( to distinguish it from

die Statt , the place) , and in such as have suffered an elision
between d and t ; for example, geſandt, sent , from geſendet ;
ein Geſandter, an ambassador ; beredt, eloquent, from bes
redet ; but beredſam , Veredſamkeit.
F,
perfectly the same as the English , in full, find .
G.
This letter has been mentioned in the introduction . Its
true sound is that of the English g , in go. After e, i, ä, o ,
ü, l, r, it has a peculiar lingual sound nearly like that of ch
after the same letters, but a little softer. See ch below .
The g is doubled only in die Flagge, the flag of a ship ;
die Dogge, a bull dog ; die Egge, a harrow.
When preceded by 11, G, at the end of some words , is
nounced nearly like a gentle k ; as in der Ring, the ring ;
der Geſang, the song or hymn ; das Ding, the thing; der
Klang, the sound ; ich fing , I caught ; der Gang, the man
ner of walking, gait ; jung, young ; lang, long. But when a
vowel is added , by inflection , to any such word , g resumes its
own sound ; as, des Geſanges, dem Ringe, ſie fingen . It
maintains the same, according to some authors, in the middle
of the following words : die Tungfrau , the virgin ; vergängs
lich , perishable ; empfänglidy, susceptible ; langſam , slow .
In my opinion, it would be an advantage to the pronuncia
tion never to vary it.
G, in the middle of a word cannot begin a syllable ; there
fore, der Finger, the finger, must be pronounced fing -er ;
Dinge, things , ding - e ; Hoffnungen , hopes , hoffnung - en .
Compound words are excepted from this observation . For
example, angenehin ,* agreeable, being a compound, is read
* Though in some places, they speak this very word ang
enehm .
4*
an -genehm ; angefangen , begun , an -gefangen ; ungeduldig ,

impatient, un -geduldig .
In the word das Genie, the genius, it has the soft sound
of the French g, which somewhat resembles the English sh.
For the word itself is French, though it is generally received .
H
is aspirated, as in the English words, have, hold, helmet. :
Between two vowels the aspiration is less strong, and some
times hardly perceptible ; as in die Mühe, the trouble ; blü
hen, to flourish ; die Schule, the shoes.
When it ends a word , it has no sound at all ; as in früh,
early ; der Schul), the shoe ; der Floh, the flea ; das Stroh,
the straw ; id ) ſah, I saw. But its power returns , in some
degree, when the word increases by inflection ; as, die
Sdyube, the shoes ; die Flöhe, the fleas ; ſie ſahen , they saw .
I say , by inflection , not by composition ; for the latter alters
nothing in the pronunciation. For example, in die Strobar
beit, straw- work , composed of Stroh and Arbeit, and in das
Frühobſt, fruit produced early in the season , of früh and
Obſt, the h is void of sound.
Besides its quality as a letter , h is used as a sign , by which
the length of vowels is indicated. It is, in this capacity,
chiefly joined to vowels ( and sometimes to diphthongs ) , when
a liquid ( 1, m, n, r) follows ; as, der Stahl, the steel ; das
Mall, the meal or banquet ; der Stuhl , the stool or chair ;
zahm , tame ; die Bahn , the path or career ; die Fahne, the
ensign or standard ; die Ehre, the honor ; wohl, well ; mehr,
more ; ibin , to him ; ihn, him ; ihr, you ; die Uhr, the clock
or watch ; fitblen , to feel. In all these examples, the h shows
that the vowels are long ; and it is always to be considered
as a sign of length , when it does not begin a syllable.
When a t is in the same syllable , h is generally united with
this letter , preserving its influence over the next vowel, either
antecedent or subsequent; as in thun, to do ; der Wuth, the
spirit, courage ; roth, red ; die That, the deed. In the words,
der Thurm , the tower , and der Wirth, the landlord , the
vowels are not lengthened by the h ; which must be con
sidered as exceptions.
Th is also used in the middle of words; as Athem , Blüthe,
Miethe, and chiefly in the final syllables ath , uth, and thum ;
as Heimath, Armuth, Reichthum .
The lengthening h is observed to have been introduced
into writing since the 15th century , and to have gradually
obtained authority, till in the 17th it was universally estab
lished. It most probably arose from the aspirate, or full
breath ; which , when inserted in the middle of a syllable,
must naturally prolong it. Something like this may be per
ceived in the elocution of the Irish , and perhaps existed in
the ancient Greek . * After the German language had begun
to be cultivated, it seems to have been one of the successive
improvements, to divest it of many of its rough and guttural
sounds. This appears in several instances ; for example ,
words which had formally been expressed with a strong gut
tural ch, were, by degrees , written without it ; for das Viech,
the cattle, was substituted das Vieh ; raudy, rough , was suc
ceeded by rauh . In the same manner, the original sound
of hy, in the middle or at the end , of a syllable, whatever it
might be, whether a guttural , or a mere aspirate , seems to
have been given up ; and though it was preserved in writing,
nothing of its nature remained , except what before was only
adventitious ; I mean , the effect of making the joined vowel
long. Even now , this alteration may, in some words, be
* The spiritus asper, in Greek, is, for ivstance, inserted in the
middle of a syllable, before and after g.
† A striking illustration of the above is furnished by the ad
jective hoch, high ; which , in its first adverbial forin ( see adjec
tives), retains the ch , but in the other forms exchanges it for
the simple aspirate, as hoher, hobe, hobes, der hohe, etc.
In compound words the ch remains ; as in der Hochmuth,
haughtiness ; der Hochvarrath, high treason , etc.
traced . Thus , ſehen , to see , and gehen , to go, are often con
tracted into ſehn , gebn ; er ſiehet, he sees , most frequently
into ſieht ; Anſehen , appearance , into Anſehn . Thun, to
do, was probably written tuhen ; * theuer, dear , may have
been teuber ; Theil, part , Theihel.
Such was , in my opinion , the origin of the prolonging h.t
It was afterwards appropriated as a grammatical sign of length ,
without any regard to derivation . Yet it is not admitted, as
such, throughout the language. The orthography of many
words was too firmly established to receive it. Of this kind
the
are the monosyllables; as, ( thon , already ; die Flur,
fields, the plain ; die Spur, the vestige ; der Schwan , the
swan ; der Plan , the plan ; and others, which , though pro
nounced long , reject the h, as an index of their quantity.
With these may be joined such as double their vowels, for the
purpose of making them long : as der Aal, the eel ; das
Meer, the sea ; das Boot, the boat, etc.
The lengthening h has not escaped the attempts of ortho
graphic innovators , but their efforts to banish it from the lan
guage , have, in this, as in other instances, proved fruitless.
I,
resembles the English y , in the beginning of a word , and be
fore a vowel , as in ye , year, yes , youth ; or the Italian j. It
chiefly occurs at the commencement of words : as ja, yes ;
jagen, to chase ; das Joch, the yoke.
It,
is like the English K. When a double sound is required , c
* Mosheim actually adopted this mode of writing.

† Adelung (Orthogr. p. 194, 246 , 248 , 168,) supposes that this
h took its origin from the thy, which , he says, existed, at first, as
a inere modification of the letter t, and afterwards served to
give more tone to the vowels near it.
is put before it, as in English . This can be necessary only

after a vowel ; as , der Nacken , the nape : das Becken, the ba
sin ; der Stock, the stick ; and even then , not always. But
after a consonant it is a useless addition , and ought to be ex
cluded , where general custom does not defend it. It is, ac
cordingly, erroneous to write , das Marck, for das Marf , the
marrow ; das Werck, for das Werf, the work. In proper
names , this as other anomalies, must be suffered to remain.
The of has been objected to by certain reformers, who , ac
cording to their several fancies, have replaced it by t, or ff.
Their notion , however , has not obtained any great currency ,
except in some compounds , as Denkkunſt, Kalkfeller. There
are even compound words in which cf is retained before f,
as Didkopf, Druckfoſten , Rückfehr .
f, M, N, P,
are the same as in the English , and other languages.
is always joined with the vowel u ; it then has the sound of

k, in every language , the u being more or less heard . In
English , the pronunciation dwells long on the u , and produ
ces a broad or extended sound ; this is also the case in Ital
jan ; but the Germans utter it short, which makes the sound
of qu more slender than it is in those tongues. Yet the u is
not entirely omitted , as is done in French .
R.
This consonant is, in a great degree , deprived of its natu

ral force and shrillness, by the English mode of pronuncia
tion ; but it has them full and entire in German , where it is
uttered with a strong vibration of the tongue . In English , this
sound is particularly slight at the end ; whereas the Germans
pronounce it very distinctly.
In der Rhein, the Rhine, die Rhone, the Rhone, the R is
followed by h : which is copied from the Latin Rhenus and

Rhodanus.
S,
has two sounds, as in English ; the sharp, and the soft.
The sharp sound is that which is heard in sink, sit, salt,
so ; and at the end , in this, thus , yes , surplus, stress , bliss,
ass , fuss.
The soft sound resembles the English s in the words bo
som , wisdom , desire, present , and at the end of eyes , trees ; or
the z, in zeal, zone, brazen , freeze, prize. But the German
S is not so close and compressed as the English z. It may
be said to lie between the sharp s of the English , and their z.
The sharp sound takes place before a consonant , and at
the end of words and syllables. The English pronounce the
final S , for the most part, soft, as in was, is , eyes , trees ; which
is the reverse in German.
Before a vowel or diphthong, in the beginning of a word ,
or between two vowels in the middle , S is always soft ; as,
die Seele, the soul ; ſagen , to say ; dieſer, this : die Roſe,
the rose . Also between a liquid consonant and a vowel : as ,
die Hülſe, the husk ; die Amſel, the blackbird ; die Gänſe,
the geese ; virſe, millet ; die Perſon , the person . To which
may be added those instances, in which e is thrown out after
the 8 : as , er bläf't, he blows, for bläſet ; er raſ't, he raves,
for raſet.
The sharp sound may be doubled , and is then expressed by
ff in the middle , and ß at the end of a word : as , das Waſſer
(Was-ser) the water ; laſſen, to leave, or let ; wiſſen , to
know ; der Haf, hatred ; dos Schloß, the castle, also the
lock ; häßlic , ugly ; er ißt ( for iffet), he eats.
The sound of vowels or diphthongs before ſť, as before any
double consonant ( see the next section ), is generally short or
slender.
The sharp sound has been considered as so peculiar a modi
Sect. 3 . Pronunciation of Letters . 47
fication of the letterſ, that it has been marked with a dis

tinct sign , ß , and a particular appellation, namely , sz . Such
a mode of distinction does not seem to be superfluous, though
the name may be deemed objectionable. We should , there
fore, write ß, wherever the letter ſ departs from the rule in
the manner described : for instance, aßen , Muße, fließen ,
gräßen . Wen ß is found at the end of some monosyllables,
in which the vowels are pronounced long, it is employed with
a view to the inflection and changes of such words : as, ich
aß , I did eat , ſie aßen, they did eat ; groß, great , ein großer
Mann , a great man ; der Ruß, the soot, gen . des Rußes.
S appears , frequently, united with ch ; and thus produ
ces a strong hissing sound , equal to the English sh , in shade,
she, show . But even when single , that hissing aspiration is,
by many given to it, if a p or t follow . They pronounce
ſprechen , to speak , as sprechen ; der Spaß, the jest, as
shpass ; der Speer, the spear, as shpeer ; das Spiel, the
play , or game, as shpiel ; ſtehen , to stand, as shtehen ; der
Stein, the stone , as shtein .
They do not confine themselves to these two letters ; but
speak in the same manner , in words beginning with sk, sl,
sm , and sc ( when c sounds like k) . For instance, das Skelett,
the skeleton, as shkelet ; der Slave, the Slavonian, as Shlave ;
der Smaragd, the emerald , as Shmaragd ; der Sclave, the
slave, as Schlave ; der Scudo, an Italian coin , as Shcudo .
Likewise, in the middle and at the end of words , between the
letters r and t : as , der Durſt, the thirst, similar to Dursht ;
die Bürſte, the brush , as Bürshte ; die Gerſte, the barley, as
Gershte ; der Fürſt, the prince, or sovereign, as Fürsht ;
garſtig, nasty, as garshtig. To this latter way of pronounc
ing they admit , however, some exceptions, as the second per
son of certain verbs ; du warſt, thou wast ; du wirſt, thou
becomest; du lehrſt, thou teachest ; and the ending of the
superlative degree in ſte ; der erſte, the first ; der ſdwerſte,
the heaviest , etc. This way of pronouncing the S is, chief
ly , prevalent among the inhabitants of Upper Saxony ; but it

has also been adopted by others, who have thought it a pecu
liarity of the High German. It is, in fact, nothing more than
a provincial mode of speaking in Upper Germany. There ,
this hissing aspiration is attached to the S, not only in the
instances mentioned , but in many others ; such as isht, bisht,
Chrishtus, Versh, Marsh , for iſt, biſt, Chriſtus, Vers, Mars .
T
the same as in English. Before i, with a vowel following , it
sounds like ts ; as, die Auction , the auction ; die Rection , the
lesson ; die Faction, the faction ; die Portion, the portion ;
thus in pronouncing Latin , as gratia :—which words are
read Auctsion , Lectsion , gratsia, etc. But when an s pre
cedes, it keeps its proper sound, as quæstio . 2
.
There is not the smallest difference between this letter and
F ; so that one of them might be removed from the alphabet.
Words , even of the same origin, are promiscuously spelt with
one letter and the other : for instance, voll, full, füllen, to
fill ; vor, before, and für, for.
Between two vowels, or diphthongs, it is by some pronoun
ced like the English v : as in der Frevel, the crime ; der
Stüver, a German coin ; der Sclave, the slave.
D,
resembles the V of the French , Italians, Spaniards, and oth
érs, but not so exactly that of the English. For the V of the
latter has in it a considerable mixture of the f *, of which the
German W is destitute. The English V is emitted with a
strong pressure of the upper teeth to the lower lip ; but the
* Hence it is justly considered as the flat f, and as bearing

the same relation to this letter, as b to p, d to t, g to k , and z to :
W of the Germans comes forth with only a slight contact of

the teeth and the lip. It is very different from the English
W , which is uttered with the lips contracted , or rounded,
without touching the teeth, and sounds nearly like oo .
The sound of the German W seems to be between the v and
w of the English . It demands particular attention ; for the
inhabitants of this country often fail in its pronunciation .
Examples : das Waſſer, the water ; not to be spoken as
Vasser, or as Wasser , English ; but the German W to have
a sort of middle sound , between the English V and W ;
thus der Weg, the way ; die Welt, the world ; die Wolle,
the wool ; das Wunder , the wonder ; ewig, eternal , etc.
W is mute , in English , before the letter r, as in write,
ap, wrong ; and in some other instances, as answer, sword,
wholesome : but is never so in German.
X,
sounds like ks : as in die Art, the ax ; die Here, the witch ;
das Eremple, the example - like Akst, Hekse, Eksempel.
3,
is, without any exception, pronounced as ts ; for instance,
die Zahl, the number ; zu, to ; zehen, ten — like Tsal, tsu,
tsehen . Consequently , it resembles the z of the Italians.
T is prefixed to 3, for the purpose of doubling its sound ;
therefore, ş (tz ) is equivalent to zz, which the Italians make
use of. This consideration will determine when ß ought to
be employed. It is never required after a consonant , be
cause there can be no need of a double letter ; but it may , in
most cases, be admitted after a vowel . It is proper to write,
feßen , to put ; but it would be less accurate to insert a t in
das Herz, the heart , Hertz ; because, in the latter , a conso
nant already precedes the 3. The occasions, where z and
should be used , have not always been justly distinguished ;
and some degree of confusion has thence arisen , respecting
5
this letter. But the matter is very plain , if considered in the

point of view which has been stated. Some persons, in the
mean time, have , by these irregularities, been provoked en
tirely to deprive the ß of its functions ; and , where the dou
ble sound of z is unavoidably to be expressed , they write 33 .
But it will appear, from what has been said , that they have
been too hasty in their proceeding.
Ch.
The English language furnishes nothing, with which the
sound of this character may be compared . I can , therefore ,
not hope, in describing it, to be understood by those, who are
barely acquainted with their native tongue. This sound is
twofold,
Guttural, and
Palatal.
The Guttural is entirely formed in the throat, and answers,
in a great degree, to the Welch c or ch , the Scotch ch , in
Loch, and the Irish gh in Lough ; also to the Spanish x, in
decar, and the j of the same, in lejos.
The German ch, however, is not so deeply guttural as the
examples adduced. It takes place, when joined to the vowels
a, o, u , and the diphthong au . Examples : Ady, alas ! das
Dach, the roof; nocy, yet ; das Joch, the yoke ; hech, high ;
das Buch , the book ; der Geruch, the smell ; der Strauch ,
the shrub ; der Rauchy, the smoke. Those vowels are in
some words full-sounded ; as, brach , ſpracy, hoch, Buch ; in
others, they are slender, as in nach, dod ), Gerud ).
The Palatal sound arises from a strong appulse of the
breath against the palate ; and is assigned to Cly, when pre
ceded by e, i, ä , ö, ü, äu, eu . Examples : der Hecht, the
pike ; ſchlecht, bad ; das Licht, the light ; der Dichter, the
poet ; die Dächer, the roofs ; die Löcher, the holes, from the
singular, das Loch ; die Bücher, the books ; die Sträuche,
the shrubs ; der Leuchter, the candlestick. It is also admit- .

ted with other vowels, when between them and the ch a liquid
intervenes, as in mancher, ſolcher, durch . According to
present usage, ch begins no word of German origin except
Charfreitag, Good- Friday, Charwoche, the week before Eas
ter , and Churfürſt, Elector. Most of the words in which it
occurs are derived from the Greek.
At the beginning of most words which do not come from
the French , it sounds like : as , Chriſtus, Christ ; der
Chriſt, the Christian ; Chriſtian , Chriſtoph, proper names ;
dyriſtlidy, christian, adjective ; der Character, the character ;
die Charte, the map , or chart ; die Charwoche, Passion- week ;
Charfreitag, Good - Friday ; das Cher, the choir ; die Chro
nick, the chronicle ; die Chronologie, chronology.
In words borrowed from foreign languages, for example ,
from the French , it keeps the sound which it has in those
languages ; as, Charlotte, Chagrin, Chicane, Chevalier,
Charlatan ; in which it is pronounced like the English sh.
French words, when naturalized in the German language,
are even written with ſch, as Sdjaluppe, shallop.
Chs,
is precisely the same as ks, or cks. This, for instance , is
perceived in the words das Wachs, the wax ; der Dachs, the
badger ; der Fuchs , the fox ; der Flachs, the flax ; die Büchle ,
the box ; die Achſel, the shoulder : which are pronounced like
Vaks, Daks , Fuks, Flaks, Bückse.
But it is to be understood , that the three letters must con
stitute one character , and consequently all belong to the same
syllable. For they may , by chance, meet , and have the same
appearance ; but, being without those requisites, their pro
nunciation differs : as in wachſam , vigilant ; nachſehen, to
connive at ; where the ſ does not appertain to the same sylla
ble in which the ch stands. For these words are read wach
sam , nach - sehen .
When an elision of any vowel has happened between ch

and s, these characters must likewise be uttered separately :
for example , des Buchs , for Buches, gen. case , from das
Buch, the book ; des lochs, for Poches, from das Pody, the 1
hole ; er ſprachs, for ſprach es, he said it ,—which must be
pronounced with the guttural sound , and s following, Buch - s,
Loch -s, sprach -s. 1
Schy,
like the English Sh in she, shine, dish, dashing . 2
It is to be observed , that Sch must form one character , in
order to authorize that mode of pronunciation. Soinetimes
an 8 will accidentally come before ch , without coalescing with
it. Examples : Das Bischen, the little bit ; das Röschen ,
the little rose - spoken Bis-chen, Rös-chen.
Ef, see se ,
On, and An,
are not to be spoken through the nose , as foreigners are gene
rally disposed to do ; but in such a manner , as if a very light
e were inserted before the n ; for instance, die Gnade , the
mercy , as if Gěnade ; der Kinabe , the boy, as if Kěnabe .
The insertion of this e may at first be some assistance in the
attainment of those letters ; but it ought soon to be laid aside.
The K is never mute before n, as it is in English , in the
words knife, to know , etc. It must always be pronounced ,
in German
Ph,
is equivalent to F : as, der Philoſoph, the philosopher , like
Filosoph ; der Ephen , the ivy , l . Efeu. It is the same in
English.
Pf, and Ps,
require a compression of the lips before either for f is sound
ed : das Pferd, the horse, is thus distinguished from fährt,
Sect. 4. Accent. 53
of the verb fahren ; der Pfeiler, the pillar, from die Feile,
the file , and from das Veilchen , the violet. There are very
few words with ps : der Pſalm , the psalm ; der Pſittich, a
parrot.
Th,
is pronounced like T, and has never the sound of the En
glish Th, or the Greek 9. The h, added to t, is merely a
sign of length to the vowel next preceding, or next following.
See letter H.
T3 ,
see letter 3.
SECTION IV.
ACCENT.*
The rules of accent in the German language are very sim

ple. The fundamental principle is, that the accent rests up
on the most important part of the word, which, in simple
words , is the radical syllable ; and , in compounds, is that
part of the word which is most prominent in signification .
Herein the German differs from the Greek and other lan
guages which are highly rythmical , and which regard the
sound, in accentuation , more than the sense.
But while the chief accent falls, with few exceptions, up
on the root of simple words , and upon the more conspicuous
part of compound words, there is often a secondary accent
given to the subordinate part of the compound, especially if
it be a noun, or an adjective, or any word having a distinct
* No German scholar will be surprised that, in this section

on accent, Nöhden has not been followed. It is the least phi
losophical part of his work.-ED.
5*
signification by itself. The secondary accent is also extend

ed to those terminations ( in derivative words ) , which contain
a long vowel or diphthong, or which begin and end with a
mute.
Syllables added by inflection , inseparable prefixes and the
terminations e, and e with the liquids ( el, em , en , er ) , and
generally those not included in the last rule , are wholly des
titute of accent. In the word fandídiaften, provinces, as in
our word, half-hourly, the first syllable is accented ; the se
cond has a secondary accent ; the last is unaccented . In
the words , Ritt-er, knight, rider , ord-enltid ), regularly,
properly , the accent is on the first syllable, because it is the
radical syllable . When a word is compounded of two sub
stantives ( as rail-road, steam -boat, and house-rent in English ) ,
the first syllable has the primary accent, because it is rela
tively the most important to the sense. So in all such words as
Weißbrod , white -bread ; Weinglas ,wine-glass ; Haupts
mann , captain . The following words, which Nöhden repre
sents as having the demi-accent on the first syllable, and
others like them , are now generally pronounced with the pri
mary accent on the first syllable, and the secondary on the
second ; großmüthig, langweilig, leichtdenkend, leichtfertig,
glückſelig, nothwendig, baufällig, merkwürdig.
For the same reason , all the separable compound verbs
have the chief accent on the first syllable ( i. e. the particle ) ;
as, a b-nehmen ,to take away ; a uf- ſteigen , to ascend ; a us
gehen, to go out.* In inseparable compound verbs, the first
syllable never has the accent. When the same verb may be
separable or inseparable, as the sense requires , the accent
must vary accordingly .
'The prefix, un, when it implies mere negation , is generally
* The preponderance of the preposition in such compounds

is clearly illustrated in certain elliptical expressions ; as, Die
Thur iſt zu ( geſchloßen ), er iſt zurüch ( gekommen ) .
Sect. 4. Accent. 55
unaccented. This is the case , most commonly, in adjectives

derived from verbs ; as , inſterblich, inſträflich), untröſtlicy,
unglaublic ), unmöglich, unfehlbar, unſchätzbar. When it ex
presses not only a negation , but a sense directly contrary to
that of the word to which it is prefixed, it takes the accent.
So in un gleich , dissimilar ; unächt, spurious ; un fruchtbar,
barren ; un brauchbar, useless ; undeutlich, obscure ; un
edel, base ; un geduldig, impatient; ungeſund, diseased ;
Unglück, misfortune ; Unſinn , folly, and many others. This
rule , as might be expected , has many exceptions.
Words compounded with über, unter, um , wider, and
miß, when they are substantives, are accented on the first
syllable. Indeed, it seems to be generally the case , that such
particles have a prevailing sense , and consequently take the
accent, in substantives, even where the corresponding verbs
place the accent on the radical part of the word. Examples :
Uebergabe, surrender ; Unterhalt, support ; Umfang,
compass, extent ; Widerſtand, resistance ; Mißgunſt, ill
will ; Urſprung, origin ; Antwort, answer .
When particles are compounded with each other the ac
cent is placed on the last part of the compound ; as , dar ein,
therein ; bis her, hitherto. Wärts, however, does not take
the accent ; as, a bwärts , aufwärts, vorwärts . The
same is true of mals, halb, reit, noch, wegen, and weiſe, in
composition. They all throw back the accent upon the first
component part of the word ; as in da mals , außerhalb,
dießeit, den nodi , meitetwegen , and theilweiſe . AU ,
in composition , does not receive the accent , except in the
words Alerbarmend, Ad durchlaùtigſt, allerwärts , all
madit, a ll ſeitig, a ll tags, All vater, a ll zu , alſo, and per
haps a few others.
The accent is, in a few instances, carried forward one
syllable when an adjective termination is added to a noun ;
as A U -macht, au-mäсh -tig ; Bal- fam , bal- fa m - iſch . The
56 On Orthography and Pronunciation . P. I: Ch. 1 . $1
anomalous accent of the word , le- bend -ig may , perhaps, be

explained in a similar way.
The final syllable ei in substantives always has the accent ;
as Reimer-ei, rhyming ; Spieler-ei, trifling. So also i in
iren, the termination attached to foreign verbs ; as, dociren,
to teach ; marchiren , to march.
The terminations of derivatives, which have the demi-ac *
cent, are ling, ſchaft, thum , heit, keit, bar, ſam , fal, niß,
lein, chen, and a few others with a long vowel , or a short 4
vowel between two mutes. 1
The prefixes, be, ge, emp, ent, er, ver, zer, zu as the sign
of the infinitive, the terminations , e, el, ell, em, en, er, ern ,
ig, ich , icht, iſch), and all not included in the rule given above,
are entirely devoid of accent.
Dissyllabic particles , uncompounded , are accented on the
first syllable. Allein, alone, is not an exception , for it is
compounded of all , and ein, one.
Foreign Words.
Most foreign words are accented on the final syllable. In

attempting to account for this we must consider three things.
1. Words derived from the Latin and Greek languages
have in very many cases, dropped their final syllables, and
thus brought the accented syllable to the end of the word ; as
Achill (Achilles), Olymp Olympus ), Senat ( Senátus) ,
Instinkt ( instinctus) , Problem (probléma) , Regiment (regi
méntum ), Parlament (parlamentum , modern Latin ) , Altar
(altáre ), Substantiv ( substantivum ), Archiv ( archívum) ,
Statut ( statútum ) , Inſekt ( inséctum ), Advocat ( advocátus),
Argument ( argumentum ), Natur ( natúra ) , and very many
others. Words accented on the antepenult, by dropping the
two last syllables , also bring the accented syllable to the
end of the word ; as Justiz (justítia) , Inſtanz ( instántia),
Virgil (Virgilius) , Horaz ( Horatius) , Antiquar ( antiquárius ) ,
Sect. 4. Accent. 57
Princip (princípium ) , Adverb ( Advérbium ). In nouns that

increase in the genitive the German like the Italian , French ,
and Spanish, ( in the Latin word natio, It. nazione, Fr. na
tion, Sp. nacion ,) adopts not the shortened form of the nomi
native , but the increased form of the oblique cases, and then
drops the final syllable. The effect of this mode of derivation
is to give the accent to the last syllable, as in Nation ( na
tiónem ) , Religion ( religiónem ), Student ( studentem ), Re
gent ( regéntem ) , Agent ( agentem ) , Ambulant (ambulantem ).
2. In later times , many foreign words have been adopted
from the French , which , of course, retain the French accent.
Words from other modern languages have frequently the ac
cent on the last syllable , either because they came through
the French , or because the terminations were so changed as
to make the accented syllable the ultimate syllable. Perhaps
the principle mentioned below ( 3) , has had its influence here.
As a general rule words that are borrowed from other lan
guages without change of form retain their proper accent.
3. There was a tendency during the Middle Ages , not on
ly in the German , but in all the languages of Southern Eu
rope , to apocopate Latin and Greek words, and , by changing
the accent of the original word from the antepenult to the pe
nult , to give the new word a final accent. Akademie, Aldis
mie, and other words ending in ie with the accent on it, are
not modern words , derived from the French, but they belong
ed to the old German long before the flourishing period of
French literature. We cannot say that any one of the mod
ern languages borrowed these peculiarities from the others.
They were common to all .
Latin words that retain their original form in the German
retain their accent also, as Doctor, consilium .
The most common terminations which , by apocope, have
the accent regularly on the final syllable of words borrowed
from the Latin or Greek are the following.
58 On Orthography and Pronunciation . P. I. Ch. 1 . 1
iſt, for Lat. ista ; Gr. coins as Evangeliſt, evangelísta, évay

γελιστής..
tät, Lat. tatem , Fr. tè ( old Fr. tet and tait) ; It. tè ; Sp. tad,
as libertät, libertè ( and tet ) libertad from the Lat.
libertátem , in the oblique case.
ös, for Lat. osus, as ambitiös from ambitiosus.
enz, for Lat. entia, as Audienz from audientia.
iz, for Lat. itia, as Miliz from milítia.
ion , for Lat . ionem , as Auction from auctiónem .
ent, for Lat. entem, as Student from studentem , so ant.
al, for Lat. alis, as Cardinal from cardinális.
ar, for Lat. are, as Altar from altáre.
The Latin terminations which are usually dropped in this
way are, o, a, e, um, us, ium, ius , is and es.
The following have the accent , contrary to the principles
of Latin and Greek pronunciation , unless, in some of them,
we suppose the Greek accent, not the quantity , to govern the
pronunciation :
log , as in Theolog, Aſtrolog, etc. Lat. theologus, Gr . 980
λόγος, etc.
nom , as in Aſtronom , Lat. astrónomus, Gr. å otpovóuos.
nym, as in Anonym , Lat. anonymus, Synonym, however, is
regular, as it is from synonymia.
ie, as in Theologie, Geographie . When adjectives are form
ed from these nouns in ie, the accent returns to its
proper place, as theologiſch, geographiſch, accented on
the penult.
Some foreign words have become so perfectly incorporated
into the German language , that they are pronounced as if
they were German . The terminations e, el and er, do not
even in foreign words bear the accent . In some cases the
principles of both the German and the foreign language con
cur as to accent . Examples of foreign words accented on
the penult , Magiſter, Tempel, ( témplum ) , Theater , ( theá
trum ) , Kloſter, Muskel, ( músculus ) , Pantoffel, ( pantoufle ,
Sect. 1 . Letters. 59
Fr. ) , Faſele, Cabale, Antipode, Eleve, ( elève, Fr. ) , Gonfir

mande , ( confirmandus), Vagabunde, ( vagabúndus ) , Agende,
(agenda ), Alabaſter , Apoſtel, Bibel, Artifel, ( articulus ) , to
which many others might be added.
In such words as Profeſſor, pl . Profeſſoren , Studium , pl .
Studien , the accent is the same in both numbers as in Latin .
The termination iſ for Lat. icus, Gr. lxos, or rather for the
feminine form of these, does not generally take the accent ;
as logik, Rhetorik, Symbolik, Dogmatif, etc. The accent
in these and similar words is on the last syllable but one. A
few , however, follow the analogy of several languages de
scended from the Latin , particularly the French and the
Wallachian, and take the accent on the ultimate syllable ; as
Kritif ( critique ) , Musif ( musique ) , Antik ( antique ), Katho
lik ( catholique).
CHAPTER II. *
ON THE FORMATION OF WORDS .

CONTAINING
1. Letters.
2. Derivation of Words.
SECTION I.
LETTERS.
There are some peculiarities in the letters employed in

German , which render a peculiar classification of them ne
* This chapter which is entirely wanting in Nöhden is sup
plied from the Larger Grammar and the School Grammar of
Becker. The leading views of that distinguished grammarian
are here presented in a modified form.-Ed.
60 On the Formation of Words. P. I. Ch. 2. 1
cessary. This is the more indispensable as the changes

which the letters undergo in various combinations can be
systematically exhibited in no other way. In regard to artic
ulation they may be divided thus , beginning with those which
are articulated most imperfectly and ascending by regular
gradation to those whose articulation is most complete :
Vowels, a, e, i, o, 11 ;
Liquids , l, m , n, r ;
Spirants ,* h, j, f, w ,
Mutes, b, c , d, f, ( v ) g, f, p, t.
The proper sibilants are ſch , B ( 8 ) and 3 .
1. Vowels are either,
( 1 ) original , a, i, u , or
(2 ) derived , e, o.
The latter are derived from the former, namely, e from i and
a ; o from a and u ; examples , the word leſen, to read , comes
in place of the old German liſan ; ſoll, should, from ſcal ;
Sonne, sun, from Sunna .
The vowels a, v, u are often softened into å, ö, ü when a
termination containing the vowel i, or e is annexed, as Madyt,
power, mächt-ig, powerful; Sohn, son , Söhne, sons ; Mund,
mouth , münd -lich, oral. In the old German only the letter i
softened those vowels when following them ; and hence in
modern German while the letter i produces the same effect
uniformly, the letter e does it regularly , only when it is de
rived from i, not when it is derived from a . All the vowels,
including the softened vowels, are capable of being sometimes
long , sometimes short.t Vowels are much more mutable
than consonants, as may be seen in the variations of werden,
to become, wird, ward, wurde, würde, geworden ; as also in
binden , to bind , and its derivations, Band, band , Bund,
* Spirants, i. e. those consonants which are formed by the

breath , are not to be confounded with aspirates which have a
rough breathing. A new term is adopted from necessity.
† For the rules, see the end of the chapter.
Sect. 1 . Letters. 61
league, Binde, fillet, bündig, compact, (un )bändig , unman

ageable.
2. The mutes may be arranged as they are in Greek , with
the exception of one place, which must be left vacant, as the
Germans have no sound corresponding to that of the Greek
letter 9.
Smooth Medial Aspirate

Labials P b f
Palatals k g ch
Linguals t d
For the palatal sound ch the Germans have no single let

ter , but its organic variations are subject to the same laws as
those of the simple letters. The letter t has two cognate
sounds, the sharp hissing B ( a simple letter , which always
stands at the end of a syllable and is sometimes written 8 ,
and which , when doubled , is written ſ * ) and the still sharper
sound of 3 ; examples, groß, Faß, weiß Nuß, es, das , was ;
Low German , grot, Fat, witt, Nott, et, dat, wat ; English , 4
great, vat, white, nut, it, that, what. So Zeit, ſitzen ; Low +
German , Tid, ſitten ; English, time, sit.
A final consonant (of a word or syllable ) after a short
vowel receives a fuller or sharper sound, and is therefore
commonly doubled ; as Ritt, ſtritt, the first a noun from
reiten , to ride , the second the praeterite of ſtreiten , to con
tend. If the consonant be already double, or followed by
another in the same syllable, no change is necessary.
Medials (b, g, o,) when doubled , are generally changed
into smooth mutes , (p, f, t, ) or into aspirates ( f, ch ,) ; as,
*
See, however, Nöhden's views under the letter S.
6
62 On the Formation of Words. P. I. Ch. 2.
ſie d-en, to boil, fott, the praeterite ; leid-en,* to suffer,

litt, the praeterite ; wieg-en, to weigh, Ge-wich -t, weight;
fli e g-en , to fly, flück ( c is used for ff ) fledged , and Flucht ,
flight; treib-en, to drive, Trif-t, ( drift) pasture ; ge b
en, to give, Gif-t, ( a dose given ) poison. For this reason a
medial is rarely found after a short vowel.
The letters g and b, after a short vowel, and immediately
before t are changed not into k and p, but into ch and f ; as,
mög-en , may , m o du-te might ; bieg-en , to bend , B u chat,
( a bend) bay ; flagsen , to strike, to slay , Schl a ch-t,
slaughter, battle ; S dyre i b-en , Schrift; Gift and Trift
as above.
3. The liquids have a weaker articulation than the mutes,
and therefore are frequently interchanged ; as Pilgrim , La
tin peregrinus ; Schinken, ham , and Schenkel, ancle , shank ;
Kirche, church, and the Upper German Kilch ; Kind, and child
in the English ; Himmel, heaven , and himins in the Gothic ;
Boden, ground, floor, podum in old German and bottom in
English ; Buſen , puoſum in old German and bosom in Eng
lish ; Beſen , broom , peſamo in old German , and besom in
English. The letter r is often interchanged with ſ ; as in
fieſen, to choose, erkoren, chosen ; frieren , to freeze, Froſt ;
verlieren , to loose , Verluſt, loss ; war and was in Low Ger
man and English.
4. Strengthening of the beginning and end of syllables.
When a spirant or a mute stands before a liquid at the begin
ning of a word , the liquid alone belongs to the root ; the let
ters prefixed only strengthen the form ; as ſchmelzen com
pared with ſmelt and melt ; kneipen, and nip . When after
a short vowel at the end of a word a mute (not belonging to
the word by derivation ) follows a liquid , the mute merely
* The syllables are here, and in many other places, divided

according to etymology. The t at the end of Gewicht, Flucht,
Trift, etc. will be explained under Medial Forms, below .
Sect. 2. Derivation of Words. 63
strengthens the termination ; as in Jeman -d, every one, Nies

man-d, no one, Bran-d , burning, from brennen, and Stan-D
from ſtehen , to stand.
The particle, ge, is sometimes merely an augment, affecting
only the form , and not the sense of a word ( which must be
distinguished from ge, signifying repetition, or having a col
lective sense ), as geſund, sound ; Geſchmack , taste ; gleich ,
(g e leich ), like Glück ( G e lück ), luck.
5. Euphony. This is produced 1. by dropping one of two
similar sounds ; as, thun for thuen ; freut, for freuet ; Mons
tag for Mondtag ; Junker for Jungherr. 2. By inserting
between mutes a liquid or s ; or t between liquids, or a liquid
and w. If an e is inserted, it is only to support the conso
nant sound. Examples, Heid (e ) -l -beere for Heidbeere ; Birts
(e )-n-baum for Birkbaum ; Hochzeit-s -tag for Hochzeittag ;
Lieb-es - brief for Liebbrief ; and eigen -t-lich for eigenlich ;
namen - t-lich for namenlich ; gefliſſen -t-lich for gefliſſenlich ;
mein (e)-t-wegen for meinwegen ; dein (e) -t -wegen for deins
wegen .
SECTION 11.
DERIVATION OF WORD .
The words of the German language may be divided , in re

spect to derivation , into three classes ; viz .
1. Roots , which are limited to verbs ; and of these they in
clude only such as are now, or were originally, ir
regular.
2. Primitives, or nouns and adjectives, corresponding to
their verbs in signification , and in their essential forms,
that is, having the same consonants, with slight varia
tions in the vowels.
64 On the Formation of Words. P. I. Ch . 2.
3. Derivatives, formed from primitives by means of signifi

cant terminations.
1. Roots. li
0
These are always monosyllables to which the termination ,
en, the sign of the verb is appended. The most important
characteristic of this class of words, is that they have a wide ,
generic signification. Usage, in later times, has frequently
FY
given them a much more limited signification than they had
originally. The German , like other languages, has preserved
only a part of its original stock of radical words. Many of
them , that are no longer in use , may be found either in the
old German or in some of the kindred languages, to which M
the etymologist must frequently resort.
The roots of the language that are now in use may be
easily ascertained . They are the irregular verbs ( falsely so
called ) and the following, which were once irregular, but
have now ceased to be so ; viz.
bauen , to cultivate, to build, glühen , to glow,

begehren, to desire, grauſen , to shudder,
bellen , to bark , haften , to adhere,
bläuen , to make blue, hallen , to sound , to resound,
blinken, to twinkle, blink , hinken, to go lame,
blühen, to flourish , jagen , to chase, to hunt,
brauchen, to need, to use, fauen , to chew,
brauen , to brew, kaufen , to buy ,
decken , to cover, kerben, to notch,
dehnen, to extend, kneten , to knead,
dorren, to become dry, frähen , to crow ,
drehen , to turn in a circle , friegen, to war, to obtain ,
drücken , to press , lachen , to laugh ,
fluchen , to curse, lanten, to sound ,
freien, to marry , to woo , lecken , to leak ,
fühlen, to feel leuchten, to shine, to light,
gähnen, to gape , lieben, to love,
machen , to make, to do, ſeihen , to filter,

mähen, to mow , fiechen , to be diseased,
meinen, to think , to be of ſpalten, to split,
opinion , ſpannen , to stretch,
nähen , to sew , ſpeiſen , to take food ,
nagen, to gnaw , ſtreben , to strive after,
neiden , to envy , ſtreuen , to strow ,
neigen , to incline, to wish, ſuchen , to seek ,
nieſen , to sneeze , taugen, to be of use,
rauben , to plunder, theilen, to divide,
rauchen , to smoke, trauen, to trust,
rauſchen , to rustle, to hurl , wachen , to keep awake,
reichen , to reach, wählen , to choose,
reihen , to put in a row , wähnen, to have a conceit,
reuen, to repent, walfen , to full,
rücken , to advance, wallen, to boil up, to well,
fäen , to sow , walten , to act freely, to control,
ſagen , to say, wälzen , to roll , to wallow,
ſalzen , to salt, wehen , to move (of the wind ),
ſchaben , to scrape, wehren, to ward off,
ſchaden , to injure, weilen , to tarry ,
ſchalten , to do, to manage, weinen, to weep ,
ſchauen , to behold , weßen , to whet,
ſchenken, to distribute, to give, winken , to give a wink,
ſcheuen , to shun , wirken , to effect, to work ,
ſchmälen, to chide, wiſchen, to wipe,
ſchmerzen , to smart, wohnen , to dwell,
ſchmieren , to grease, wunſchen , to wish ,
ſchneien , to snow , wüthen , to rage ,
ſchweifen , to move back and zählen , to count,
forth , zerren, to pull , to tear,
ſchwelgen , to carouse , ziemen , to become, to fit,
ſchwißen , to sweat, zünden, to catch fire.
All these originally changed their vowels in conjugation.
2. Primitives.
These are, properly speaking, primitive nouns and adjec
tives, and are thereby distinguished from roots, which are al
ways verbs. They retain the substantial form of their roots,
narnely, their consonants, and , in general , adopt the vowels
of the praeterite tense and of the past participle. They are the
substantive and adjective forms corresponding to these forms
of the verb. The vowels are generally identical , always analo
gous in both. From binden, to bind , are formed the praete
rite , band, and the participle, ge-b un d-en, to which corres
pond the nouns, Band, band ( an instrument for binding, that
which binds in an active sense) , and Bund, a league (that
which is bound , in a passive sense ) . From ſchließen, to close,
are formed ſdyloß , ge -ſchlo fi-en, to which Schluß, clos
ing, conclusion , and Schloß, a castle , something closed or
fastened, are analogous. When the vowel of the root is a,
the nouns generally retain it without change ; as, fa ll-en ,
to fall ; fang-en, to catch ; halt-en, to hold ; rath-en,
to advise ; and Fall, fall, event ; Fang, the act of catch
ing, the instrument used in catching, ( compare Fing-er ,
finger ) ; Halt, hold, support ; Rath, counsel. The same
principle frequently holds in the diphthong , ei ; as ſchreis
en, to cry ; ( chein-en , to appear, and Schrei, cry ; and
Schein , appearance . The primitive nouns and adjectives
"have the same wide, or generic signification as their corres
ponding roots ; and these two classes of words constitute the
basis of the language. They are all properly monosyllables.
Ge when it is joined to them is a mere orthographic form
which does not alter the meaning of the word. The termi
nations er, el, en, which are sometimes appended to primi
tives, are not essential parts of the word ; they are nothing
but variations of dialect. The same words had them in one
dialect , and were without them in others, with no difference
of signification .
2
The primitive nouns are divided into two classes ; viz.

( 1 ) Those of the regular form including all the forms de
scribed above and about a dozen which end in e as the rep
resentative of o in the old German.
(2 ) The medial form including those which add to the
monosyllable (whose vowel varies from that of the root) the
vowel e for the old German a, or i ; or the mutes , t and d
with or without a following e ( t, d, or te, de) ; as, Sprach -e,
language ; Tha-t, deed ; Blüzt e (Blü -the ),blossom ; Zier-de,
ornament. The vowel e alone is added mostly to those roots
which end in a mute ' or double liquid ; and the other termi
nations to those roots which end in a vowel or single liquid ;
as, Grub-e, ditch ; Bitt-e, petition ; Well-e, wave ; and Tha -t,
and Kun - d e, intelligence. These forms with t or d must be
distinguished from those which have these letters in their
root, and from those where d strengthens a final liquid , or
where t stands for it or at in old German ; as, Haupt, head ,
for Houp-it.
After a liquid ſt often stands for t ; as in Gunſt, favor ;
Kunſt, art ; Brunſt, heat. Several nouns in e after r have
transposed these letters; as Dauer, duration ; Feier, festival.
In old German the termination is rá, r belonging to the root.
All primitive nouns indicate something, either active ; as,
Band, and Binde, band , fillet, that which binds, or passive ; as,
Spruch , that which is spoken ; Schrift, that which is written,
or action in the abstract ; as, Flug, flight. It is easy to per
ceive that these meanings naturally run into each other.
Primitive Adjectives.
These hold the same relation to their roots as primitive
nouns do. . All monosyllabic adjectives are primitives. They
also take the augment ge, or the terminations ( not affecting
the signification ) er, el, en, t. The vowel e alone is added only
when the primitive ends in a medial ( b, g, d, ) or 8 ; as g es
wiß, certain ; heit-er, cheerful ; eit -e I, vain ; eb-e n, level ;
68 On the Formation of Words. P..I Ch. 2.
rech -t, right ; geb-e, current ; träg-e, indolent ; blöd-e, weak

(of the eyes, and of the understanding) ; weiſ-e, wise.
From primitive adjectives are formed two classes of adjec
tive nouns. 1. The names of persons and animals ; as Greis,
an old man ; Haſe, hare (hairy ). 2. Neuter abstracts ; as
das Weiß, white, as a color.
3. Derivatives.
They are formed from primitives by terminations, which

essentially modify the signification . Hereby are they distin
guished from those primitives which have received an addi
tional syllable which has no meaning. They are sometimes
formed from roots, and often from other derivatives by adding
a second significant termination ; as Schloß, a lock ( a castle ) ,
Schloff-e r , a locksmith, in which er is not a mere orthogra
phic form growing out of a peculiarity of dialect, but a true
derivative termination, designating an agent, like the same
termination in English ( write, writ -er) and or in Latin ;
Dank, thanks; dank-b a r, thankful; Dank-b a r-ke it, thank
fulness. Reit-e r , rider, is formed directly from the root,
reit-en , to ride, and therefore has a different meaning from
Ritt-e r, knight, from Ritt, ride, which corresponds to ritt,
the praeterite of reiten . So Schneid -e r, a tailor, from
ſchneiden , to cut, and Schnitt -e r, a reaper, corresponding to
ſchnitt, the praeterite of ſchneiden . . The difference in signifi
cation in these different forms of derivation is a mere matter
of usage. But the derivative directly from the root is resort
ed to for the purpose of obtaining a distinct form for a dis
tinct idea, differing from that of the collateral form .
The termination is generally attached directly to the last
letter of the primitive ; but if the ending e, and especially
en ( without meaning ) belong to the form of the primitive,
it is cast off; as, weiſ -licy, wisely , from weiſ -e, wise ;
fnod -ig, bony, from Knock -en, bone. Terminations do not
contain an independent idea ; they only give a particular
form , or a specific application to the general idea of the primi

tive ; as , bünd -i g, binding , valid ; Bünd- n i B, engagement ,
covenant (an abstract form ) ; Bünd - n er, a covenant-er , from
Bund, a league. It will be observed that the vowel u , of the
primitive is softened into ü in the derivatives. The principle
is the same , as in the changes produced by inflection ; viz .
when to the primitive containing any one of the vowels a , o,
u , a termination is added , containing the vowel i, or e ( de
rived from i ) , the first are softened into ä, ö, ü . Such ter
minations are ig , iſch, ing, in , lein , lidy, niß, er, el, dhen , ſel,
and e ; as , mächt-ig ( Macht ), might-y ; närr-iſch ( Narr ) ,
foolish ; Fünd-ling ( Fund), found-ling ; Hünd-in ( Hund ),
bitch ; Mägd-lein ( Magd ), damsel ; wört -lich ( Tort ),
verbally , literally ; Bünden iß ; Schäfer ( Schaf) , shep
herd ; Flüg-el ( Flug ) , wing ; Knäb - ch en ( Knabe ) , little
boy ; Räth-Tel ( Rath ) , riddle ; Gütze (gut ) , kindness.
Many words which formerly ended in i or e, have dropped
these terminations, but retain the softened vowels ; as Ges
ſpräch, conversation ; Geſpött, derision ; Gerüſt, scaffolding ;
Gemüth, disposition. The vowels are not soſtened in primi
tives, except in a few instances where e forms, or , at least,
once formed, a second syllable ; as hülf -e, help ; Thür ( -e ),
door. When ä, ö, üt are found in roots, they are not to be
regarded as softened or changed vowels ( Umlaut ), but as
signs of a provincial pronunciation, which has been adopted.
Between the primitives, and derivative terminations, er , en
( n ) , t and ig are often inserted for the sake of euphony.
They have no influence on the signification. Examples :
leſ-e r - lic), legible ; blei- e r -n , leaden ; Fürſt-e n - thum , prin
cipality ; Glöcf - n -er ( Gleck, bell ) , bell- ringer ; weſen -t-lich
( Weſen ), essentially ; rein - i g- en , to purify.
( 1 ) VERBS.
Derivative verbs are formed from nouns, both primitive
and derivative. The vowel of the noun is generally softened
P. I. Ch . 2 . 0
70 On the Formation of Words.
in the verb ; and the signification of the latter is causative ;

1
as tränken, to water ; ( trinken, to drink ) ; fällen, to fell
( fallen, to fall ) ; from Tranf, drink , and Fall, fall.
If the verb does not soften the vowel of the noun , it is gen À
erally neuter, not causative. Many derivative verbs simply
express the action most naturally associated with the noun,
as in English. Examples: Fifthen ( Fiſch ), to fish ; graſen M
( gras ), to graze. The termination eln , expresses a low de
gree ofaction , and hence often contempt ; as fröſteln ( Froſt ),
to be slightly chilled ; hüſteln , to hack ( huſten , to cough ) ;
wibeln, to make unsuccessful attempts at wit ; Flügeln , to af
fect wisdom ; frömmeln , to wear a sanctimonious face ; jüd
eln , to banter like a Jew. *
(2 ) Nouns .
A. Concrete Forms .
Those in er.
*
This termination designates male persons, and particularly
those who are employed about that which is expressed by the
primitive, or living in the place designated by a proper name
of a town or country , ( Compare the pronoun er, he ) ; as,
Säng -er (Sang ), singer ; Raüb -er ( Raub ), robber ;
Bürg-er ( Burg ) , burgher ; Mainz -e r , a citizen of Maintz ;
Franffurt-e r, of Frankfort ; Berlin -e r, of Berlin . So also
Afrikaner, Amerikaner, Spartaner , Merikaner , Neapolitan
er. When the noun is taken from the name of a people, an
other termination is generally used ; as der Schwabe, the
Suabian ( pl . die Schwaben ) ; der Sachſe, the Saxon ; der
Heſſe, the Hessian.
In a few cases this termination is appended directly to the
root ; and then the vowel of the root is never softened ; as,
Mal-e r, (not Mäler ) , painter, from Malen, to paint.
This idea of a doer or agent is occasionally applied , as in
English , to an animal or instrument ; as, Keil-e r, wild boar ;
Bohr-e r, gimblet ; Zeig -e r, index (point-er ), Drei-e r , a coin

worth three pfennigs. As er and ſie sometimes signify a
he- one and a she-one, so Kater is the male of Kat-z e, a cat ;
and Taub - e r, the male of Zaube, dove. From these are to
be distinguished the orthographic form er, without significa
tion , in such words as, Acker , field, Feder, quill, Bruder,
brother ; and er (equivalent to re ) in those words where r be
longs to the root, as in Feu -e r , fire.
The termination in .
This is a feminine termination , equivalent to our ess in
shepherd -ess. The primitive, to which it is appended, des
ignates a male, the derivative formed by in a female of a
corresponding character : as, Hirt, a shepherd, Hirt-i n, a
shepherdess ; Freund, a friend , Freund-in, a female friend ;
Feind, an enemy , Feind-in , a female enemy ; Roch, a cook ,
Röch in , a female cook . It also designates the rank of a
lady's husband, as Pastor- in, a pastor's wife ; Amtmann -in ,
the wife of a bailif, Profeſſor-in , a professor's wife. It is
sometimes applied to animals ; as low -in , lioness .
The terminations chen and lein .

These are diminutive forms, which are often employed as
terms of endearment. Chen belongs more to the Low Ger
man and lein to the Upper German . In the national lan
guage, chen is generally used when the word ends in a vowel
or a liquid , particularly 1 ; and lein when the word ends in
a mute , particularly a guttural (g, a , ch ): as, Ei- ch en, a lit
tle egg ; Söhn - ch en, little son ; Stühl-ch en, little chair ;
and Bäch -lein , a rivulet ; Büchlein, a small volume;
Wört-lein, a particle, a few words.
The termination ling.

Derivatives with this termination are mostly from primi
tive nouns , rarely from adjectives. They are employed gen
erally to signify persons ; as, Jüng -ling; a youth ; Fremd

ling, foreigner, Flücht-ling, a fugitive. Sometimes it
designates animals and inanimate things ; as Hanf-ling,
the linnet ; Schöß-ling, a shoot. In the modern language ,
the termination expresses contempt ; as in Miet - ling, hire
ling ; Dichter-ling, poetaster. In Konig ( old German , chus
pinc ) , king ; Hering, herring ; Pfenning; a pfennig ; Schils
ling , shilling , and a few others, the old termination is retain
ed , which is scarce distinguishable, in sense, from ling.
B. Abstract Forms .
Nouns in ung .
Words with this termination are nouns with an active sig

nification formed from transitive verbs, which are either com
pound or derivative. The signification of this ending may
be represented by that of ing in English participial nouns ;
as , Belehrung, teaching ; Schwächung, weakening ; die Eros
berung der Stadt, the taking of the city. The formation of
such words from simple roots is a later practice, introduced
not from common life, but from the schools ; as, Sißung, a
sitting ( session ), Biegung , a bending ( bend , inflection ).
When a noun in ung is formed from a reflective or an in
transitive verb, it expresses intransitive action ; as Bewegung,
motion , from fich bewegen ; and the preceding examples,
Sißung, and Biegung.
The termination ung sometimes indicates a result , or per
manent state ; as Erfinding, an invention ; Trennung, sep
aration ( a state ); and is sometimes collective ; as Kleidung,
clothing ; Waltung, forest. Compare this form with the in
finitive, used as a noun , and with the pure abstract form in
the following sentence : Das Unterſcheiden ( to distinguish )
is very difficult ; for der Unterſchied ( the difference between
two things is often so concealed that die Unterſcheidung ( the
distinguishing) the one from the other is hardly possible.
Nouns with the augment ge, and the termination e, thus :

Ge - e. They are collective or frequentative.
1. Collectives are formed from primitive nouns or adjec
tives , and soften the vowel of the radical syllable ; as Ges
dräng-e, throng ; Ge-töf -e, continued bustle ; G e- birg-e,
a chain of mountains. Though the ending e is often drop
ped, the softened vowel remains ; as, G e-büſch , thicket ;
Ge- räth , utensils; Ge- ſtirn ( the vowel here is incapable
of being softened ), constellation .
2. Frequentatives are formed , not from primitive nouns or
adjectives, but from verbs ( roots) and do not soften their
vowels ; as Geſinge, Gerede, continued or repeated singing
and talking. Here also the ending e is often omitted ; as,
Geplauder, tattling, chat.
The termination niß,

generally belongs to nouns formed from derivative verbs with
prefixes, and from primitive nouns, which also , for the most
part, have prefixes. Though this ending, like the English ness,
properly expresses quality ( in the abstract) it is very often ap
plied to things in the concrete ; as, Bedürfniß , want ; Er
laubniß , permission ( from bedürfen and erlauben ) ; Bünd
niß, covenant ; Verſtändniß, an understanding, agreement,
( from Bund and Verſtand ). Hinderniß, hindrance ; Ver :
zeichniß, catalogue, etc. are concrete nouns. Only these four
are formed from adjectives, viz : Wildniß, wilderness ; Fin
ſterniß, darkness ; Geheimniß, secrecy ; Gleichniß , likeness ,
(from wild , finſter, gebeim , gleichy ). This whole class ofnouns
have a more specific sense than their corresponding primi
tives ; as, Bedürfniß ( Bedarf), Befugniß ( Fug ), Empfäng
niß ( Empfang ), Bedrängniß ( Drang ), Verhältniß ( Vers
halt, and Halt ), Kümmerniß ( Kummer ) . In comparison
with ung, the ending niß expresses an act in its external
character, viewed as an event. Thus, Begräbniß means bu
rial; Begrabung, burying ; Verſäumniß , the condition of
7
negligence ; Verſaümung, the act of neglecting or missing ;

. Verlobniß, affiance as an event ; Verlobung , affiance, as an
act.
Sal and fel,

differ only in this , that the former more commonly designates
a condition (happy or unhappy ) and sometimes its procuring
cause ; as, Drangſal, tribulation ; Irrſal, error ( a state, not
an act ) ; Mühſal, distress ; whereas fel expresses the mate
rial result of an action in a passive sense ; as Häckſel, cut
tings, cut straw ; Fegfel, sweepings ; Anhängſel, appendage ;
Räthſel, something to be guessed out , a riddle. These nouns
are sometimes formed from verbs, but more commonly from
primitive nouns.
Si,
in derivatives, formed from verbs expresses repeated or con

stant action , connected frequently with contempt ; in those
derived from nouns, it expresses profession or employment,
and sometimes a place of manufacture ; as , Heuchelei, hypoc
risy ; Schmeichelei, adulation ; Reimerei, rhyming ; and
Dieberei, thieving ; Fiſcherei, fishery ; Brauerei, brewery ;
Druckerei, printing -press.
E , heit, keit,
all agree in signification , and express abstract qualities.
They are formed mostly from adjectives. Nouns ending in e
are derived from primitive adjectives ; as , Dicke, thickness ;
Breite, breadth ; Stärke, strength ; Güte, goodness, from
dick, breit, ſtarf, and gut ; those in heit ( feit ) are formed
both from primitive and derivative adjectives. The primi
tives when they end in a mute or double liquid, generally take
e ; when they end in a vowel or a single liquid , they take
heit ( feit ) ; as , Freiheit, freedom ; Wahrheit, truth ; Furchts
famkeit, timidity. Reit is the same as heit and is used in
words formed from derivative adjectives ( i. e. those that have

received additional terminations ) , and in a few other cases
where however the euphonic syllable ig always intervenes ;
as , Seligkeit, happiness ; Wirklichkeit, reality ; Dankbarkeit,
thankfulness ; and Süß -ig -feit, sweetness, Reichtsig-keit, fa
cility. In a few cases the termination e, as a concrete, is
distinguished from heit as an abstract. Examples : Höhe,
height , Hoheit, highness ; Fläche, a fat, plain , Flachheit,
flatness ; Ebene, a plain , Ebenbeit, evenness ; leere, a vacu
um, Leehrbeit, emptiness.
In the old German, nouns in heit were formed from other
nouns, which signified persons. But of these only the fol
lowing are retained in modern German ; viz . Kindheit, child
hood ; Gottheit, Deity ; Thorheit and Narrheit, foolishness ;
and the collectives, Menſchheit, humanity ( human race ) ;
Chriſtenheit, Christendom ; and Geiſtlichkeit, the clergy.
Schaft and Thum,

are employed chiefly to form abstract nouns from appella
tives designating persons ; as, Freundſchaft, friendship ( from
Freund ); Heidenthum , paganism ( from Heide ). They corres
pond very nearly, both in form and in signification to the
terminations ship and dom in English . They are both used
collectively, ſchaft, of persons, and thum, of things belonging
to certain persons ; as, Ritterſchaft, knighthood ; Prieſter
fchaft, priesthood ; that is , the knights and priests collective
ly ; and Ritterthum and Prieſtterthum , everything pertain
ing to the knighthood and priesthood. Both endings are some
times attached to words not signifying persons, either as ab
stract or as collective nouns ; as Bereitſchaft, readiness ;
Gemeinſchaft, community ; Eigenthum , property ; Heilig
thum , sanctuary
( 3 ) ADJECTIVES.
Derivative adjectives were originally, and are now chiefly,
from primitire nouns ; as, dieb- iſch, theivish ; gold-en , gold

en ; ging dur, current ; brüch -ig, fractured, brittle ; dank
dar, thankful; bebacit-ſam , considerate, from Died, Gold,
ang, ru , Danf, Bedacht.
When adjectives are derived from verbs, they express the
possibility of an act , or a tendency to it ; as , eßbar, eatable ;
Infim , pliable; glaublich , credible ; and dankbar, ſparſam ,
acham, having an inclination or tendency to gratitude,
economy, watchfulness.
39 ,
corresponds to the English adjective termination ý. Adjec
tives in ig are derived from primitive nouns, and mostly from
abstract nouns ; as, zorn-ig, angry ; mächt-ig, mighty ; würd
ig, worthy. Of those formed from concrete nouns, only
wäſſerig, watery ; förnig, of grain, of pure grain, soften their
radical vowels. Blumig, flowery ; waldig, woody; ſandig,
sandy , retain their vowels unchanged. A few are formed
from adverbs ; as, hierig, dortig, jebig, belonging here, there,
to the present, from hier , here ; dort, there ; jeßt, now .
Iſdy,
is the adjective termination for all foreign nouns ; as, logiſch,
phoniit , poctiit , logical, physical , poetical ; for those de
rived from personal appellatives, and proper names of persons,
and places ; as, fnechtich , servile ; weibiſch, womanly ;
Dictuit , thierish ; and Kantijt , Kantian ; Fidytiſch , Fich
tean ; also hinih , Saxon ; tuediji , Swedish ; ſpaniſch ,
Spanish ; murinpirit , of Maintz. To this class belong al
so ironit , earthly ; himinliit ), hearenly ; bölliſty, hellish ;
heiminti, domestic . The termination corresponds to ish in
English. A fèw adjectires in vit , are from abstract nouns,
in which case the termination indicates an inclination to that
expressed by the noun ; as, neidujits, enrious ; jänfijiti, quar
relsome, from Neid, envy : Zanf , quarrel.
!
77
Sect. 2. Derivation of Words.
In proper names of places, if the name was originally a

compound word , the indeclinable substantive termination er
is used for the sake of euphony ; as, das heidelberg -er Faß,
the Heidelberg measure ; die offenbach -er Fabriken , the Of
fenbach manufactories ; die Lüneburg -er Heide ,the Luneburg
heath ; das merſeburg-er Bier, the Merseburg beer, instead
of heidelberg- iſch -e, offenbach -iſch -en , lüneburg - iſch -e, merſes
burg - iſch -e. If the name be not a compound, the termina
tion iſthy is preferred ; as fölniſches Waſſer, Cologne water.
In the old German the common names of persons always
received the ending iſch. At a later period those names which
relate to the government or to domestic life , adopted lich in
the place of iſch ; as kaiſerlich, imperial ; königlich, royal.
Only in weibiſch , womanly ; findiſch , childish ; herriſch , lord
ly, is the old ending preserved.
Bar, ſam ,
express ability and inclination . The former, corresponding
to our adjective termination , able or ible, when attached to a
transitive verb , has always a passive sense ; that is, expresses
what may be done, and an active sense, when attached to an
intransitive verb. Sam, kindred with our some (as in blithe
some) differs in sense, but little from the English termination
full. Adjectives of this class are formed from abstract primi
tive nouns, and from verbs ; as, dienſt-bar, serviceable ; ſicht:
bar, visible ; furcht-fam , fearful (timid) ; fried -fam , peace
able ; dent-bar, conceivable; wirk -ſam , effectual. Gleichy
fam , as if ; gemeinſam , common to all ; genugſam , easily
satisfied, temperate ; ſeltſam , singular; einſam , lonely, which
are formed from other adjectives, are more frequently used
adverbially than adjectively.
En ,
is the same as in English , and is added to nouns, designating
the materials of which anything is made ; as, gold -en , woll
en, ſeid -en , ird-en, golden , woollen , silken , earthen . If the

noun end in a vowel , or in I, n, or 8, the letter r is generally
inserted , for the sake of euphony , between the two letters of
the termination ; as blei-ern, leaden ; ſtähl-ern , of steel ;
thön-ern, of clay , ſtein -ern, of stone ; gläſ-ern , of glass.
gia,
is the same as the English termination ly, forming both ad
jectives and adverbs, and conveying the idea of manner or
likeness. Originally this ending belonged exclusively to ad
verbs formed from adjectives, and Luther generally added it
when an adjective was used adverbially : as flüg -lich handeln ,
to act wisely. But in later times this termination was drop
ped from such words, and is now retained in only a few ; as
freilich, to be sure ; folglich , consequently ; gewßlich , certain
ly ; gänzlich, wholly, etc.
( 1 ) When lich is added to the common names of persons,
it stands for iſch, as is remarked under that termination.
( 2 ) When it is added to primitive adjectives it has a dimi
nutive signification, like the English ish ; as, röthlich , reddish ;
ſüßlich , sweetish.
(3) When it is added to verbs, it is generally used for the
sake of euphony instead of bar (after mutes) , and expresses,
like that, ability, active or passive, as the verb is intransitive
or transitive ; as, beweglich, moveable ; begreiflich, conceiva
ble ; unbeſchreiblich, indescribable ; and beharrlich, tauglich ,
ſterblich, that which can hold out , can be of use, can die.
In some cases lich added to transitive verbs gives them nearly
the sense of active participles, so that the rule for the passive
signification, as given above, is not uniform .
Haft,
from haften, to adhere, or kindred to it, expresses inclina
tion, particularly in words derived from abstract primitive
nouns or from verbs ; as ſündhaft, of a sinful inclination ,
different from ſündlich, of a sinful act, and from ſündig, of a

sinful state, involved in sin. A similar distinction is to be
made between glaubhaft, worthy of belief; glaublich , ( bar ) ,
capable of being believed , (credible ) ; gläubig, one that be
lieves or credits (believer, creditor ).
When added to appellations designating persons, haft sig
nifies resemblance ; as ſchalkhaft, like a rogue ( roguish ) ;
meiſterhaft, like a master (masterly ); rieſenhaft, like a giant
( gigantic ), ſchülerhaft, like a school-boy.
When haft is added to adjectives ( and in a few cases of
nouns) it is nearly equivalent to lich , and the adverbial use
then commonly prevails over the adjective. Sometimes a
new termination is added to produce a third adjective form ,
as, wahr , true ; wahrhaft, real,genuine ; wahrhaftig, which ,
when used adverbially, is a strong asseveration, verily , upon
my word and honor.
Icht,
is probably derived from ig by the addition of t ( igt) , which
would regularly be changed into icht. It is added to primi
tive concrete nouns, and signifies similarity ; and hence can
easily be distinguished, in sense, from ig a collateral form al
ways existing where the other is found. Examples, blumicht,
flowery (like flowers), blumig, flowery ( full of flowers) ;
ſteinicht, stony ( heart, i. e. hard as a stone), ſteinig, stony
( field, i. e. full of stones).
Licht, from lich, has the same signification.
Rules for Long and Short Vowels . *
1. A vowel is long, 1. when it stands at the end of a sylla

ble ; 2. when it is doubled ; 3. when e is added to i (ie ), or
* These rules are placed here, because they could not be

understood before this chapter. - Ed.
h to any vowel ; 4. when it is followed by a single medial

( b, g, d ) or spirant ( h, i, ſ, w ) .
II. A vowel is short,
( a) IN PRIMITIVES, 1. when the next following consonant
is doubled ; 2. when the next letter, if a liquid ( 1, m , n , r ) ,
has another consonant added to it ; as, Kind, child ; 3. when
medials ( b, g, d ) are changed into aspirates ( ch, f) and the
letter t is added ; as, Gift for Gibb ; Schlacht for Schlagg.
( b ) IN DERIVATIVES . The doubling of the consonant de
pends on the accent ; and this belongs to the radical part of
derivatives. The radical part of derivatives, therefore, comes
under the same rule as primitives, because the conditions are
the same. Terminations, monosyllabic particles and auxilia
ries not having the accent ( or emphasis), their short vowels
do not double the following consonants ( -in , in, hat). These,
with a single consonant, are generally short, except they have
a diphthong ( nein ). If they have an accession of a syllable,
they receive the accent, or demi- accent, and then the conso
nant after a short vowel is doubled ; as, Fürſt-in , Fürſts
innen ; hat, hat-te ; des , deffen . Exceptions to the gene
ral rule ; ſtatt, fammt, will, ſoul, fann ; denn, wenn, wann .
2
Sect. 1 . On the Noun . 81
CHAPTER III.
N ' HE NOUN .
CONTAINING
1. The Article.
2. The Gender .
3. The Declension of Substantives.
4. The Declension of Adjectives.
5. The Comparison of Adjectives.
6. The Numerals.
SECTION I.
THE ARTICLE.
There are two articles in the German language, as in the

English ; the definite, which answers to the English the ; and
the indefinite, answering to a or an.
English articles are not declined ; but the German are
varied in their terminations, by four cases, the nominative,
genitive, dative and accusative.
The definite article has two numbers, the singular and the
plural . The indefinite can , from its nature, only have the
singular number .
In the singular, both the articles have distinct endings for
the three genders. In the plural of the definite, one termina
tion serves for all.
82 On the Noun . P. I. Ch. 3.
DEFINITE ARTICLE .
Singular.
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Nominative, der, die, das, the.
Genitive, des , der, des, of the.
Dative, dem, der, dem, to the.
Accusative, den, die, das, the.
Plural.
Nom . die, the,
Gen. der, of the,
for all Genders.
Dat. den, to the
Acc. die, the,
1
INDEFINITE ARTICLE .
Singular.
Masc . Fem . Neut.
Nom . ein , eine, ein, a .
Gen. eines , einer, eines, of a.
Dat. einem, einer, einem, to a .
Acc. einen, eine, ein, a ,
No Plural,
SECTION II.
THE GENDER .
Besides the natural gender, there is in the German lan
guage, a grammatical gender, and these, though they gene
rally coincide where the former is noticed, are in some in
stances directly contrary to each other. As the three gen
* This section is taken entire from Becker,-ED,

Sect. 2 . Gender . 83
ders are applied to inanimate things, a difficulty arises in

fixing upon rules of distinction. The rules drawn from the
meaning of words, are so uncertain as to be nearly useless.
They only furnish a probability, leaving almost every par
ticular case doubtful. The only sure guide is the etymolog
ical form of the word . The exceptions to rules thus formed
fall within so narrow a compass, that they can all be enu
merated in their proper place, and thus certainty can be giv
en to this hitherto uncertain subject. In noticing usage, we
pay more regard to the form of the adjective or article agree
ing with the noun , than to that of the noun itself. In order
to understand the following rules, the student must pay spe
cial attention to the leading divisions of the forms of words
as given in the preceding chapter, especially to primitives,
both in the regular and in the medial forms, and to deriva
tives, and to adjective nouns , both primitive and derivative.
THE GENDER OF PRIMITIVE NOUNS .
1. The Regular Form .

The nouns of the regular form , as , Baum, Bund, Band,
and compounds of the same with prefixes, prepositions, etc.
as, Verdrup, Anfall, Rückfall, etc. are masculine. The ex
ceptions are
( 1 ) The following which are feminine; viz .
Arbeit, labor, Gans, goose,
Bahn, path , Gebühr, due,
Bank, bench , Gefähr, danger,
Braut, bride, Geiß, goat ,
Bruſt , breast, Gewalt, power,
Brut, brood, Gier, desire,
Burg, castle, Hand, hand,
Flur, plain , Haſt, haste,
Flut, flood, Haut, skin ,
Fuhr, ride, drive, Huld , kindness ,
84 On the Noun . P. I. Ch . 3.
Hut, hat, Nuhr, diarrhea,

Rehr , turn , Sau , swine,
( Rückkehr, return ), Scham , shame , nakedness,
Koſt, food , Schar , troop,
Kuh , cow , Schau, show, view,
Rur, cure, Scheu, shyness,
für, choice, Schmach, disgrace,
( Wilfür, arbitrary choice ), Sdinur, lace , cord,
faus, louse, Schur, shearing,
Marf, boundary , Spur, vestige,
Maus, mouse, Stirn, forehead ,
Maut, duties, toll, Streu , litter ,
Milch , milk , Thür, door,
Milz, spleen , Wahl, election ,
Noth , necessity , Wand, wall (of a house ),
Nuß, nut, Wehr, defence,
Pein, pain, Wuth , rage ,
Qual , torment, Zahl, number,
Raſt, repose, Zier, ornament.
Many of these nouns had, in the old German , the feminine 1

ending a , as Quala , Scama ( Scham ), Scara ( Schar ),
Pina ( Pein ), Zala , and belonged consequently to the mid
dle form . Others, as Bank, Bruſt , Spur, have become fem
inine contrary to their original character .
(2 ) Primitive nouns with the augment ge, which are neu
ter. ( Only Gebrauch, Gedanke, Genuß, Geruch, Geſang,
Geſchmack, Geſtanf, Gewinn are masculine ) , and the follow
ing neuters ; viz.
Aas, carcass, Beil, hatchet ,
Amt, office, Bein, bone, leg ,
Antlit , face, Beſteck, case ,
Auge, eye, Bett, bed ,
Bad , bath , Bier, beer,
Begehr, desire, Bild, image,
Sect. 2 . Gender. 85
Blatt, leaf, Heer, army ,

Blei, lead, Heil, health , safety,
Blut, blood , Hemd, shirt,
Boot, boat, Herz , heart ,
Brett, board, plank, Heu , hay ,
Brod, bread, Hirn , brain ,
Buch , book , Holz, wood ,
Dach , roof, Horn , horn ,
Ding, thing , Huhn , fowl,
Dorf, village , Jahr, year,
Ecf , corner , Joch , yoke,
( Viereck , square ), Kalb , calf,
Ei, egg ,
Kind , child ,
Eis, ice , Kinn , chin ,
Ende, end, Kleid, garment,
Erbe, inheritance, Ktnie, knee,
Grz, ore , Korn, corn ,
Facy, compartment, Kraut, herb ,
Faß, cask , Kreuz, cross,
Feld, field, Lamm , lamb ,
Fell, hide , Land , land,
Fett, fat, laub , foliage,
Feuer , fire, Leid, suffering,
Fleiſch , flesh, meat, Lieb , song ,
Floß, float, lob, praise,
Garn , yarn , loch , hole,
Geld , money , loos , lot,
Glas , glass, loth , plummet , half -ounce,
Glied, member, Mahl, repast,
Gold, gold , Mal, time (turn ) ,
Grab , grave ,
Malz , malt,
Gras , grass,
Mark , marrow
Haar, hair, Maß, measure ,
Harz, resin , Maul, mouth ,
Haus, house, Meer, sea ,
8
Mehl, meal, flour, Schock , three score ,

Merk, (in ) , Schwein , swine,
(Augenmerk, aim) , Schwert, sword ,
Moos , moss , Seil, rope ,
Mus, broth , necessity, Sieb, sieve,
Neſt, nest, Spiel, play ,
Netz , net, Stroh , straw ,
Obſt, fruit, Stück , piece,
Dhr , ear, Tau, cable, rope,
Del, oil, Thal, vale ,
Paar, two, a few , Thier, animal ,
Pech , pitch, Thor, gate,
Pfand , pledge , Tuch, cloth ,
Pferd, horse, Verdeck, covering,
Pfund, pound, Verlies , dungeon ,
Rad, wheel, Vieh , cattle,
Reh , roe , Volt, people,
Reich, realm , Wachs, wax,
Reis, twig, Wehr, defence,
Rind, cattle, Weib, woman ,
Rohr, reed, Werg, tow ,
Roß, horse , Werk, work ,
Salz, salt, Wild , game,
Schaf, sheep , Wort, word,
Scheit, stick of wood , Zelt, tent,
Schiff , ship , Zeug, stuff,
Schilf, rush , Ziel, boundary,
Schloß, lock , castle, Zink, zinc ,
Schmalz, lard , Zinn, tin,
Those primitive nouns of the regular form , which take er,

el, en, at the end without any modification of the sense, are
also masculine. The exceptions are ,
( 1 ) The following, which are neuter ; viz.
Alter , age, Eiter, pus,
Bauer , cage, Euter , udder ,
Fuder, cart-load , Ufer, shore,

Futter, case , sheath, Waſſer, water ,
Gatter , grate , Wetter, weather,
Gitter, lattis, trellis, Wunder , miracle ,
Klafter, fathom , Zimmer, chamber,
Lager, bed, camp, Mandel, the number fifteen,
Laſter, vice, Rudel , multitude,
Leder, leather, Wieſel, weasel,
Luder, debauch, Becken , basin ,
Malter, half-cord , 12 bushels , Eiſen , iron,
Meſler, knife , Füllen, foal,
Mieder, bodice , Kiſſen , cushion,
Muſter, model, Laken, sheet,
Polſter, bolster, Leben, fief,
Ruder , oar, Wappen, escutcheon ,
Silber, silver, Zeichen, sign,
Steuer, helm ,
( 2 ) The following, which are feminine ; viz .
Ader, vein , Leiter , ladder ,

Auſter , oyster, Maſer, measles ,
Blatter, pustule, Mutter, mother,
Butter , butter, Natter, adder,
Elſter, magpie, Otter, viper,
Faſer, fibre, Rüſter, elm,
Feder, quill, feather, Schleuder, sling,
Flitter, spangle, Schulter, shoulder,
Folter, rack , torture, Tochter , daughter,
Halfter, halter , Achſel, shoulder,
Kammer, chamber , Ampel, altar -lamp,
Kelter, wine-press, Amſel, black -bird,
Kiefer, pine tree, Angel, fish - hook ,
Klammer, cramp-iron, Affel, wood - louse,
Klapper, rattle, Abel, magpie ,
Leber, liver, Buckel, knob,
88 On the Noun. P. I. Ch. 3.
Deichſel, hatchet, waggon- Nudel, macaroni,

tongue, Raspel, rasp ,
Diſtel, thistle , Raſſel, rattle ,
Droſſel, thrush , Schachtel, box,
Eichel, acorn , Schaufel, shovel,
Fackel, torch, Schaukel, balance, swing,
Feſſel, fetter, Schindel, shingle,
Fidel, fiddle, Schüſſel, dish ,
Gabel, fork, Semmel, roll, bread ,
Geißel, whip , Sichel, sickel ,
Gurgel , windpipe, Spindel, spindle,
Hechel, hatchet, Staffel, step , stair,
Hummel, humble-bee, Stoppel, stubble,
Kugel, ball, Zafel, table , tablet ,
Kuppel, cupola, Trommel, drum ,
Kurbel, crank , Wachtel, quail ,
Mangel , want , Waffel, waffle, cake,
Muſchel, shell , muscle, Windel, swaddling-cloth,
Nadel, needle , Wurzel, root,
Neſſel, nettle,
to which the names of rivers in er, and el may be added ;
as, Aller, Eider, Iller, Iſer, Oder, Ocker, Weſer, Moſel
( Moselle) , Yſſel, etc.
2. The Medial Form .
Primitive nouns of the medial form , as Flucht, Geburt,

Kunde, Sprache, Schlange, are feminine. The exceptions
to this rule are very few ; viz.
( 1 ) Of primitives ending in t, or ſt, the following are mas
culine :
Bedacht, consideration , Drath , thread , wire,
Betracht, reflection, Duft, mist,
Dienſt, service, Dunſt, vapor,
Docht, wick, Durſt, thirst ,
Ernſt, earnestness, Stift, peg, pin ,

Froſt, frost, Troſt, consolation,
Gäſcht, ferment, yeast, Verdacht, suspicion,
Gewinſt, gain , Verluſt, loss,
Saft, sap , Wanſtt, belly of animals,
Schacht, shaft in mining, Wicht, wight
Schaft, handle,
(2 ) Heft, haft, hilt ; Stift, charitable foundation, which

are neuter. Those primitives which had the terminations, it,
at, iſt, uſt, in the old German as Hecht, ( hehit) , pike, a fish ;
Markt ( Marfat) , fair ; Hengſt (Henkiſt ), stud-horse ; Herbſt
(Herpiſt ), autumn , are masculine except, die Angſt, the an
guish ; das Haupt, the head ; das Licht, the light.
3. Adjective Nouns.
( 1 ) Concrete adjective nouns, that is, nouns which were
originally masculine adjectives, agreeing with a word under
stood, and used to designate persons and animals, are mascu
line ; as , der Bote, the commissioned (person ), messenger ;
dez Löwe, the ( low - ing) roaring ( animal ), lion ; der Bürge,
the guarantying ( person ) , surety. Exceptions, die ( and der )
Waiſe, the orphan girl ; Frau , lady; Amme, nurse ; Baſe
and Muhme, aunt ; and the feminines, names of animals,
Mücke, gnat ; Spinne, spider ( spinner ) ; Taube,dove ; Fliege,
fly. Some other feminines appear to have been originally ad
jectives , as Schnecke, snail ; Schneppe, snipe ; Heuſchrecke,
locust ; Blindſchleiche, slow -worm , which are masculine, in
the old German , and have become feminine like nouns in e,
that are not adjective.
(2 ) Abstract adjective nouns are always neuter ; as das
Recht, the right; das Dunkel, the obscure ; das Weiß,
everything white.
The Gender of Derivative Nouns.

1. Derivatives in er, ling, ing, and ig, are masculine ; as,
8*
/
Fiſcher, fisher; Zögling, pupil ; Hering, herring ; Honig,

honey.
2. Derivatives in in, ung, ei, heit, keit, e, and ſchaft, are
feminine ; as, Hirtin, shepherdess ; Stellung, position ;
Druckerei, printing- office ; Freiheit, freedom ; Bitterkeit,
bitterness ; Größe, magnitude ; Freundſdyaft, friendship.
Exception ; Hornung, February, which is masculine.
3. Infinitives used as nouns ; the augment form ( Ge-e ) ;
the diminutives in chen , lein , el ; and nouns in ſal, fel, thum,
and niß are neuter. Exceptions ; der Irrthum, error ; der
Reichthum , riches ; der Wachsthum , growth ;-0 ie Bes
drängniß, distress ; die Befümmerniß, trouble ; die Bes
ſorgniß , care ; die Betrübniß, grief ; die Bewandtniß, situ
ation, state ; die Empfängniß , conception ; die Erſparniß,
savings; die Erlaubniß, permission ; die Fäulniß , indo
lence ; die Finſterniß , darkness ; die Kenntniß ,knowledge ;
die Verdammniß, condemnation ; die Wildniß, wilder
ness. Trubſal is used both as a feminine and as a neuter.
The Gender of Compound Words.

Compound words have the gender of the last component
part ; as, der Kirchenrath, the ecclesiastic council; from
die Kirche, the church , and der Rath, the council ; das
Rathhaus, the council -house, the senate -house, from der
Rath, and das Haus, the house ; der Maaßſtab, a ruler for
measuring, from das Maaß, the measure , and der Stab, the
ruler ; der Eichbaum , the oak-tree, from die Eiche, the oak ,
and der Baum, the tree ; die Mannsperſon , a man , from
der Mann , the man , and die Perſon ; das Mannsbild, the
man , from der Mann , and das Bild ; das Frauenzimmer,
the female, the lady, from die Frau, and das Zimmer ; das
Reitpferd, the saddle -horse, from the verb reiten , to ride,
and das Pferd, the horse. Exception : Mittwoch (Mitt
wochen ) is, according to the best usage , masculine after the
analogy of the names of the other days of the week. Such
Sect. 2. Gender . 91
compounds as der Langohr, long -ear ; der langbein, long

leg, have the nature of an adjective, and agree with a noun
understood ; as the long -eared ( man ) , etc. Der and das
lohn, pay, and der Muth, disposition , as was observed under
the gender of medial forms, sometimes vary in composition .
But in such words as der Arbeitslohn, das Botenlohn , das
Fuhrlohn, das Macherlohn , der Tagelohn, der Wochenlohn,
wages for labor, pay for freight, for making articles ( of
dress ) , for a day's labor , for a week's labor, the gender is not
quite so settled as in the compounds of Muth. But this va
riation in the compounds of Lohn is owing in part , no doubt,
to the fact that lohn itself has two genders with different
meanings.
Gender of Foreign Words.

Foreign words, when received into the German language,
commonly retain their gender. Exceptions : Many nouns,
which have dropped their foreign terminations, have assumed
another gender according to their similarity in form to Ger
man nouns ; as , 1. The masculines , Altar, altar ; Körfer,
body ; Zepter, sceptre ; Tempel, temple ; Punkt, point ;
Ruin, ruins ; Palaſt, palace ; Katheder, desk ; Tribut, tri
bute ; Vitriol, vitriol ; Salat, salad ; Marſch , march. 2.
The feminines, Kanone, canon ; Zitrone, citron ; Melone,
melon . 3. The neuters, Fenſter, window ; Labyrinth, laby
rinth ; Echo, echo ; Fieber, fever ; Pulver, powder ; Bayo
net, bayonet ; Konſulat, consulate ; Triumvirat, triumvi
rate ; Episcopat, office of bishop , and many others, especial
ly those ending in at. As the French language has no neu
ter gender to apply to the names of inanimate things; and as
the English does not use the masculine in such words, there
is a great difference, in this respect , between these languages
and the German. Hence the German gives sometimes the
masculine and sometimes the neuter gender to French mascu
lines, and to English neuters ; as, der Degout (le dégoût ) ,
92 On the Noun. P. I. Ch . 3 .
disgust ; das Billet ( le billet ), billet ;—and from the Eng

lish ) der Park and das Budget, both of which are neuter
in English. In these cases the gender can be learned from
usage alone.
Gender of the names of Countries and Towns.

The proper names of countries and towns are neuter, ex
cept, 1. The names of countries in ei ; as, Turkei, Turkey,
and Lauſīt , Lausace ; Marf, a small territory in Westphalia ;
Pfalz, the Palatinate ; Schweiß, Switzerland, all of which
are feminine. 2. A few compounds, as der Rheingau, a
district on the Rhine ; die Wetterau , an elevated plain in
Hesse - Cassel ; die Wartburg, a castle near Eisenach , which
take the gender of the last component part of the word.
Nouns with two Genders.

Several nouns from different dialects have been received
into High German with the same differences in the gender
which prevailed in the dialects ; and this diversity has been
made use of to mark differences in the signification ; as,
Der Band, binding, volume ; das Band, ribon .

Der Buckel, hump-back ; die Buckel, knob.
Der Bund, league ; das Bund, bundle.
Der Chor, chorus; das Chor, part of a church.
Die Erkenntniß, knowledge ; das Erkenntniß, decree, sen
tence.
Der Gift, gift ( antiquated ); das Gift, poisonous virus.
Der Harz, Hartz Mountain ; das Harz, rosin .
Der Lohn , reward ( in general ) ; das Lohn, wages.
Der Menſch, man ; das Menſch , wench.
Der Schild , shield ; das Schild, sign (of a shop ).
Der See, lake ; die See, sea.
Der Theil, piece ; das Theil, portion.
Der Verdienſt, earnings ; das Verdienſt, merit.
Der Drt, place in general); das Ort, place ( town , village ).
Sect. 2. Gender. 93
Der Bauer, peasant; der Erbe, heir ; der Kunde, cus

tomer ; der Heide, heathen , are adjective nouns ; whereas
das Bauer, cage ; das Erbe, inheritance ; der Hut, hat , be
long to the regular form of primitive nouns ; and die Runde ,
intelligence ; die Heide, heath ; die Hut, heed, belong to
primitives of the medial form . The difference in their signi
fication , therefore, is original, and depends not on gender ,
but on original form . So of the rest not included in the
foregoing list. E. g. der Bulle, bull , is a German word ,
die Bulle, a Papal document, comes from the Latin , bulla .
Der Geißel, hostage ; die Geißel, scourge, has a feminine
form , geiſila , in the old German . Der Kaper, privateer , is
from the French capre ; die Staper, caper, a vegetable, is from
the Latin ( and Greek ) capparis, which is feminine. Der
Kiefer, the jaw, is from fiefen , to chew, a grinder ; die
Kiefer, a fir -tree, is probably from Rien, wood full of pitch,
and Förhe , fir. Der Roth, filth , of unknown derivation ;
but das Roth, cot, cottage, is from the old German , and
hence is sometimes die Kothe in modern German. Die
Mandel, almond , is from the Italian amandola , or kindred
with it ; das Mandel, the number fifteen , has a different ori
gin . Der Mangel, want, is a German word ; die Mangel,
mangle , a rolling-press, is derived from the modern Latin
word mancula, and is therefore feminine. Das Mark, mar
row, has a different derivation from die Mark, mark , bounda
ry, which is feminine in old German , die Marka. Der
Marſch , march , is from the French , marche ; die Marſch ,
fen , is from the English marsh , and kindred with marais in
French. Der Maſt, mast of a vessel ; and die Maſt, nuts
for swine, come from different roots. Der Meſſer, one that
measures, is a regular derivative in er from meſſen , to mea
sure.
Das Meſſer, knife, corresponds to the Low German
mez, and the Dutch mes ; the ending er is a mere provincial
variety, without signification . · Der Mohr, Moor, is from
maurus ; das Mohr, bog, from the old German, muor.
Der Reis, rice, comes from the Latin oryza ; das Reis,
twig, from the old German . Der Thor , fool ; das Thor,
gate, is kindred with die Thüre, Júpa and door. Der Haft,
clasp ; and die Wehr, defence, were probably distinguished
in grammatical form originally from die Haft, imprisonment,
and das Wehr, a dam.
NOTE.-- The following summary from Rowbothom presents

the other method of ascertaining the genders of German nouns.
“ As a general remark it may be observed, that those nouns
which express strength , vigor, energy, or activity, are masculine.
If they express what is soft, agreeable, pleasant, or tender, they
are feminine. If they do not express either of these things, they
are neuter.
Of the Masculine Gender are

1. All names of male animals, persons, gods, angels, and spirits,
as well as all names expressing any office, dignity, quality, sta
tion, or implements used by mechanics, etc. Except das
Geſpenſt, ghost; die Leiter, ladder ; das Meſſer, knife ; das
Mannsbild, or Mannsperſon, male ; das Ruder, oar ; die
Schildwache, sentinel; and all 'diminutives in chen and lein .
2. The names of stones, winds, trees, mountains, fishes, birds, *
seasons,t months, days, ete.
3. Most nouns in en . Except all infinitives, used as nouns,
which are neuters, with some few others ; as das Almoſen,
alms; das Becken , basin ; das Eiſen , iron ; das Füllen, foal ;
das Rüſſen , cushion ; das Leben , fief; das Wappen , coat of
arms; das Zeichen , sign.
Of the Feminine Gender are

1. The names of female persons, and female animals, as well
as pames expressing the dignities, relations, qualities, functions,
* Except die Wachtel, quail; die Amſel, black - bird ; die
Elſter, magpie.
| Except das Jahr, year ; die Jahrszeit, season ; die Fahrs
zeit, anniversary ; die Mittwoche, or der Mittwochy, Wed
nesday.
Sect. 3 . Declension of Substantives. 95
and implements of art peculiar to the female sex. Except das

Frauenzimmer , lady ; das Fräulein, unmarried lady of dis
tinction ; das Menſch, wench ; das Madchen , girl ; das
Weib, woman ; das Weibsbild, female ; das Weibchen, little
woman .
2. The names of rivers are feminine . Except der Rhein,
der Mayn , der Lech , der Necker , der Nil, der Jordan, der
Euphrat, der Po .
3. The names of flowers, fruits, vegetables, etc. Except
der Appel, apple ; das Kraut, herb; der Rettich, radish ;
der Salat, salad ; der Kohl, cabbage ; der Spinat, spinage.
Of the Neuter Gender are

1. The names of countries, towns, and villages ; Except those
ending in ei or ey , and die Schweiß, Switzerland ; and die
Sachfenburg, Saxonburg.
2. The names of metals ; Except der Stahl, steel ; der
Tomback, pinchbeck ; der Zink , zinc ; die Platina, platina.
3. The names of young animals and diminutive objects.
4. Most collectives.
5. Most words beginning with ge, or ending with thum .
6. All infinitives may be used as nouns, and are peuter.
7. The letters of the alphabet ; as das A.”
SECTION III.
THE DECLENSION OF SUBSTANTIVES.

The declensions of German nouns , must, when philosophi
cally viewed, be reduced to two, namely the old or substan
tive form , and the new or adjective form ; as ,
1. Old form , Fuß, foot, gen . Fuß -es , pl . Füß-e.
2. New form , Graf, count, gen . Graf-en , pl . Graf-en .
By comparing the new form with the masculine of the adjec

tive declined with der, or ein, we shall perceive that they
perfectly agree in the oblique cases of the singular, and in
all the cases of the plural. By examining the nouns which
96 On the Noun . P. I. Ch . ?
are declined in this way, we shall observe that they are mo:
ly adjective nouns of the masculine gender. The inference
is obvious : when adjectives began to be used as substantive .
they retained their adjective form and declension , and thus
introduced a new form of declension into nouns. The old
form adds to the nominative singular the termination es to
form the genitive, and e to form the dative ; and this latter
is also the form of the plural. The new form adds to the
nominative singular the termination en to form all the re
maining cases of both numbers.
Old Form . New Form .

Sing Plural. Sing. Plural.
N. Sohn Söhn-e N. Graf Graf-en
G. Sohn-es Söhn - e G. Graf-en Graf- en
D. Sohn-e Söhn-en D. Graf-en Graf-en
A. Sohn Söhn-e A. Graf-en Graf-en
The vocative is always like the nominative and therefore need

not come into the declension . The dative plural always ends
in n, and this remark need not be repeated in each particu
lar case . The n is added so as to make every case in the
plural differ from that of the singular.
Many nouns which were formerly declined after the old
form are now declined after the new ; and a part of them ,
while they retain the old form in the singular, have the plu
ral of the new. Some few nouns of the old form have added
the letter r to e of the plural termination ; as , Büche ( r ),
books, which is retained through all the cases. Primitive
nouns of the old form , if they have the vowels a, o, u, soften
them into å, ö, ü in the plural as will be seen in the exam
ple ( Sohn ) given above. The new form never changes
these vowels. See the plural of Graf. When the princi
ples of declension are once understood , the student needs to
direct his attention only to the form of the genitive singular
and to the nominative plural. All the rest will follow of
Sect. 3. Declension of Substantives. 97
course. If the genitive singular ends in en, the other cases

end in it also. If the genitive singular omits the lettere
( in es ) the dative omits it also, and the letter s, to form the
genitive, is all the change there is in the singular number.
The exceptions to these remarks are but a few individual
cases. If it be remembered that the dative plural always
ends in n, the form of the nominative plural gives the form
of all the cases in the plural .
Euphonic Changes.
The omission of the e in the genitive singular depends
wholly on euphony. The omission cannot ordinarily take
place under the full accent. In nouns of two or more sylla
bles, if the last syllable has no accent, or only a demi- accent,
there is an omission of the e in the genitive singular gener
ally , and in the dative frequently, in order to render the pro
nunciation easier, and the sound more agreeable to the ear ;
as in the word König, king, des König-s, dem Konig, in
stead of König-es and König-e .
This omission of the e not only in the genitive and dative
singular, but in all the cases of the plural uniformly takes
place in nouns which have the unaccented terminations, el, er,
en , chen , lein, which are for this reason made a distinct de
clension. In those nouns which have the three last termina
tions ( en, chen , lein ) , the dative plural, already terminating
in n, has no addition .
Other substantives often omit the e of the genitive and da
tive singular. But the practice is limited mostly to nouns
which end in a long vowel and a liquid (1, m, n, r) ; as des
Throns, of the throne ; am Thron , at the throne ; des
Stuhis, of the seat ; am Ziel, at the end , goal. But this
omission can hardly be tolerated, when the noun ends in a
short vowel and any other consonant, particularly a medial,
( b, g, b ). These principles, though unknown to Nöhden ,
can be easily reconciled with his division of nouns into
9
98 On the Noun . P. I. Ch. 3 .
four declensions, which for their convenience and simplicity

we shall retain , changing only their order. The first declen
sion as presented below , corresponds to the old form which
comprehends the largest class of nouns, and should therefore
stand at the head , and not be a supplement to all the rest, as
in Nöhden. The second declension is that branch of the
old form which have the unaccented terminations and there
fore omit e in all the cases of both numbers. The third de
clension is the new form . The fourth includes all the femi
nine nouns. These are not declined in the singular , and in
the plural they have two forms, corresponding exactly to the
plurals of the old and new forms. The four declensions are
best arranged thus :
I. The chief declension , or those which are fully declined
after the old form . It includes all masculine ' and neuter
nouns except those specified below as belonging to the second
and third declensions.
II. All masculines and neuters ending in el, en, er (not
eer, err), chen , lein, and, neuters ending in e . These are
declined by simply adding s to the genitive singular.
III. Nouns of the new, or adjective form ; i. e. all mascu
line nouns of more than one syllable , ending in e (or ſt * ).
This class were originally adjectives of the masculine gender
with der, and consequently terminating in e . Some of them
have dropped this final vowel. These are declined by simply
adding en to all the cases in both numbers after the nomina
tive singular.
IV. The fourth includes all nouns of the feminine gender.
They have no variation of case in the singular number. In
the plural some, mostly words of one syllable , end in e cold
form ); others end in en or n ( new form ). Those which end
in e, el, er , in the singular, take only n in the plural.
* Those in ſt included in Nöhden's rule are mostly foreign

words.-- Ed .
First or chief Declension .

Examples: Tiſch, table ; Buch , book .
Sing Plural. Sing. Plur. in er.
N. Tiſch Tiſche N. Buch Büche ( r )
G. Tiſches Tiſche G. Buches Büche ( r )
D. Tiſche Liſthen D. Buche Büche ( r ) n
A. Tiſch Tiſche A. Budy Büche ( r )
The unusual plural termination er is found in the following

words , which are primitive nouns of the neuter gender ; viz.
Aas, carrion Haupt, head,
Amt, office, Haus, house ,
Bad , bath, Holz, wood,
Bild, image, Horn, horn ,
Blatt, leaf, Huhn , hen , fowl,
Budy, book , Kalb , calf,
Dach , roof, Rind, child,
Dorf, village , Kleid, garment,
Ey , egg, Kraut, herb,
Fach , case, department, Pamm, lamb,
Faß, cask , Land, land,
Feld, field , Licht, light,
Geld , money , Lied, song ,
Gemach , apartment , Mahl, meal , food,
Gemüth , disposition, Maul, mouth (of animals ),
Geſicht, sight, Menſch , wench ( in this sense
Geſchlecht, race, sex, only ) ,
Geſpenſt, spectre, Neſt, nest,
Gewand , garment , Pfand, pledge,
Glas, glass, Rad, wheel ,
Glied, member, Reis, twig ( not Reis, rice ) ,
Grab , grave , Rind, cattle, beef,
Gras, grass , Schloß , lock , castle,
Gut, estate, Schwert, sword,
On the JMR. P. I. Cl . 3 .
1
Zbul, vale, Doli , people ,
Trumn, ruin ( in this sense Weib, woman ;
only ),
and words ending in thum, and Mermal, mark , sign ; Dent
mal, monument ; Grabmal, tombstone ; and many foreign
words ; as, hcípital, Srital, Karmiel, Regiment, Parlas
ment ; and the followingmasculine nouns : Borewitt, Tern,
Geiſt, Gott, Leib, Mann, Ort, Rand , Permund , Wald,
Wurm. A few nouns have both forms of the plural, i. e .
with and without r , but with some difference of character or
import. In some of them , one form is more used in the sim
ple word , the other more in compounds ; in some the one is
more provincial , and the other more dignified ; in most there
is a difference of signification. The general principle is , that 1
the form in e has the more general sense , and implies whole
classes in connection ; whereas the form in er is used to desig- .
nate smaller things viewed singly, though connected . See the
lexicons under the following words ; viz. das Band, der
Dorn , das Horn, das Land, das Mahl, der Ort, das Thal,
das Tuch, das Wort, Ding, Geſicht ( Geſichten and Ge
Richter ).
The following nouns have received the adjective or new
form ( en ) in the plural ; or , in other words, follow the first
declension in the singular, and the third in the plural ; viz,
1. Masculines,
Ahn , ancestor ( rarely used in Nachbar, neighbor,
the singular ), Pfau, peacock ,
Dorn, thorn , See, lake,
( Dörn-e r , provincial), Sporn, spur,
Flitter, spangle , Stachel, prickle, thorn ,
Forſt, forest, Strahl, ray ,
Gau, district, Strauß, ostrich ,
Gevatter , sponsor, Vetter, cousin , uncle,
Lorbeer, laurel , Unterthan, subject,
Maſt, mast, Zierat, ornament.
2. The neuters, Auge, eye ; Bett, bed ; Ende, end ; Hemb,

shirt ; and Dhr, ear. Hemd sometimes has the plural,
Hemder ; and Bett sometimes, Bette . Most of the other
variations mentioned in the older grammars are now anti
quated. The tendency of the language is more and more to
regularity.
Second Declension .
This declension comprehends all those nouns of the mas

culine and neuter gender which end in el ( em ), en, er, chen ,
and lein ; and those of the neuter gender which end in e .
The neuters ending in e are the collectives with the prefix
ge ; as, das Gebirge, mountain range. Very few nouns end
in em . Those in en include all infinitives used as nouns,
and the compounds of ſeyn , which stands for feien . No
paradigm is necessary for this declension , since no other
change is made than simply the addition of 8 to form the
genitive singular. The rule for softening the radical vowels
will be given below.
Third Declension .
This declension , called also the new form (in en ) , com

prehends those masculine nouns, which were originally primi
tive adjectives, or which were of the nature of adjectives and
were regarded as such. They are mostly masculines ending
in e signifying male persons and animals ; as,
der Affe, the ape, der Zeuge, the witness,
der Böhme, the Bohemian , der Haſe, the hare,
der Britte, the Briton , der Junge, the boy,
der elte, the Celt, der Löwe, the lion ,
der Erbe, the heir, der Sclave, the slave.
As it requires a considerable knowledge of etymology to

apply the principle above laid down, it may be proper to par
ticularize still further, and add that this declension includes
9*
102 On the Noun . P. I. Ch . 3 .
the names of people according to their country , profession ,

character and the like. The nouns belonging to this de
clension, which do not end in e, or which have dropped that
termination are
Bär, bear, Leu, lion, ( poetical),

Bauer, peasant, Menſch , man,
Fürſt, prince, Narr, fool,
Geck, fop, fool, Ddys , ox ,
Geſell, journeyman , Schenk, cup -bearer,
Graf, count, Spaß, sparrow ,
Hageſtolz, bachelor , Thor, fool,
Held, hero, Genoß, companion,
Herr, master, Vorfahr, predecessor, ancestor.
Hirt, shepherd,
and several foreign nouns as , Advocat, Monarch, Student,
Chriſt, etc. which will be noticed in their place ; and of na
tional denominatives, a few not ending in e ; as Baier, (Ba
varian ), Barbar, Raffer, Mohr, (Moor ), Tartar, Ungar,
(Hungarian ). Some words which were once declined after
this form , now follow the form of the first or second declen
sion , according to prevailing usage.
The nouns which follow , viz . Fels, rock ; Friede, peace ;
Funke, spark ; Gedanke, thought; Glaube, faith ; Haufe,
heap ; Herz, heart ; Name, name ; Same, seed ; Schade,
hurt ; Sdimerz, pain ; Buchſtabe, letter ; Wille, will , all of
which are primitive nouns (not adjective nouns) in e from old
German nouns in o, are declined after the new form ( in en ) ,
though according to rule they would belong to the old form ,
or first declension. They all add , however , an 8 to en in the
genitive ; as Fried-en- s . Herz and Schmerz, form the ac
cusative, and the latter the dative also after the first declen
sion .
As the form of declension here described is very simple,
viz. the mere addition of en to all the cases in both numbers
after the nominative singular, it will be sufficient to refer to

the example of the new form , Graf at the beginning of this
section.
Fourth Declension .
This declension includes all feminine nouns. They are not

declined in the singular ; and in the plural there are two
forms, e, and en, corresponding exactly to the old and new
forms. If the singular end in e, el, er, the plural never adds
en, but n in its place. All the nouns of this declension form
the plural in en, except the following which form the plural
in e ; viz .
Angſt, distress, luft, air ,

Ausflucht, flight, evasion, Luſt, pleasure,
Art, axe , Macht, power, ( except in com- '
Bank, seat, pounds ) ,
Braut, bride, Magd, maid,
Bruſt, breast, Maus , mouse ,
Fauſt, fist, Nacht, night,
Frucht, fruit, Nath, seam ,
Gans , goose, Noth, necessity,
Geſchwulſt, swelling, Nuß, nut,
Gruft, pit, tomb, Sau , swine,
Hand, hand, Schnur, cord, lace,
Haut, skin, Stadt, town ,
Kluft, cleft, Wand, wall (of a house), 1
Kraft, power , Wulſt, puff, pad ,
Kuh , cow , Wurſt, sausage,
Kunſt, art, Zunft, guild, company ,
Laus, louse, Zuſammenkunft, meeting.
Two nouns , Mutter, mother ; and Tochter, daughter, are

not declined in the plural and follow the second declension,
i. e. differ from the singular only by adding n to form the da
tive plural.
The plural of Sau is Säue ; but when it means wild swine

it is Sauen . The plural of Bank, bench , is Bänke ; but
when it means a bank of exchange, the plural is Banken .
Feminine nouns were anciently declined in the singular,
and vestiges of that practice still remain in certain expres
sions ; as, auf Erden, on earth ; zu Ehren , in honor of ; von
Seiten, on the part of ; vor Freuden , for joy ; zu Schanden
werden , to be disgraced ; zu Gunſten , in favor of. Most of
these and similar expressions belong either to poetry, or to
popular expressions and adages.
Rules for softening the vowels in the Plural.

This change of the radical vowels produced by declension,
when a new syllable, containing i or e, is added, is limited to
primitive nouns and to the old form of declension , i. e . to the
first, second, and part of the fourth declensions. These all
soften a, 0 , u into ä , ö , ü , according to the general principle.
Except,
1. Those in el, er, en, as terminations without significa
tion . While this class of nouns does not generally change
their vowels, there are twenty -one of the number that do
change them ; viz.
Acker, field , Nagel, nail ,

Bruder, brother, Sattel, saddle,
Hammer, hammer, Schnabel, beak,
Schwager, brother - in -law , Vogel, bird,
Vater, father, Faden, thread
Apfel, apple, Garten , garden ,
Hammel, wether, Graben , ditch,
Handel, trade, Hafen , haven ,
Mangel, want, Ofen , stove,
Mantel, cloak , Schaden , hurt.
Nabel, navel,
Magen , stomach, has both forms.
2. The following, which do not change the vowel ; viz.

Aal, eel , Fuchs , lynx,
Aar, bird of prey, Mold ), salamander,
Amboß , anvil, Mond, moon ,
Arm, arm , Mord, murder,
Docht, wick , Pfad, path,
Dold ), dagger, Salm , salmon ,
Dorſcy, haddock , Schaft, shaft,
Eidam, son -in -law , Schuh, shoe, foot,
Gemahl, consort, Staar, starling, cataract of
Halm, straw, stalk , the eye ,
Hauch, breath, Stoff, material,
Herzog, duke, Tag, day ,
Huf, hoof, Trunkenbold, drunkard.
Hund, dog , Unhold, hateful wretch ,
Kobold, goblin, Vielfraß , glutton,
laut, sound , Wiedehopf, hoopoo,
Leichnam , corpse, Zoll, inch.
Lachs, salmon , has both forms.
3. All neuter primitives , not forming their plural in er .
Those which have er in the plural uniformly change the
vowel .
4. The feminines which have the plural in en , as they be
long to the new form of declension , do not change the vowel.
These rules may be recapitulated and presented in a more
summary way.
1. All masculine primitives soften their vowels except those
mentioned above under 1 and 2.
2. All neuter primitives which form their plural in er , and
only those, soften their vowels.
3. Feminines which have their plural in e ( thirty-five in
all, as will be seen by turning to the list given in the fourth
declension ) and Mutter, mother, and Tochter, daughter,
and only those soften their vowels.
Additional Remarks on the Substantives.

I. Most of the nouns substantive have both numbers, the
singular as well as the plural . But there are some, which,
from the nature of their signification , or from the peculiar
usage of the German tongue, occur only in one number.
Few of them want the singular ; the greater portion is defi
cient in the plural.
Those which have no plural , are partly such as are depriv
ed of it , both in English and German , and partly such as are
without it in German alone.
( a) Those which take no plural number either in the En
glish, or in the German language, are :
1. The generic names of certain material substances ; and
some other words of a particular description. For example ;
das Gold , gold ; Silber, silver ; Eiſen , iron ; Kupfer, cop
per ; Zinn, tin ; Blei, lead ; das Elfenbein, ivory ; Erde,
1 earth ; der Thon, clay ; der Staub, dust ; das Holz, wood ;
das Fleiſch , flesh ; der Speck, bacon ; das Schmalz, lard ;
der Talg, tallow ; das Mark, the marrow ; das Mehl, meal,
flour ; das Malz, malt ; das Getreide, corn ; die Butter,
butter ; die Milch , milk ; das Honig , honey ; das Wachs,
wax ; der Speichel, spittle ; der Miſt, dung ; der Ruß , soot ;
der Roſt, rust ; der Schlamm, mud ; der Schimmel, mould ;
der Schmuş, dirt ; der Schnee, snow ; der Regen, rain ;
der Hagel, hail.
2. General and abstract terms, such as : Der Ruhm , glo
ry ; der Raub, pillage ; die Beute, booty ; der Pöbel, the
populace ; das Vieh, the cattle ; der Puß, dress, finery ; die
Vernunft, human reason ; der Wille, the will ; die Stärke,
strength ; die Hiße, heat; die Wärme, warmth ; die Kälte,
cold ; der Gehorſam, obedience ; die Gewalt, force, vio
lence ; die Mühe, trouble ; der Geit, avarice ; der Neid,
envy ; der Stolz, pride ; der Hochmuth, haughtiness ; die

Armuth, poverty ; die Jugend, youth ; das Alter, old age ;
der Hunger, hunger; der Durſt, thirst ; der Schlaf, sleep ;
das Glück, luck, happiness ; der Zorn , anger ; der Eifer,
zeal ; die Eile, haste ; der Fleiß, industry .
(b ) Such as admit the plural in English , but not in Ger
man.
1. The following words, mostly primitives : Der Rath, the
council, also counsel, advice ; but der Rath, a counsellor, has
the plural Räthe, counsellors : der Danf, thanks ; der Vers
ſtand, the understanding ; der Lohn, the reward ; der Rum
mer, sorrow ; der Jammer, affliction , misery ; der Mund,
the mouth ; der Sand, the sand ; die Gunſt, the favour ; die
Liebe, the love ; die Furcht, the fear ; das lob, the praise ;
der Mord, the murder ; der Zadel, reprehension , blame ;
der Zwang, the constraint ; das Leben, the life ; der Tod,
death ; das Unglück, the misfortune ; der Zank, the quarrel ;
der Streit, the contest ; die Ankunft, the arrival ; die Flucht,
the flight, escape ; der Anfang, the beginning ; der Emp
fang, the receipt, the act of receiving; der Unterricht, in
struction ; das Gemurmel, the murmuring ; der Urlaub,
leave, permission ; der Genuß , the enjoyment. If the plural
be required , it must be supplied by a synonymous word, gene
rally a derivative. For instance, der Rath, the advice, coun
sel, pl. die Rathſchläge, from der Rathſchlag, the advice ; der
Rath, the council, pl. die Rathsverſammlungen , from die
Rathsverſammlung, the meeting, or assembly of a council ;
der Dank, pl. die Dankſagungen , from die Dankſagung, the
act of thanking ; der Lohn, reward, pl. Belohnungen, from
die Belohnung, the reward ; der Mund, the mouth , if the
organ of speech be meant, pl . die Zungen , the tongues, from
die Zunge ; if the instrument of eating, die Mäuler, from
das Maul, the mouth ; das fob, praise, pl. die Lobeserhes
bungen, the praises, from die Lobeserhebung, or die fobres

den , from die fobrede, eulogy ; der Tod, death , pl . die
Todesfälle, deaths , from der Todesfall, the event of death ,
or die Todesarten, from die Todesart, the manner of dying,
the kind of death ; der Zank, the quarrel , pl . die Zänk
ereien, from die Zänkerei, the quarrel ; der Streit, the con
tention , pl . die Streitigkeiten, from die Streitigkeit, the con
test ; das Unglück, the misfortune, pl. die Unglücksfälle, from
der Unglücksfall, an unfortunate event.
2. Some names of plants : as, der Kohl, the cabbage ; der
Hafer, oats ; der Hopfen, hops ; das Schilf, the reed ; die
Kreſſe, cresses. Of some the plural is likewise unusual in
English ; viz .: der Klee, clover ; der Knoblauch , garlick ;
der Spargel, asparagus ; der Flachs, flax ; der Hanf, hemp ;
die Gerſte, barley ; der Weizen, wheat. When the plural
is to be expressed, some adjunct must be made use of, such
as , die Art, the kind ; die Pflanze , the plant , etc.: for exam
ple, zwey Kohlföpfe, two cabbages; die Rohlarten , the kinds
of cabbage ; die Kleepflanzen, plants of clover ; die Kleears
ten, or Arten Klee, different kinds of clover. When the
name of the plant ends in a simple e, and the adjunct is to
follow it , the letter n is generally inserted ; as Gerſtenarten ,
Kreſſenpflanzen .
3. Words implying quantity , weight , or measure, are sel
dom used in the plural, although numerals , exceeding One,
should be put before them. Of this kind are :
Der Acker, the acre ; for example, zehn Acker land , ten
acres of land .
Das Buch, a quire ( of paper ) ; ex . drei Buch Papier, three
quires of paper .
Das Bund, the bundle , truss, sheaf ; fechs Bund Stroh ,
six trusses of straw .
Das Dußend, the dozen ; zwanzig Dutzend Wein, twenty
dozens of wine.
Das Faß, the cask ; zwölf Faß Bier, twelve casks of beer.
Die Fauſt, the hand ; vierzehn Fauſt hoch , fourteen hands
high.
Der Grad, a mathematical degree ; hundert Grad, hundred
degrees .
Das Haupt, the head ; vier Haupt Rindvieh, four heads of
horned cattle.
Das Jahr, the year, as a measure of time ; zehn Jahr alt,
ten years old. But the plural here is more elegant.
Die Klafter , fathom , cord ; neun Klafter, nine fathoms.
Das Mal, time, repetition of an act ; as , ein Mal, once ;
zwey Mal, twice ; drei Mal, three times ; vier Mal, four
times ; ſechs Mal, six times.
Der Mann, the man ; as , die Compagnie iſt hundert Mann
ſtark, the company is a hundred men strong.
Die Mark, the mark , a weight ; as, zehn Mark Gold, ten
marks of gold.
Das Paar , the pair ; drei Paar Schuhe, three pair of shoes ;
ſechs Paar Strümpfe, six pair of stockings.
Note.—Sin Paar, also signifies a few ; ein Paar Tage,
a few days.
Das Pfund, the pound ; vier Pfund Zucker, four pounds of
sugar.
Das Schock, a number of sixty ; zwei Schock Aepfel, six
score of apples.
Der Stein , the stone ; vierzehn Stein ſchwer, fourteen stone
weight.
Das Stück, the piece ; ſieben Stück Tuch , seven pieces of
cloth .
Der Zoul, an inch ; fünf Zoll breit, five inches broad .
A few words of measure, viz . those of the feminine gen
der, and the measure of time, are generally excepted from
this rule, such as die Elle, the ell, or yard ; die Meile, the
mile ; ſieben Ellen Tudy, seven ells of cloth ; vier Meilen ,
10
110 On the Noun . P. I. Ch . 3,
four miles ; fieben Ruthen , seven yards ; drei Jahre, three

years ; acht Tage, eight days, i . e. a week . It is to be ob
served, that the substantives, which follow those nouns of
measure or quantity, are not declined , unless either a pro
noun or an adjective be joined with them. When accom
panied by pronouns, they stand in the genitive case, or the
dative with the preposition von, of ; ſedys Pfund dieſes Zuck
ers, or von dieſem Zucker, six pounds of this sugar ; vier
Faß jenes Weines, or von jenem Weine, four casks of that
wine ;-— when by adjectives, they remain in the nominative,
if no other word be in the sentence to govern them ; or if
there be such a word, for instance, a verb, or a preposition ,
they are put in the cases required by either ; as , Schicken
Sie mir drey Dußend guten Wein, und ſechs Pſund feinen
Zucker, send me three dozens of good wine, and six pounds
of fine sugar :-guten Wein, and feinen Zucker, are accusa
tive cases , in consequence of the verb ſchicken , to send. Thus
with a preposition ; Mit zehn Faß gutem Biere, und mit
ſieben Stück fettem Viehe, with six casks of good beer, and
seven heads of fat cattle ; here gutem Biere, fettem Viehe,
are in the dative, on account of the preposition mit. An ad
jective between a numeral and the term of quantity, or mea
sure, corresponds with the numeral , so as to assume the plu
ral form , when the number exceeds ONE ; but it has, of itself,
no effect upon the substantive ; as , ſechs geometriſche Fuß,
six geometrical feet. When , however, a preposition or a
verb governs the adjective, the word of quantity, or measure,
is likewise influenced by it ; as, ein Feld von hundert geo
metriſchen Füßen, a field of a hundred geometrical feet,
where it would be improper to say , Fuß . The word Paar,
nevertheless, departs from this rule, and continues invariable
under those circumstances ; as, Geben Sie mir vier gute
Paar Schuhe, give me four good pair of shoes ; mit vier gu :
ten Paar Schuhen , with four good pair of shoes. Yet the
substantive, after it, is affected by the governing word , as is
Sect. 3 . Declension of Substantives. 111
seen in the last example, where Schuhen is the dative, on

account of the preposition mit. Otherwise, when the term
of quantity itself is governed, and varied in its case, the sub
stantive, after it, may be put in the genitive , or left unaltered ;
as, Von ſechs geometriſchen Füßen Landes, or land . Thus
we say : ein Stück Brod, a piece of bread ; eine Klafter
Holz, a cord of wood ; ein Glas Waſſer, a glass of water ;
ein Spiel Karten , a pack of cards ; zwei Pfund Fleiſch , two
pounds of meat ; die Stadt London, the city of London ;
eine Taſſe Thee, a cup of tea ; eine Handvoll Mehl, a hand
ful of flour.
(c) The following words have no singular : die Gefälle,
the taxes ; die Einkünfte, the revenue ; die Koſten , the ex
penses ; die Unfoſten , the costs ; die Aeltern , the parents ; die
Abnen , the ancestors ; die Beinkleider, the small-clothes ; die
Waffen , the weapons, arms ; die Schranken , the bounds, the
lists ; die Gebrüder, the brothers ; die Geſdywiſter, the bro
thers and sisters ; die Kriegesläufte, the course and events of
war ; die Zeitläufte, the course and events of the times ; die
Leute, the people ; die Molfen, the whey ; die Truppen, the
troops; die Briefſchaften , letters, papers ; die Franzoſen , a
disease ; die Weihnachten , Christmas ; die Oſtern, Easter ;
die Pfingſten , Whitsuntide ; die Gleidmaßen, the limbs ; die
Kaldaunen, the entrails. And some foreign words ; as, die
Speſen , the expenses ; die Sporteln , the fees ; die Repreſſas
lein, the reprisals. Leute expresses the plural of persons in
a perfectly indefinite manner , without regard to the kind or
species ( for which Menſchen, men , human beings is used ) ,
or to sex ( which is designated by Männer, etc. ) . We can
say Unmenſchen, monsters , but not Unleute ; Halbmenſchen ,
half men and half brutes, but not Halbleute . Compare also
Eheleute, married people, and Ehemänner, married men .
DECLENSION OF FOREIGN NOUNS.

New Declension .
1. All foreign nouns of the feminine gender belong to the

new declension and form their plural in en .
2. Most foreign nouns which designate male persons also
belong to the new declension, and add en to all the cases af
ter the nominative singular, especially,
( 1 ) Those which end in at, ant, ent, it, ( Latin atus, ans, ens,
icus ) ; and aſt, iſt, oft, et, it, ot and e (Latin astes, istes, etc. ) ;
as, Advocat, Praelat, Adjutant, Proteſtant, Student, Kli
ent, Katholik, Phantaſt, Pietiſt, Juriſt, Staroſt ( a Polish
magistrate ), Poet, Jeſuit, Idiot, Eleve, Konfirmande ( one
who is to be confirmed ), Vagabunde (vagabond ) , Alumne,
Antipode.
(2) Those which end in log, ſoph, nom, and similar ter
minations of Greek compounds ; as, Theolog ( theologian ),
Philoſoph, Aſtronom , Demagog, Geograph, Patriarch, An
thropophag. All these masculines had , in their origin, the
nature of an adjective, though not always the form .
3. Such masculine nouns, as Tyrann, Elephant, Ronſo :
nant, Quotient, Dufat, Planet, Romet.
Old Declension .
1. Foreign nouns of the neuter gender and most of those

in the masculine follow the old declension , and form the gen
itive in 8, (or es ) and the plural in e, except those in el, en,
er, which drop the e in both numbers.
2. Here belong the appellations of male persons in al, ar , 4
an, aner, iner, from the Latin alis, arius, anus and inus ;
1
as, Kardinal, Admiral, Vifar, Notar, Kaſtellan ( castellain ),
Kaplan, Dominikaner, Benediktiner ; and Abt ( abbot ) , Probſt
(provost ) , Pabſt (pope ) , Biſchof ( bishop ) , Mayor, Matador
(prominent man , matadore ), Spion ( spy ), Patron , Magiſter,
Sect. 3. Declension of Foreign Nouns. 113
Offizier. Most of these nouns which follow the old declen

sion drop the e in the singular, and retain it in the plural; as,
Kardinal ; gen. Rardinals ; dat. Kardinal ; pl . Kardinale.
Sometimes the plural is formed in ien ; as, Vifarien , Nos
tarien , Kommißarien .
Only Hoſpital, Spital, Kamiſol ( waistcoat, vest), Regis
ment and Parlament, have the plural in er ; only Abt, Altar,
Biſchof, Chor ( choir ), Choral ( church music ) , Hoſpital, Spis
tal, Ranal, Raplan ( chaplain ) , Kardinal, Kloſter, Marſch
(march ), Moraſt (morass ), Palaſt ( palace) , Pabſt and Probſt,
soften their vowels ; as, Aebete, Altäre, etc. In General
and Tribunal, usage, in respect to changing the vowel, va
ries.
The following adopt the new form (in en ) in the plural,
while they retain the old in the singular :
( 1 ) Those ending in the Latin unaccented or, designating
males ; as, Doktor ; gen . Doktors ; pl . Doktoren .
(2) Most neuter nouns ending in tiv (Lat. tivum ); as,
Adjectiv ; Adjectivs ; Adjectiven .
(3) Those neuters which in Latin had the termination ium ,
and many in il and al, from the Latin ile and ale. The vow
el i of the plural in Latin is retained before the en ; as, Stu
dium ; pl. Studien ( studia) . Regal ; pl. Regalien ( regalia ).
Several of these nouns are used only in the plural ; as, Kus
rialien ( court forms and titles), Formalien ( formalities ),
Naturalien ( natural or raw productions ), Mobilien ( furni
ture).
( 4 ) The masculines, Aſteriſk, Diamant, Faſan (phea
sant), Kapaun ( capon ), Impoſt, Konſul, Muskel (muscle ),
Pantoffel ( slipper ) , Präfekt, Pſalm , Rubin ( ruby ), Staat
( state) , Thorn , Traktat ( tract) , Zins ( from census ) ; and the
neuters, Inſekt, Atom, Pronom ( pronoun ) , Statut and Verb .
Here also belong Aſpekten ( aspect ) , and Ehepakten ( mar
riage articles) , which are used only in the plural.
10*
Masculine and neuter nouns from the modern languages

very often retain not only their form and accent, but their
plural in 8 ; as , Genies, geniuses; Fonds, foundations :
lords, lords.
Declension of Proper Names.

Proper names of persons form their plural in e if mascu
line, and in en if feminine ; as die Heinriche, the Henrys ;
die Marien, the Marys.
Singular.
In the singular of German proper names , and such foreign
ones as resemble them in form , generally have no other de
clension than the addition of the letter 8 to the genitive.
Not only masculines , but most feminines are declined in this
way . Only the feminines in e are declined after the new
form and these have ens in the genitive ; as Charlotte ; gen .
Charlottens ; dat. Charlotten ; acc. Charlotten.
If masculine names of persons end in 8, ß, ſch , r or 3, they
form the genitive in ens , since they cannot take s ; as Voß ;
gen . Voffens. Formerly other names of males took ens in
the genitive, but this usage does not now prevail. So also
the formation of the accusative and dative in en in masculine
nouns is now mostly out of use.
Foreign names of persons in the above mentioned termina
tions ( 8, B, ſdh, r and 3 ) , especially if they be unaccented,
are not declined ; the cases are then indicated by the article ;
as des Elias , of Elias.
Proper names of countries, cities , etc. , like most names of
persons, undergo no change from declension, except receiv
ing 8, as the sign of the genitive singular, as Magdeburgs,
of Magdeburg. If the form of the word be such as not to
admit of the letter 8, and it be necessary to designate the
case, a noun in apposition is placed before it with the article,
as der Stadt Mainz, of the city Maintz , or Mayence.
Sect. 4. Declension of Adjectives. 115
SECTION IV . *
DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.
When the adjective is used as a predicate it is not declined.

In that form the adjective always is seen when it is uncon
nected with any article or pronoun before, or any substantive
after it. It is in this form , that it is to be looked for in the
dictionary.
As it is not declined , it wants the terminations, which serve
for the purpose of inflection . Examples : gut, good ; groß,
great ; klein , little ; roth, red ; weiß, white. In this shape
it remains, when it is put after a substantive : as, Cäſar flug
und tapfer, Cæsar prudent and brave. It is of no conse
quence, whether the substantive be of the singular or plural
number ; the adjective, when placed after it, is invariable :
for example, Die Römer fühn und herrſchſüchtig , the Ro
mans bold and ambitious. The same after a verb : as, der
Mann iſt gut, the man is good ; die Farbe heißt roth, the
color is called red ; es iſt kalt, it is cold . Nor does the
number of the verb, singular or plural , make any difference ;
as, ſie ſind groß, they are great.
Adjectives have two distinct forms of declension , the old
or complete form , and the new or imperfect form . These
are the terminations :
Old Form .
SINGULAR. PLURAL .
Masc. Fem . Neut.
Nom . er , e, es . Nom . e.
Gen. es , er, es . Gen. er .
Dat . em , er, em . Dat. en .
Acc. en, e, es . Acc . e.
* In this section also Nöbden has been followed only in

part.—ED.
116 On the Noun . P. I. Ch . 3 .
New Form .
SINGULAR. PLURAL .
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Nom . e , e, e. Nom . en.
Gen. en, en , en . Gen. en.
Dat. en, en , en . Dat. en .
Acc. en, e, e. Acc . en.
What has been termed the third form is nothing but a

slight variation from the new form , which is attributable to a
special cause as will be shown below. The inflection of the
old form is the same as that of the definite article der, die,
das.
According to prevailing usage, the genitive singular of the
masculine and neuter gender adopts the new form in the
place of the old ; as groſſen Thiels, in a great measure ; Ein
Stück friſchen Brodes , a piece of fresh bread. In several
phrases, however, the old form is still retained ; as, gutes
Muthes, of good courage ; gerades Weges , right forward.
The ending es of the nominative and accusative neuter of
the old form is frequently cast off, when the adjective has no
particular stress laid upon it ; as, kalt Waſſer, cold water ;
alt Eiſen , old iron ; ſchön Wetter, fine weather.
In adjectives ending in el, en, er , ( without signification ),
the e is dropped in the inflection for the sake of euphony ; as
der edle (not edele) Mann, the noble man ; ein ebner Weg,
a level road ; bittre Mandeln , bitter almonds.
General Rule.
In general the adjective is declined after the old form
when the idea contained in the substantive is expressed in 1
the most indefinite manner, as materials, or an abstraction, or
1
as a genus , in contradistinction to individuals ; as, großer
Rhum, great renown ; friſches Brod, new bread ; mit treuer
Liebe, with sincere love.
But when the idea contained in the substantive is, by

means of an article ( definite or indefinite ) , pronoun or nu
meral ,* which is declined after the old form , restricted to an
individual or to a particular class, the adjective is declined
after the new form ; as , im Angeſicht des ganzen Adels, in
presence of the whole nobility ; er trug ſeiner ſtarken
Speer zuſammt dem feſten Schilde, he carried his strong
spear together with the firm shield.
Special Rules.
1. After ein, kein, mein, dein, ſein , ihr, unſer, and euer ,
which are defective in the termination of the nominative of
the masculine , and of the nominative and accusative of the
neuter gender singular, adjectives borrow these cases from
the old form . The reason is , that the new or imperfect form
can be adopted only where the preceding qualifying word has
the full declension so as to render that of the adjective the
less necessary Wherever the first word is defective in de
clension , the following one must supply the deficiency ; as,
ein junger Held, a young hero, where the masculine termi
nation er is attached to the adjective because it is wanting in
the article ; mein alter Vater, my old father, because we
cannot say , mein er al te Vater.
2. After einige , etliche, fein , ander, viel, wenig, mehrere,
alle, mancher, ſolcher, and welcher, the adjective takes the
old form in e ) in the nominative and accusative plural ; as,
einige, deutſche Raiſer, some German emperors ; viele,
mehrere , or wenige treue Freunde, many , several , or few
faithful friends; feine große Sprünge maden , to make no
great strides. After the word alle, however , the adjective has
the old form in the nominative and accusative plural , only
when it has the chief emphasis ; as , alle noch ſo vers
ſchiedene Bahnen, all these so various courses.
* Under numerals are included all indefinite adjectives of

number.
If viel, wenig, mehr, and weniger are undeclined , the fol

lowing adjective must have the old or complete form of
declension ; as, viel alter Wein, much old wine ; viel
Wichtiges, much that is important ; wenig Srfre us
liches , little that is pleasing.
3. After the personal pronouns ich, du, wir, and ihr, the
adjective takes the new or imperfect form , except in the nom
inative singular, where it takes the old form ; as, id armer
Mann, I, poor man ; du gutes Kind, thou, good child ;
ihr armen Leute, ye poor people.
4. After cardinal numerals, as zwei, drei, vier, etc. the ad
jective has the old and full form of declension, except when
zwei and drei are declined ; as , zwei recht gute junge
Leute, two very good young persons ; and nach Verlauf
zweier fummervoll en , Tage, after two painful days.
5. If, after an adjective declined according to the old form
another adjective follows, the two adjectives are either coör
dinate, or the one is subordinate to the other ; that is, each
equally qualifies the following noun , or while the second qual
ifies the noun simply , the first qualifies the idea expressed by
the noun and its adjective.
( 1 ) When two adjectives are coördinate the second al
i
ways has at least an equal, sometimes a greater emphasis, and
must therefore always have the old complete form of declen
sion ; as , ein weites weißes wallendes Hemd, a
broad , white, waving frock . In all such cases , the adjectives 1
might be connected by und , and.
(2 ) When the last adjective and the noun form one idea
and the first adjective qualifies the whole expression , the last
adjective has not generally the chief stress laid upon it , and
is therefore declined after the new form except in the nomin
ative singular and the nominative and the accusative plural ;
as, mit trocknem (old form ) weiſen ( new form ) Sand,
with dry white sand . Here dry expresses the condition of
the white sand, white sand which is dry.
Adjectives used as nouns follow the same rules as other

adjectives in regard to the old and new forms of declension.
The following examples will sufficiently show the general
principles of declension ; viz . of gut, good with dieſer, this,
and with ein, the indefinite article a or an , of which the lat
ler has no plural.
Singular.
Nom . dieſer gute, dieſe gutte , dieſes gute .
Gen. dieſes guten ,
dieſer guten , dieſes guten .
Dat. dieſem guten ,
dieſer guten , dieſem guten .
Acc. dieſen guten , dieſe gute , dieſes gute .
Plural.
Nom. dieſe guten .
Gen. dieſer guten.
Dat. dieſen guten.
Acc . dieſe guten .
Singular.
Nom . ein guter , eine gute, ein gutes .
Gen. eines guten , einer guten, eines guten .
Dat. einem guten, einer guten , einem guten .
Acc . einen guten , eine gute, ein gutes .
There is no peculiarity in the plural of adjectives when

they follow such words as fein, mein , dein , etc. after the an
alogy of ein . They are the same as when they follow the
plural of dieſer.
It is necessary when an adjective stands alone before a noun
that it indicate the case and gender of the noun as far as pos
sible , because these are very imperfectly indicated by the form
of the noun itself. When two or more words used as adjectives
come together it is equally necessary that one of them should
fully give the case and gender. This one is the first that
stands in order ; and if there be any imperfection in that, the
next must supply that deficiency. If this principle be kept

in view the subject will in general appear very simple. In
the examples given above, dieſer, being the first qualifying
word, has the old full form of declension. There is no ne
cessity for the same particularity in the following word , gut,
which is therefore in the new partial declension. Ein for the
most part answers the same purpose as dieſer, and so far gut
follows it in the same imperfect form as it does the other.
But there are three instances (nominative of the masculine,
and nominative and accusative of the neuter ) in which ein
cannot represent the full declension , and hence gut must in
these instances take the old form , that needless uncertainty
may not be caused as to the gender and case of the noun.
Additional Remarks on the Adjectives.

1. Some adjectives are never declined , and others only
when an article, or pronolin , is before them . Of the first de
scription are, those ending in lei ; as, einerlei, of one kind ,
or of the same kind ; zweierlei, of two kinds ; dreierlei, of
three kinds ; viererlei, of four kinds , etc.; allerlei, of all
kinds ; mancherlei, of several kinds ; vielerlei, of many kinds.
Add to these, allerhand, of all kinds, of all sorts ; and the
word einander, one another, each other ; etwas, something
of, some. Examples : etwas Bier, some beer ; allerlei
Wein , wine of various, or all , kinds ; allerhand Sachen ,
things of all kinds ; mit einander, with one another . Ofthe
second class are, ganz, all, whole ; halb, half. Examples :
without an article, or pronoun , ganz Deutſchland, all Ger
many, or the whole of Germany ; halb Frankreich, half
France, that is, the half of France ; with an article, or pro
noun , der ganze Stamm, the whole tribe, gen. des ganzen
Stammes, etc.; dieſe ganze Stadt, this whole town ; mein
ganzes Dorf, my whole village; die halbe Welt, half the
world.
2. The adjectives viel, much , and wenig, little, may be
used in the adverbial form before substantives ; as, viel

Wein, much wine ; wenig Wein, little wine ; viel Milch,
much milk ; wenig Mildy, little milk ; viel Bier, much beer ;
wenig Bier, little beer . But they ought always to be declined
when they stand alone; they then take the number and gen
der of the noun to which they refer. Wenig is even left in
its adverbial state, though a preposition should go before ; as,
mit wenig Geld, with little money. Viel, after a preposition ,
is generally declined, but not always. When the definite ar
ticle, or any pronoun , stands before these adjectives, they
must be declined ; as, das viele Geld, the great quantity of
money ; gen . des vielen Geldes , etc.
dieſes viele Geld , this great quantity of money ;
mein vieles Geld, my great quantity of money ;
das wenige Geld, the small quantity of money ;
jenes wenige Geld, that small quantity ofmoney ;
dein weniges Geld, thy small quantity of money, etc.
Wenig, with the indefinite article before it, is not declined ,

nor is the article joined with it, inflected ; as, ein wenig
Wein, a little wine ; mit ein wenig Wein, with a little wine ;
um ein wenig Weins willen , for the sake of a little wine.
It has the declinable termination , after that article, when it
is used as a substantive ; as , ein Weniges, a small quantity.
Viel and Wenig sometimes govern the genitive case ; as, viel
Volfes, a great multitude of people ; viel Viehes, a great
number of cattle ; wenig Waſſers, a small quantity of water .
This is rather an antiquated mode of speaking ; but it is not
uncommon to use those words, after the genitive case, in the
following and similar phrases : Es giebt der gottloſen Leute
viel, there is a great number of wicked people ; es ſind unſer
viel, there are many of us ; es ſind ihrer wenig, there are few
of them . The words, der gottloſen Leute, unſer, ihrer, are
genitive cases, governed by viel and wenig. In a question ,
viel and wenig must naturally be placed before the genitive ;
11
as, wie viel ſind ihrer ? how many are there of them ? wie
wenig ſind ihrer ? how few are there of them ? The fact is,
that viel and wenig are , in these instances, invested with the
power of substantives. Synonymous with viel is the word
die Menge, a great number, great quantity, plenty ; as, Vol
kes die Menge, plenty of people ; Neider die Menge, a great
number of enviers ; Weiber die Menge, plenty of women .
What has been said of viel and wenig , applies, in every par
ticular, to their comparatives, mehr, more, and weniger, less.
These also stand adverbially before substantives, and have
the same latitude, and the same limitations, as the former.
Mehr Geld, more money , and weniger Geld, less money .
And, like the others, they occasionally govern the genitive
case ; as, ſolcher Leute mehr, more such people ; unſer ſind
mehr, there are more of us ; ihrer ſind weniger, there are
fewer of them ; where ſolcher Leute, unſer, ihrer, are geni
tive cases. Vieles and weniges, the neuters of the old form ,
occur in a substantive capacity , denoting great quantity,
little quantity.
Observe also, that viel and wenig must absolutely be de
clined when employed in the dative . Er theilte ſeine Rent:
niffe Wenigen mit, he imparted his knowledge to few ; whilst
Er theilte ſeine Rentniſſe wenig mit, would imply that he
was not very communicative, he imparted little of his know
ledge.
These words must likewise be declined when they denote
numbers ; they are indeclinable when they imply absolute
quantities. Es waren viele Gerichte auf dem Tiſche, aber
es iſt nur von einem und auch von dieſem nicht viel gegeſſen
worden, there were many dishes on the table, but they only
ate of one, and even not much of that.
3. When two adjectives, of the same ending, are before
one substantive, the termination of the first is sometimes, for
the sake of brevity, suppressed : Ein roth-und weiſſes Geſicht,
a red and white face, for ein rothes und weiſſes ; Perſonen
männ-und weiblichen Geſchlechtes, persons of the male and

female sex, for männlichen ; ein genüg-und arbeitſamer
Menſch , a contented and industrious man , for genügſamer ;
blei-und fupferartiges, Erz, ore containing lead and copper,
for bleiartiges ; ein gram -und ſorgenfreies Gemüth, a mind
free from grief and sorrow , for gramfreies . This abbrevia
tion should not be unnecessarily adopted ; but in particular
situations, it may be convenient. It is also to be met with
in nouns substantive ; as , Genüg-und Arbeitſamkeit, con
tentment and industry , for Genügſamkeit ; and generally in
dicated by the sign of hyphen ( - ) . The Spaniards use a
similar mode of contraction . 1
4. All participles share in the nature of adjectives. They
are capable of the same modifications, and subject to the
same laws. They will be treated of in a subsequent part of
this Grammar.
5. Adjectives may be converted into substantives. This
is done either elliptically, or abstractedly.
( 1 ) Elliptically , when a substantive is understood. Ex
amples : der Deutſche ( supply Mann ), the German, native
of Germany ; der Gelehrte ( supply Mann ) , the learned man ,
the scholar ; der Weiſe ( supply Mann ), the wise man ; die
Schöne ( sup. Frau, or Frauensperſon ), the fair lady, the
fair one; die Geliebte, or liebſte ( sup. Frau , or Frauenss
perſon ), the beloved woman ; die Bekannte (sup. Fran , or
Frauensperſon ), the female acquaintance ; die Verwandte
( sup. Frauensperſon ), the female relation ; das Große (sup .
Weſen , being) , that which is great; das Schöne (sup. Wes
fen ), that which is beautiful; das Erhabene, that which is
sublime ; das Edle, that which is noble.
(2 ) Those which become substantives abstractedly , are
differently treated. They represent the quality of the adjec
tive abstracted, that means, as an object of itself, not as an
adjunct to another : for instance, das Blau, the quality of
blue, the color blue ; das Roth, the color red ; das Weiß,
the color white ; das Rund, the quality of round, rotundity,

or a round substance . They arise out of the undeclined
form , the article in the neuter gender being prefixed.
SECTION V.
THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
The comparative and superlative degrees are , in German ,

as in English, produced by the addition of certain letters, or
syllables, to the adjectives; namely, the comparative by that
of r , or er , and the superlative by that of ſt, or eſt.
Examples of comparison from klein, little ; weiſe, wise ;
dreiſt, bold ; alt, old ; lang, long ; kurz, short :
Positive. Comparative. Superlative.
klein kleiner ( der) kleinſte
weiſe weiſer weiſcſte
dreiſt dreiſter dreiſteſte
alt älter älteſte
lang länger längſte
kurz fürzer kürzeſte.
Adjectives of the comparative and superlative degree are

declined precisely like other adjectives; as, fü ß -er -er Wein ,
sweeter wine ; des ſü ß-e ſt-en Weines, of the sweetest
wine.
In the superlative, the e of the termination is generally
dropped, except when the adjective ends in a lingual ( d, t, 8 ,
ß , ſch , , ſt ); as, der ſchönſte, the finest ; der reinſte, the pur
est ; der dickſte, the thickest ;—der müdeſte, the most weary ;
der ſchlechteſte , the worst ; der ſüßeſte, the sweetest. The
vowel is also dropped in participles ending in end and et ; as,
der reizendſte, the most charming ; der gebildetſte, the most
cultivated. The superlative größeſter, the greatest, is com
Sect. 5. Comparison of Adjectives. 125
monly contracted into größter . Usage varies in regard to

the omission of the e in those adjectives which end in a
vowel or a double liquid ; as , blau, blue , der blaueſte and
blauſte ; toll, mad , der tolleſte and tollſte ; dünn , thin , der
dünnefte and dünnfte.
In the comparative of those adjectives which have the un
accented terminations el, en, er, the e of these terminations
is generally dropped ; as, eit (e)ler, vainer ; eb (e )ner, smooth
er ; bitt(e )rer, bitterer.
Primitive adjectives soften their vowels in the compara
tive and superlative degrees ; as, klug, wise, flüger, klügſte,
except :
Bange, afraid, plump, unshapen , coarse ,
bunt, variegated , raſch , quick , rapid ,
falb, of a light yellow color, roh, raw,
fade, tasteless, flat, rund, round ,
flach, flat, racht, gentle,
froh , joyful, ſatt, satiated,
gerade, straight, ſchlaff, slack ,
glatt, smooth , ſchlank, slender,
hohl, hollow , (dyroff, rugged ,
hold , kind , ſtarr, stiff,
fahr, bald, ſtolz, proud,
farg, parsimonious, ſtraff, stretched,
klar, clear, ſtumm , mute ,
knapp, close, scanty , ſtumpf, blunt,
lahm , lame, toll, mad,
laß, lax , indolent, voll, full,
loſe, loose , wahr , true ,
matt, weary, zahm, tame,
platt, flat, level, zart, delicate,
and those in au ; as, rauh, rough ; ſchlau , cunning ; and
adjectives in those terminations which have no signification ;
as, munter, cheerful ; dunkel, obscure. In blaß , pale, and
11*
126 On the Noun. P. I. Ch . 3.
geſund, healthy, usage varies. Falſch ( from fal-iſch ), false ;

morſch ( from mor- iſch ), rotten ; and the participle nackt ( comp .
nackend ), naked , are derivatives, and do not belong here.
The superlative degree is most frequently used with the
definite article ; as, der ſchönſte, the handsomest ; der neu
eſte, the newest ; gen . des ſchönſten , des neueſten ; dat. dem
ſchönſten , dem neueſten , etc. See the declension of adjec
tives. Next to this the adverbial form is often employed ; or ,
to speak more properly, a substitute for that form . This
consists in the dative case singular, of the new form , with
the word am prefixed ; as, Am ſchönſten, am neueſten . The
following phrases, it is finest, it is newest, would be express
ed by , es iſt am ſchönſten , am neueſten . This circumlocu
tion is to be thus explained. Am, is put for an dem ; an
being a preposition , which denotes on , nearest , or next to ;
and dem, the dative of the definite article : consequently, am
ſchönſten literally signifies next to [ ? ] that which is finest ; and
afterwards simply marks the superlative degree, in its first
form , without any collateral meaning. It will be useful to
subjoin a few examples : Dieſes Frauenzimmer iſt am ſchön
ſten , wenn ſie ſich nicht ſchminkt, this lady is handsomest, or
most handsome, when she does not paint herself. Jener Red
ner iſt immer am größten, wenn er ſich an die Leidenſchaf
ten wendet, that orator is always greatest, when he addresses
the passions. Es wird am beſten ſeyn , heute zu Hauſe zu
bleiben, it will be best to stay at home to -day. The preposi
tions auf, upon , and zu, to, are, for a similiarpurpose, connect
ed with the superlative degree. They are then , like an, con
tracted with the article : auf das, into aufs ; zu dem, into
zum . But their signification is not so extensive as that of an.
They only describe the manner in which a thing is done or
exists : for example, Aufs ſchönſte eingerichtet, arranged in
the finest manner : aufs vollkommenſte ausgeführt, executed
in the most perfect manner ; Auf governs the accusative ;
the adjective, therefore, ends in e , which is the termination
of the neuter of that case , in the new form . Zu is joined

with the dative ; as, Zum ſchönſten , in the finest manner ;
zum vollkommenſten , in the most perfect manner. The use
of the two prepositions last mentioned, especially of zu, is not
so current or so classical, as that of the former . The old
form of the superlative is chiefly to be seen in the vocative
case which is like the nominative ; as, sing. liebſter Bruder,
dearest brother ; theuerſte Schweſter, dearest sister ; ſchöns
ſtes Kind, most charming child ; plur. würdigſte Freunde,
most worthy friends; and after the personal and possessive
pronouns ; as, Ich ärmſter Menſch, I poorestman ; du theuer
ſter Bruder, thou dearest brother ; bu liebſte Schweſter, thou
dearest sister ; mein liebſter Bruder, my dearest brother ; deine
liebſte Schweſter, thy dearest sister ; and so with the rest.
The word aller, which means “ of all,” being the genitive
plural of all, all , is sometimes prefixed to the superlative degree
to increase its force ; as, der allerbeſte Mann, the very best
man ; die allerſchönſte Frau, the most beautiful woman of all.
We add the following remarks on the comparison of adjec
tives.
I. Some adjectives do not admit the degrees of comparison ,
by means of additional terminations. They are : angſt, bes
reit, eingedenk, feind, gar, gram, recht, unrecht, theilhaft.
Others refuse it partly. Of this kind are the participles ; and
the adjectives ending in haft, ich, iſch ; which only suffer the
comparative degree in the adverbial form . We may say,
gehärteter, gegründeter, in the adverbial form , more harden
ed, more grounded, from the participles gehärtet, gegründet ;
but the ear would be offended at the sound of the other forms;
gehärteterer, gehärtetere, gehärteteres ; der gehärtetere ; ein
gegründeterer, eine gegründetere, ein gegründeteres . Thus ,
in the adjectives, lebhaft, gewiſſenhaft, lächerlich , veränder
lich, bäuriſch, verſchwenderiſch, and others, it is allowable to
make use of the adverbial form ; lebhafter, gewiſſenhafter,
lächerlicher, verſchwenderiſcher, bäuriſcher ;but the other
forms, ein lebhafterer, der lächerlichere, etc. could not be

endured. The superlative degree is not liable to the same
objection . It is not inconsistent with good language to say,
der lebhafteſte, der lächerlichſte, and even der gegründetſte,
der gehärtetſte ; though the adjectives in iſch, which are , of
themselves, disharmonious, produce a sound still more un
pleasant, when augmented by the hissing termination of the
superlative : as , der bäueriſcheſte.
II. When the degrees of comparison are not expressed by
the termination, certain adverbs are made use of for that pur
pose ; namely, mehr, more, for the comparative ; and am
meiſten , most, for the superlative. For example: feind, in
imical; mehr feind, more inimical ; am meiſten feind, most
hostile ; theilhaft, partaking ; mehr theilhaft, am meiſten
theilhaft. Those adverbs are sometimes put to adjectives,
which are capable of the comparative terminations, when, by
this expedient, any harshness, or abruptness of sound, may be
obviated. Thus , in wahr, true ; comp. wahrer, sup. wahrs
eſt ; where mehr wahr, am meiſten wahr, may be used ; as,
dieſes iſt noch mehr wahr als jenes, this is still more true
than that. After the deduction of the few words which have
been mentioned, all adjectives form their degrees of compari
son by means of the terminations ; and the adverbs mehr, am
meiſten , cannot be arbitrarily substituted . However, when
two different adjectives are to be compared with one another,
it must be done by mehr ; as, Er iſt mebr luſtig als traurig,
he is more merry than sad ; Auguſtus war mehr glücklich
als tapfer, Augustus was more successful than brave. This
comparison could not be effected by the termination of either
adjective. Glücklicher als would be used if Augustus were
compared with another person .
III. The following words are irregular in their compari
son : Gut, good, comp. beſſer,* sup. am beſten ; viel, much,
comp. mehr, sup. am mehrſten, or am meiſten . The com
* For bäſſer from the old word baß.

parative degree, mehr, when put in a declinable form , gene

rally receives , besides the usual terminations, the syllable re
before them. The old form of mehr should be mehrer,
mehre, mehres , plur . mehre ; but it is commonly expressed
by mehrerer, mehrere, mehreres, plur . mehrere ; ein mehr:
eres , for ein mehres . So also der erſtere and der leştere,
from der erſte and der leşte, the former and the latter. Of
the superlatives, mehrſten and meiſten, the first may be pre
ferred , as more regular , but the last is more common. The
comparative and superlative degrees of the adverb bald, which
are eher, am eheſten , appear sometimes in the character of
adjectives. Hoch , high , makes the comparative höher, ex
changing the guttural in the middle for the simple aspirate ;
but the superlative, am höchſten. On the other hand , nahe,
near, has in the comparative näher, and in the superlative am
nächſten , assuming, in the latter, the guttural instead of the
mere h . These, however, can hardly be called irregular
forms of comparison.
IV. Some adjectives have the appearance of the compara
tive degree , though their signification does not correspond
with it. They are, der mittlere, the middle one ; der äußere,
the exterior ; der innere, the interior ; der obere, the supe
rior ; der untere, the inferior ; der vordere, the anterior ; der
hintere, the posterior. They all have superlatives ; as , der
mittleſte, der äußerſte, der innerſte, etc.
V. The comparative and superlative degree may be used
substantively, some other word being understood : as, der
Höchſte ( underst. Gott) , the Supreme Being ; mein Beſter
( underst. Mann, or Freund ), my good man , my good friend.
SECTION VI.
THE NUMERALS .
They are divided into Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers.
( a ) Cardinal Numbers.
1. Ein, Eine, Ein , or Einer, 25. fünf und zwanzig .
Eine, Eines. 26. fedis und zwanzig.
2. zwei. 27. Fieben und zwanzig.
3. drei. 28. acht und zwanzig .
4. vier. 29. neun und zwanzig.
5. fünf. 30. dreißig.
6. ſechs. 31. Ein und dreißig.
7. ſieben . 32. zwei und dreißig, etc.
8. acht. 40. vierzig.
9. neun . 41. Ein und vierzig, etc.
10. zehen , or zehn. 50. funfzig.
11. elf, or eilf. 60. ſechzig.
12. zwölf. 70. Fiebenzig, or ſiebzig.
13. dreizehen, or dreizehn . 80. achtzig .
14. vierzehn . 90. neunzig .
15. funfzehn . 100. hundert.
16. fechzehn . 101. hundert und Gins.
17. ſiebenzehn, or ſiebzehn . 102. hundert und zwei, etc.
18. achtzehn . 200. zwei hundert.
19. neunzehn . 300. drei hundert.
20. zwanzig . 1000. tauſend.
21. Ein und zwanzig . 10,000. zehn tauſend.
22. zwei und zwanzig . 100,000 . hundert tauſend.
23. drei und zwanzig . A million. Eine Million .
24. vier und zwanzig.
1842.
Ein tauſend acht hundert und zwei und vierzig.

Sect. 6. Numerals. 131
1800 .
Achtzehn hundert, or tauſend ( Ein Tauſend ) adt hundert.
1816.
Achtzen hundert und fechzehn .
Observations.
1. Ein, Eine, Ein, one, is declined like the indefinite arti
cle ; but it is pronounced with a stronger accent, and usually
spelled with a capital E. It is, in fact, the same word, used
with a different power. As a numeral, it is pronounced with
a stronger accent ; as, Ein Mann, Eine Frau . When it
stands by itself, but with reference to a substantive, some
where expressed, the termination er is added, in the nomina
tive singular, for the masculine ; and es, for the neuter gen
der, in the nominative and accusative . For example ; haben
Sie Einen Hut ? have you got a hat ? hier iſt Einer, here
is one ; Hut, hat, which is understood by reference, is of the
masculine gender ; and therefore it is Einer. Haben Sie
ein Meſſer ? have you got a knife ? hier iſt Eines, here is
one, namely, Meſſer, which being of the neuter gender, the
numeral becomes Eines . Einer der Vorwürfe, melche man
dem Verfaſſer macht, one of the objections which are made
to the author, etc. The negative adjective, kein, keine, kein,
no one, none, is treated in the same manner ; for example,
kein Fürſt, no prince ; keiner von ſeinen Nachfolgern , no one
ofhis successors.. Those additional syllables are occasioned
by the emphasis, which here necessarily falls upon the adjec
tive, and can , in such a connection, never be dispensed with ,
though from carelessness or ignorance, they are sometimes
neglected .* When the numeral has no reference to a sub
stantive expressed, but serves merely to count, the additional
syllables are not so absolutely required ; yet in simply telling
* Something similar appertains to the possessive pronouns,

as will be seen in the subsequent pages.
the numbers, as one, two , three , four, etc. , it is usual to give

to Ein the additional termination of the neuter, but general
ly contracted , Eins, zwei, drei, vier, etc. Ein, Eine, Ein,
may have the definite article before it ; then it is declined in
the new form of adjectives, víz .
Singular.
Nom . der Eine, die Eine , das Eine, the one .
Gen. des Einen, der Einen , des Einen, of the one.
Dat. dem Einem , der Einen , dem Einen , to the one.
Acc. den Einen, die Eine, das Eine, the one.
The plural may be used for the purpose of distinguishing

certain classes of individual objects; as, the ones , and the
others ; that means, the one set , and the other. Nom. die
Einen , the ones ; gen . der Einen ; dat den Einen ; acc. die
Einen . Pronouns are also prefixed ; as, my one, this one,
which one. Then Ein is considered as an adjective, and put
in that form of declension , which is required by each respec
tive pronoun .
The German numeral never serves in a suppletive capacity,
as the English one , in a good one, this one, that one . Here
the number is not meant, but one fills the place of the sub
stantive, which is understood, since those words , a good, this ,
that, in English, cannot well stand absolute, without some
thing following. This peculiarity is unknown to the Ger
man language ; but the adjectives, as well as the pronouns,
are placed by themselves, without any such support.
2. Zwei and drei, now and then indicate their genitive and
dative, by additional terminations ; gen. zweier, dreier ; dat.
zweien, dreien . This is necessary, when those cases are not
otherwise distinguished ; as, die Stärke zweier Männer, the
strength of two men ; die Macht dreier Könige, the power of
three kings. In these examples, the genitive case could not
be recognized , except by the endings of the numerals ; but if
Sect. 6. Numerais. 133
the article, an adjective, or a pronoun were present, by whose

endings the genitive might be known , it would be improper
to vary the termination of the numerals ; as , die Stärke der
zwei Männer, the strength of two men ; die Macht dieſer
drei Könige, the power of these three kings ; die Treue zwei
aufrichtiger Freunde, the faith of two sincere friends. Here
the genitive case is determined by the article, the pronoun,
and the adjective ; the numerals, therefore, need not be in
flected . The declinable ending of the dative is not required
before substantives ; for that case is always sufficiently ex
pressed by the latter. But when the numeral is not followed
by a substantive, the termination should be added, as a sign
of a dative ; for instance, ich habe es zweien gegeben, I have
given it to two ; ich habe es dreien mitgetheilt, I have com
municated it to three. Likewise after prepositions, mit zwei
en, with two ; von dreien, from three. The other numerals
all admit the termination of the dative, in the same circum
stances ; as, ich habe es vieren gegeben , I have given it to
four; ich habe es fünfen geſagt, I have told it to five ; ich
habe es zwanzigen mitgetheilt, I have communicated it to
twenty , etc. And with prepositions ; for example, auf allen
vieren, upon' all fours ; mit ſechſen , with six. Those which
end in en do not receive the additional termination ; as,
ſieben, zehen, dreizehen, etc. The cardinals from vier to
zwölf, with the exception of ſieben , end in e in the nomina
tive and accusative, if the noun to which they belong be
omitted ; as , die ſechſe, the six ( persons ) . The termination
of the genitive is peculiar to zwei and drei ; and cannot be
assumed by any of the rest. Its office must be supplied by a
preposition , such as von, or some other mode of expression ,
when the case is not of itself discernible. The remains of
an old genitive form in er are observable in such words as
viererlei, fourfold ; fünferlei, fivefold, etc. Instead of zwei,
zwie is used in the compounds, zwiefach, Zwieback, Zwies
12
tracht, Zwieſpalt, and Zwielicht. In hundert and tauſend,

the dative is not to be signified by the addition of en, hun
derten, tauſenden ; for this would make the number plural ,
and denote hundreds and thousands. The best way is to add
some substantive, for the sake of distinguishing the case ; as,
ich habe es hundert Leuten geſagt, I have told it to a hundred
people ; ich habe es tauſend Leuten gegeben, I have given it
to a thousand people. In compound numbers, the terminá
tion en is not added ; as, vor tauſend ſieben hundert und
neun und neunzig, before the year 1799.
3. It is a property of the language of Upper Germany,
to assign three genders to the second numeral, namely, zween
( or zweene ) for the masculine ; zwo for the feminine ; and
zwei for the neuter. But in High German no distinction of
gender is admitted in the cardinal numbers, except in One.
Beide signifies both ; but with the article, die beiden, it is
frequently put for die zwei, the two.
4. In speaking substantively of the cardinal numbers , for
instance, as the figures in cards , they are made to be of the
feminine gender, the word , die Zahl, the number, being,
probably, understood : eine Ein or Eins , a bne ; eine Zwei,
a two, a figure two ; eine Drei, eine Vier : and they end in
the plural, in en, according to the third declension of sub
stantives; as, zwey Einen, two ones ; zwei Vieren, two fours,
two figures of four ; drei Sediſen , three sixes ; vier Neunen,
four nines.
5. Hundert and Tauſend are used as substantives, with
the neuter article : as, das Hundert, the hundred ; das Tau
ſend, the thousand. In English, the numbers Hundred and
Thousand, when placed before any substantive, have, gene
rally, the indefinite article prefixed ; as, a hundred pounds,
a thousand dollars. In German , that article is not admitted ;
but you say, hundert Pfund, tauſend Thaler .
6. The reader will , of his own accord, have taken notice
Sect. 6. Numerals . 135
of the mode of forming the decimal numbers, so that it will

not be necessary to detain him by any farther remarks.
( b) Ordinal Numbers.
These are declined like adjectives. The most usual man
ner of representing them , is with the definite article.
The 1st. der erſte. The 24th . der vier und zwans
2d. der zweite . zigſte.
3d. der dritte . 25th . der fünf und zwans
4th. der vierte. zigſte.
5th. der fünfte. 26th . der ſechs und zwans
6th. der ſechſte. zigſte.
7th . der ſiebente . 27th . der ſieben und zwans
8th . der achte. zigſte.
9th. der neunte. 28th . der acht und zwars
10th . der zehnte . zigſte.
11th. der elfte, or eilfte. 29th . der neun und zwans
12th. der zwölfte. zigſte.
13th . der dreizehnte. 30th. der dreißigſte .
14th . der vierzehnte. 31st. der ein und dreißigſte.
15th . funfzehnte .
der 32d . der zwei und dreis
16th . ſechzehnte.
der Bigſte, etc.
17th . der ſiebenzehnte or 40th . der vierzigſte.
ſiebzehnte. 41st. der ein und vierzigſte,
18th. der achtzehnte. etc.
19th . der neunzehnte . 50th . der funfzigſte.
20th. der zwanzigſte. 60th . der ſechzigſte.
21st. der ein und zwan- 70th. der ſiebenzigſte, or
zigſte. ſiebzigſte.
22d . der zwei und zwan : 80th . der achtzigſte.
zigſte. 90th. der neunzigſte.
230. der drei und zwan- 100th . der hundertſte.
zigſte. 101st. der hundert und erſte.
The 102d . der hundert und The 300th . der drei hundertſte .
zweite. 1000th . der tauſendſte.
103d . der hundert und The one thousand seven hun
dritte, etc. dred and ninety ninth.
200th. der zwei hun: Der tauſend ſieben hundert
dertſte. und neun und neunzigſte.
Observations.
1. In the formation of the ordinals, the first and third
numbers are irregular ; but the rest follow a certain rule :
viz . the termination te is added to the cardinals, from two to
nineteen , inclusive ; and ſte, from twenty to the last.
2. The ordinals may be brought under all the forms of ad
jectives. · The adverbial form , however, is not usual. For
these numbers resemble the superlative degree in their na
ture, and, strictly speaking, do not allow that form . But a
substitute for it may be employed, as in the superlative de
gree, by means of the preposition am ; as, Am erſten, first ;
am dritten , third.
3. In compound numbers, the last only assumes the shape
of an ordinal; the foregoing remain cardinals ; as , der ſechs
und neunzigſte, the ninety-sixth ; der tauſend ſieben hundert
und ſechs und achtzigſte, the one thousand seven hundred and
eighty-sixth ; das ein tauſend acht hundert und acht und
dreißigſte Jahr, the year 1838 .
4. The adjective Ander corresponds both to the Latin
alius, other, and to alter ; and in the latter sense, it serves
for the second ordinal number ; but it can be employed as
such only when no more than two objects are referred to :
ein Arm iſt fürzer als der andere, one arm is shorter than
the other. Formerly it was used for zweiter ; as, das andere
Buch Moſis, the second book of Moses.
Additional Remarks on the Numerals.
Besides the two divisions, into cardinals and ordinals, the
numbers suffer a variety of modifications, which it will be
proper to notice.
Sect. 6 . Numerals. 137
I. Partitive or distributive numerals, which are in Latin

expressed by bini, terni, quaterni, quini, deni, etc., and in
English by two and two, three and three ; or two at a time,
three at a time, four at a time, etc. ; or , every two, every
three, every four, every five, etc. The Germans, like the
English, avail themselves, for this purpose, of the conjunction
und , and ; as , Zwei und zwei, drei und drei ; or they say , Je
zwei, je drei, je vier, je zehen, je zwanzig, je dreißig, je viers
zig, je funfzig, etc. Je, is an adverb , signifying ever , and
here denotes, at a time.
II. Distinctives. These are , in English , first, secondly,
thirdly, fourthly, fifthly ; or, in the first place, in the second
place, in the third place. In German : Erſtlich , or erſtens ;
zweitens, drittens, viertens, fünftens, ſechſtens, ſiebentens,
aditens, neuntens, zehntens, elftens, zwölftens, dreizehntens,
zwanzigſtens, etc. Also thus : zum erſten , zum zweiten, (or
zum andern,) zum dritten, zum vierten , zum fünften , etc.
III. Dimidiatives, or numbers that halve. They are com
posed of the ordinals, and the word halb, half. Their signi
fication is extraordinary ; for example, Drittehalb, literally,
the third ( number ) half, of der dritte and halb, means two
and a half, two whole ones, and the third half ; viertehalb,
of der vierte, and halb, three and a half, or three whole ones,
and the fourth half. * It is not usual to say zweitehalb, but
anderthalb, which is one and a half, or one whole, and the
second half. Therefore, the way of proceeding with these
numerals, is this : anderthalb 14, drittehalb 27, viertehalb 3},
fünftehalb 41, ſechſtehalb 54, ſiebentehalb 64, achtehalb 74,
neuntehalb 84, zehntehalb 99, elftehalb or eilftehalb 104
zwölftehalb 111, dreizehntehalb 127, zwanzigſtehalb 197, ein
und zwanzigſtehalb 204, etc. For example : Anderthalb
Monate, one month and a half ; drittehalb Wochen, two
* Something analogous to this exists in the Greek and Latin

languages (muutetagros, sesquitertius).
12*
weeks and a half; viertehalb Jahre, three years and a half ;

ſechſtehalb Guineen , five guineas and a half. They are not
declined, though they may , perhaps, sometimes admit the ter
mination en in the dative, when they are put absolutely. In
anderthalb, which comes from der andere, the e in the mid
dle is supplanted by a t, of which the reason seems to be,
that it may be assimilated to the other numbers, which all
contain a t.
IV. Variatives, which denote a variety, according to num
ber. They are made by adding lei ( equivalent to Art, kind ),
to the old genitive of the cardinals; as, Zweierlei, of two
kinds ; dreierlei, of three kinds ; viererlei, of four kinds ;
fünferlei, of five kinds ; fechſerlei, of six kinds ; ſiebenerlei,
of seven kinds ; zwanzigerlei, of twenty kinds, etc. For ex
ample : Dreierlei Wein, wine of three different sorts ; zweis
erlei Münze, coin of two different sorts ; ſechſerlei Bänder,
ribands of six different kinds. In the same manner are used :
allerlei, of all kinds ; einerlei, of one kind ; mancherlei, of
several kinds ; vielerlei, of many kinds :—The variatives are
not declined . The old German used hand in the same way,
which is preserved in allerhand, of all sorts.
V. Multiplicatives are formed by compounding cardinal
numerals with fach ; e. g. Einfach , simple ( not compound );
zweifach or zwiefach , twofold ; dreifach , threefold ; vierfach ,
fünffach, fechsfach, zehnfach, etc. Of nearly the same sig
nification are those ending in fältig , fold ; as, zweifältig , drei
fältig, vierfältig , etc. But einfältig denotes, simple, artless,
silly. Similar compositions arise from the cardinal numbers
and substantives ; as, zweipfündig, of two pounds ; dreipfünd
ig, of three pounds; vier und zwanzigpfündig, of twenty- four
pounds — from zwei, drei, vier und zwanzig, and das Pfund,
the pound. Dreieckig, of three corners, or angles, three- cor
nered, triangular ; viereckig , of four angles, square ; fünfeckig,
of five corners — from drei, vier, fünf, and die Ece, the cor
Sect. 6. Numerals. 139
ner . These, and others of the like description , are inflected

according to both forms of adjectives.
VI. The fractional numbers, with the exception of halb,
half, are derived from the ordinals by the addition of I to the
nominative of the new form . For example, from der Dritte,
the third , ein Drittel, a third part, or one third ; from der
Vierte , ein Viertel, a fourth part, a quarter. In the same
manner , ein Fünftel, ith ; ein Sechſtel, fth ; ein Siebentel,
4th ; ein Zehntel, th ; ein Zwanzigſtel, *th , etc. So in
the plural, zwei Drittel, 3ds; drei Viertel, { ths; fünf Sech
ſtel, { ths ; ſieben Zehntel, 7ths, etc. They are regarded
as substantives, and of the neuter gender. The letter I,
which is added , is a corruption of the word Theil, the part ;
and it should properly be Drittheil, Viertheil ; which have
been contracted into Drittel, Viertel. Halb, half, is an ad
jective ; and from it die Hälfte ( a substantive ), the half of a
thing, is deduced.
Ganz, which is likewise an adjective, is the opposite of
Halb ; it is the Latin totus , the English whole, entire. Die
ganze Stadt, the whole town ; die halbe Stadt ( the half
town ), half of the town. But we never can use all for ganz.
Alle Zeit, means at all times ; die ganze Zeit, the whole time.
1
140 On the Pronoun . P. I. Ch . 4.
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE PRONOUN .
CONTAINING
1. The Personal and Reciprocal Pronouns.

2. The Possessive.
3. The Demonstrative.
4. The Relative and Interrogative.
5. Miscellaneous Pronouns.
SECTION I.
ON THE PRONOUNS PERSONAL AND RECIPROCAL.
First Person, ich, I - plural, wir, we.

Singular. Plural.
Nom . ich, I wir , we.
Gen. meiner, or mein , of me . unſer, of us.
Dat. mir, to me. uns, to us.
Acc. mich, me. uns, us.
Second Person , Du, thou — plural, Ihr, you .

Singular. Plural.
Nom . du, thou. ihr, you .
Gen. deiner, or dein, of thee. euer, or eurer , of you.
Dat. dir, to thee. euch , to you.
Acc . Đid , thee. euch , you.
Third Person , er, masculine, he ; fie, feminine, she ; es,

neuter , it - plural, fie, they , for all genders.
Sect. 1 . Pronouns Personal and Reciprocal. 141
Singular.
Nom . er, he ; Tie, she ; es, it.
Gen. ſeiner ( ſein ), ofhim ; ihrer, of her ; ſeiner ( ſein ), of it.
Dat . ihm, to him ; ihr, to her ; ihm, to it.
Acc. ihn, him ; ſie, her ; es, it.
Plural.
Nom. ſie, they ( for all genders).
Gen. ihrer, of them.
Dat. ihnen, to them.
Acc. ſie, them.
Reflective for the third person .
Singular.
Nom . none .
Gen. ſeiner, of himself; ihrer, of herself; ſeiner, of itself.
Dat. fich, to himself, to herself, to itself.
Acc. rich , himself, herself, itself.
Plural.
Nom . none .
Gen. ihrer, of themselves.
Dat. fich , to themselves.
Acc. fich, themselves.
Observations.
1. Instead of the genitives, meiner , deiner and ſeiner,
which are now more commonly used , mein, dein and ſein
were formerly employed. In the genitive of the second per
son plural eurer ( not the possessive adjective pronoun) has
come into use instead of the older form euer ; as, Ich erin
nere mich Eurer nicht, I do not remember you . - Göthe.
So also Schiller and others.
2. Reflective pronouns may obtain a reciprocal signification
in the plural : Sie beſchimpfen ſich, " they disgrace one an
142 On the Pronoun . P. I. Ch. 4.
other ; " but as it might also mean , " they disgrace them
selves,” the word einander, “ one another," is often added in
German , or used instead of ſich : Sie verzeihen einander ihre
Thorheiten, they forgive one another their follies. And as
the genitive singular ſeiner, “ of himself,” may be mistaken
for ſeiner, of him , we add the word ſelbſt : er ſchonte ſeiner
ſelbſt nicht, he did not spare himself ; er ſchonte ſeiner nicht,
he did not spare him.
3. The genitive case of the personal pronouns, in both
numbers, is limited in its use. It occurs after certain verbs :
for example, er lachet meiner, he laughs at me ; er ſpottet
ihrer, he mocks them ; ich ſchäme mich deiner, I am ashamed
of thee ; erbarme dich meiner, have mercy upon me. The
genitive of the plural is put after numerals, and after the
words viel and wenig ; for example , Unſer zwölf, twelve of
us ; ihrer zwanzig, twenty of them ; unſer wenig , few of us ;
ihrer viel, many of them. The expression Unſer einer, which
signifies a person like ourselves, one of our condition , one
like us, or one like me, belongs to the same construction.
In the Lord's Prayer, the genitive unſer is, according to
the earliest translation, governed by a substantive, Vater ;
viz. Vater unſer, Father of us , instead of Unſer Vater, our
Father ; which is a close imitation of the Greek , náteg nuwv.
The genitive is likewise joined with some prepositions, viz.
wegen, halben, millen , denoting on account of. Then it gen
erally coalesces with them into one word, by means of con
necting letters ; as, meinetwegen , on my account ; ſeinetwe:
gen, on his account ; ihretwegen , on her account; unſert
wegen, on our account ; euertwegen , on your account ;
ihretwegen, on their account . Thus, meinethalben, deinets
halben , meinetwillen , or um meinetwillen , etc. Otherwise
the preposition von, with the dative, is employed to signify
the case of ; as, von mir, of me ; von uns, of us ; von dir,
of thee ; von euch, of you ; von ihm, of him ; von ihr, of
her ; von ihnen, of them .
When personal pronouns of the third person designate in

animate things, the dative case is seldom used , the genitive
never. In such instances the demonstrative pronoun der, die,
das is used in the place of the personal pronouns ; as, er bot
mir Wein an, aber ich bedarf deffen ( not ſeiner) nicht, he
offered me wine, but I did not stand in need of it ; er ſam
melt Gemälde, und er hat deren ( not ihrer) ſchon viele
gekauft, he is making a collection of paintings, and he has
already collected many of them ; Du darfſt meinen Namen
nennen, und meine Kinder werden ſich deſſen ( not ſeiner)
nicht ſchämen , you may mention my name, and my children
will not be ashamed of it.
4. In addressing one another in conversation, or in writ
ing, the Germans do not confine themselves to the pronoun
of the second person ; but, like the Italians, Spaniards, and
Portuguese, they have adopted the third. Besides this, they ap
ply the plural number to a single person . If it be an anoma
ly to speak to one as if he were more than one, which is done
in English, by saying you instead of thou , it is still more
strange to address him as if he were not the person spoken
to , which is the case in the use of the third person. How
can it, for instance, be supposed , that in this question , What
is he doing ? the person is meant of whom that question is
asked , and that it stands for, What art thou doing ? And if
it be but one person , it appears absurd to assign to him the
pronoun in the plural number , as What are they doing ?
This, however, is the fact, in the German language. The
Italians, Spaniards, and Portuguese have another monstrosi
ty, in their polite manner of speaking, namely, that of be
stowing on the person whom they address, although it be a
man , a feminine pronoun . That perverseness has sprung
from the corruption of the middle ages.* At that tasteless
* The first periods of the German language knew nothing

of such a use of the pronouns. Ihr for Du in addressing per
sons of rank was introduced, probably from the French and Ital
period, new terms were introduced into the Latin tongue, in

the form of titles and appellations, such as Majestas, Celsitas,
Serenitas, Excellentia, Gratia, and the like ; and these fig
ures of adulation were, with various modifications, received
into the modern languages of Europe. The Spaniards pro
duced their Merced ( in Vuessa Merced, or Usted, your Mercy,
your Grace ) ; and the Italians their Signoria ( in Vossignoria ,
your Lordship, your {Ladyship ). Those words were first in
tended as abstracted representations of the virtues and quali
ties of the person to whom they were given ; but, gradually,
the person was confounded with his attribute, and this was
addressed , instead of the person. It was accompanied by the
possessive pronouns of the persons, as, your Eminence, his
Grace, their Excellencies, her Highness, in the same manner
as any common appellative, for example, your father , your mo
ther. In saying, his Eminence has written , the analysis of
the idea is this : He, that eminent man , or he, who is an em
inent man , has written . For , your Highness has conferred
a favor upon me , the fundamental notion is : Thou, who art,
or whom I respect as, an illustrious person, has conferred
upon me a favor. The third person of the verb occupied the
place of the second. Having arrived at this, some nations
went a step farther. The third person , they took for grant
ed , was a mark of respect ; and they observed, that those ap
pellatives, with which it was connected, were of the feminine
ian , towards the beginning of the thirteenth century ; and it

was soon applied to different classes of persons, and Du was
used only in cases of intimacy, and of superiors to their infe
riors . In the seventeenth century persons of distinction began
to be addressed in the third person, Er and Sie instead of
Du . Towards the beginning of the eighteenth century such
persons began to be addressed in the third person plural, and
the singular was used in the third person singular mostly towards
inferiors, or in familiar intercourse. At present the third per
son plural is almost universally employed and Du is reserved
for affectionate intimacy, or for pathetic language.- Becker.
gender, as celsitas, serenitas, excellentia , etc. Therefore,

when they had occasion to use a pronoun , they assumed the
third person of the feminine gender. Thus the mystery of
the usual mode of address in the Italian and other languages
is cleared up. The French and English did not go that
length. For, though they received such titles as your Majes
ty, your Highness , your Lordship, in the third person ; yet,
when a pronoun was wanted , they turned back to the second ;
as, I told your Majesty, and you were pleased to direct, etc.;
when I waited on your grace, you desired, etc.; in which in
stances the Italians would say, she ( Lat. ea, namely, majestas,
gratia ) was pleased, she desired. As in the Italian, Spanish,
and Portuguese tongues, the expressions Vossignoria, and
Usted, were, by degrees, applied indifferently, for the sole
purpose of civility ; the third person of the feminine gender
became a general form of politeness. This notion , concern
ing the third person , was admitted by the Germans. But
they overlooked its origin , and no longer associated it with
those substantives to which it owed its existence. They
deemed the third person of itself sufficient; and therefore ap
propriated the masculine pronoun, er, he, to a man ; and ſie,
she, to a woman . Not contented with this, they introduced
another innovation . With the third person they combined
the plural number, which had previously been adopted in the
second person, as a refinement in speaking ; you for thou.
In the same way, Sie, they, was substituted for er, he, or ſie,
she. At length , the following practice has been established :
The plural of the third person , Sie, is the polite mode of ad
dress, made use of by, and to, people of education. For
example, instead of How do you do ? the Germans, in their
language, will say How do they do ? It will be remarked ,
that this may sometimes be mistaken for a real third person ;
and confusion may hence arise. However, the context, in
most places, will show who is meant ; and, where that is
insufficient, a gesture, or some other means of explanation ,
13
may make the person understood. In writing, misconcep

tions of that kind must be obviated by clearness of expres
sion ; besides which , the pronoun of address is commonly be
gun with a capital , whereas the mere pronoun of the third
person has only a small letter for its initial, unless it be at the
beginning of a sentence. Notwithstanding this new manner
of speaking, the former expressions, thou , you , he, she, are
still used but with a particular discrimination . The singular
of the second person , Du, thou , is first of all applied to the
Supreme Being. In the next place, it implies familiarity,
founded upon affection and fondness. This is the pleasing
appellation by which parents speak to their children , and
brothers and sisters to one another. It is the language of
love, and conjugal union. With friends, it is a token of in
timacy , and confidence. * Children are sometimes allowed
to speak to their parents in the same manner ; though, in
general, the third person plural , Sie , is preferred, as more
respectful. Lastly , Du is the reverse of ceremonious polite
ness, and thus it is applied , where particular distinctions are
laid aside. Therefore it is commonly made use of in speak
ing to little children , and to people in very subordinate situ
ations ; for example by the officer to his soldiers. It is often
heard. in quarrels, and opprobrious language , when the con
siderations of decorum and propriety are disregarded. All
these significations may be reduced to the notion of familiarity,
differently modified. The plural Ihr, you , when referred to
one person , generally involves the idea of that familiarity,
* See a charming passage in Schiller's Don Carlos, at the

end of the first act :
Und jeßt nach eine Bitte, lieber - nenne

Mich du, u . ſ. w.
" And now one more request, my dearest friend - call me thou ,” etc.
† There is a particular verb, which expresses the use of the
second person , viz. dußen, answering to the French tutoyer ;
in English, to thou, according to Shakspeare.
which is used towards inferiors ; for instance, by a mas

ter, towards his menials ; it is likewise bestowed upon indi
viduals of low condition. Since the plural of the third per
son was adopted, as the polite mode of address, the singular
has been reserved for the lower stations of life ; namely , er,
he, for a male ; and ſie, she, for a female. In this manner,
the master and mistress address their servants. Thus a per
son of rank speaks to the tradespeople, and the prince to his
subjects. The plural of the second person , ihr, is even a de
gree below this. *
5. The pronouns of the first and second persons are also
endowed with a reciprocal power. For they are used recip
rocally, without any addition ; and myself, thyself, ourselves,
yourselves, are expressed by mich , dich, uns, euch . For the
third person , there is a distinct reflective and reciprocal pro
noun , which is mentioned above. In this respect, the Ger
man language differs from the English, in which the reflec
tive and reciprocal pronouns are composed of the possessive
pronouns, and the termination self, plur. selves. The Ger
mans have the word , ſelbſt, or ſelber ; but this expresses the
Latin ipse, the French même , the Italian stesso, or medesimo,
etc. , and may be annexed , not only to pronouns, but to any
substantive : Ich ſelbſt, I myself ; that means, I , in my own
person, no one else ; du ſelbſt, thou thyself ; er ſelbſt, he him
self; wir ſelbſt, ihr ſelbſt, ſie felbſt. Der Mann ſelbſt, the
man himself ; die Leute felbſt, the people themselves, etc. It
is to be observed, that when the third person serves for the
pronoun of address, the reflective must correspond with it ;
for instance, Setze Er ſich , seat yourself, sit down, to a man
of inferior condition , literally, let him seat himself ; ſeße Sie
fich , to a woman of an inferior description , literally, let her
seat herself ; ſetzen Sie ſich, the plural , as a polite mode of
speaking, literally, let them seat themselves.
* The Danish language uses these pronouns nearly in the

same manner .
6. The neuter of the third person singular is used as the

nominative, before and after verbs, and joined with all gen
ders and numbers. For example : Es iſt der Mann, it is
the man ; es iſt die Frau, it is the woman ; es iſt das Kind,
it is the child . Es ſind Männer, they are men ; es ſind
Weiber, they are women. Es iſt ein Mann hier, there is a
man here ; es iſt eine Frau hier, there is a woman here ; es
ſind Leute hier, there are people here. After a verb ; as, iſt
es ein Mann ? is it a man ? ſind es Männer oder Weiber ?
are they men or women ? Ein Man iſt es, it is a man ;
Männer ſind es , they are men. When thus placed , it either
makes a question , or gives an emphasis to the substantive
preceding. It is put where the English use the adverb there,
as in this : Es folgten viele, there followed many ; es ſtar
ben nur wenige, there died but few . - It often refers to a pre
ceding adjective like our word so ; as, Er ſcheint ein vers
ſtändiger Jüngling ; und ſo werden die Eltern es ſein , he
appears to be an intelligent youth, and his parents will be it,
i . e. will be found so.
7. És is sometimes contracted with other pronouns ; as,
Idhy's, for ich es ; mir's, for mir es ; mich's, for mich es .
Dir's , for dir es ; didy's, for dich es. Thr's, for ihr es .
Likewise with verbs of one syllable ; for example , Iſt's , for
iſt es ; geht's, for geht es ;-indeed , with any monosyllabic
words ; for instance, conjunctions, Weun's, weil's, for wenn
es, weil es . But these contractions are to be used with cau
tion.
SECTION II.
PRONOUNS POSSESSIVE.
These are : Mein, my , or mine ; dein, thy, or thine ; ſein ,

his ; ihr, her, or hers ; ſein , its ; unſer, our, or ours ; euer,
Sect. 2. Pronouns Possessive. 149
your, or yours ; ihr, their, or theirs. They have three gen

ders in the singular, and are declined in the same manner as
the indefinite article or the first numeral, viz .
Singular.
Masc. Fem . Neut.
Nom. mein ( meiner ), meine, mein ( meines ) .
Gen. meines, meiner, meines .
Dat. meinem , meiner, meinem
Acc . meinem , meine, mein (meines ).
Plural.
Nom. meine.
Gen. meiner.
Dat. meinen .
Acc. meine .
Like this, are varied : dein, deine, dein ; ſein , ſeine, ſein ;
unſer, unſere, unſer ; euer , quere , euer ; ihr, ihre, ihr.
Observations.
1. The German , like the Latin, often omits these pronouns
where the English idiom would require them ; as Ich habe
es in den Händen - vor Augen , I have it in the (my ) hands
-before ( my ) eyes ; er ſteckte es in die Tasche — in den
Mund, he put it into the ( his ) pocket — into the ( his) mouth ;
er nahm es auf die Schultern, he took it upon the (his)
shoulders. These pronouns are either joined with substan
tives, as, mein Vater, my father ; deine Mutter , thy mother ;
ſein Kind , his child , etc.; or they stand by themselves , as,
es iſt mein, it is mine ; es iſt dein, it is thine ; es iſt ſein , it
is his ; es iſt ihr, it is hers ; es iſt unſer , it is ours ; es iſt
euer , it is yours ; es iſt ihr, it is theirs . When put abso
lutely, or by themselves , as in the examples last mentioned ,
the masculine gender , in the nominative singular, sometimes
receives the termination er ; and the neuter , in the nomina
13*
tive and accusative, that of es . But as these endings are

not always added , a rule must be given when that addition
should take place, and when not. When simply a possession
is signified, without any other idea attending it , neither those
terminations, nor that of the feminine gender , are required ;
as, der Garten iſt mein, the garden is mine ; die Stube iſt
dein , the room is thine ; das Haus iſt ſein , the house is his.
But when an antithesis is implied, the pronoun becomes em
phatic , and those endings are to be subjoined. For example :
Whose book is this ? it is mine ; thismust be , es iſt meines,
with the additional termination ; because it is emphatic ,-it
is that which belongs to me. Weſſen Hund iſt das ? whose
dog is that ? Es iſt unſerer, it is ours . Weſſen Feder iſt
das ? whose pen is that ? Es iſt ſeine, it is his. Here the
same antithesis is involved, and the termination affixed . So
in the following : Iſt dieſes meines oder ihres ? is this
mine , or theirs ? Nein , es iſt deines , oder eures, no, it is
thine, or yours. It is, of course , understood, that the sub
stantive is never expressed , when these terminations are em
ployed . *
2. In unſer, euer, the e, before ºr , is frequently left out,
when a syllable comes after it : as, unſrer , unſre, unſres, for
unſerer, unſere, unſeres ; eurer, eure, eures, for euerer,
euere, eneres .
3. The possessive pronouns may be used absolutely, with
the definite article ; as, der meine , die meine, das meine,
mine; der deine, thine ; der ſeine, his ; der ihre, hers ; der
unſere, ours ; der euere, yours ; der ihre, theirs ; I say ab
solutely ; that means, with no substantive following, though
understood . For example : Weſſen Hut iſt das ? whose hat
is that ? Es iſt der meine, it is mine. Weſſen Uhr iſt das ?
whose watch is that ? Es iſt die deine, it is thine. Weſſen
*
Compare with this what is said of the first numeral, Sect.
vi. Obs. 1.
Sect. 3. Pronouns Demonstrative. 151
Buch iſt das ? whose book is that ? Es iſt das ſeine, it is

his. The French have the same manner of expression , in
le mien , le tien , le sien , le nôtre, le vôtre, le leur. Indeed ,
they cannot put their possessive pronouns absolutely, unless
the article is prefixed. In English , the article cannot be
joined with them . But , in German , the pronoun possessive
absolute may either be used with , or without, the article ;
nor is it sufficiently defined whether the one or the other is
preferable. It seems solely to depend on the sound , and on
the structure of the sentence ; though, at the same time, it
cannot be denied, that, when the article is made use of, the
possession seems to be more distinctly marked. When united
with the article , it is most usual to insert an additional sylla
ble , namely, ige ; as , der meinige, der beinige, der ſeinige,
der ihrige, der unſrige, der eurige, der ihrige . The latter is
a new form introduced since the time of Luther. The defi
nite article going before, these pronouns are declined after
the new or second form of adjectives.
4. Dero and Shro are used in ceremonious language.
They serve for addressing persons of distinction, and are
equivalent in sense to your, though they are antiquated forms
of the genitive plural of the third person of der, that person ,
and er , he ; as, Dero, or Ihro Majestat, your Majesty.
SECTION III.
PRONOUNS DEMONSTRATIVE .
Under this head are comprised all those, which point out,
or determine, the subject to which they refer. They are,
dieſer, dieſe, dieſes, this ; Lat. hic, hæc, hoc ; jener, jene,
jenes, that ; Lat. ille, illa, illud ; der, die, das, that ; Lat.
is, ea, id , or iste, ista, istud ; derjenige, diejenige, dasjenige,
152 On the Pronoun. P. I. Ch. 4.
that ; Lat. is, or ille ; derſelbe, dieſelbe, daſſelbe, the same ;

Lat. idem , eadem , idem .
( a ) Those which are properly Demonstrative. — Dieſer,
this, and jener, that, are declined after the old or full
form of adjectives. The neuter singular of dieſer is often
used in a general sense without a noun, and is then com
monly contracted into dies ( for dieſes ), which is indeclinable.
Whenever dies would be governed by a preposition , the ad
verb hier is substituted for it, and the preposition is appen
ded to it ; as, hieran, hieraus, hiervon , hiermit, just as das
ran, daraus, davon, damit, are used for das ( that thing, it)
and a preposition. See Obs. 10 , at the end of the section .
The neuter singular of the pronouns dieſer and jener is placed
before and after verbs, without any distinction of gender or
number, in the same manner as the personal pronoun es . For
instance, dieſes or dies, iſt ein Mann, this is a man ; jenes
iſt eine Frau, that is a woman ; dies ſind Menſchen, these are
men. Was für ein Mann iſt dies ? what man is this ?
Was für eine Frau iſt dies ? what woman is this ? Was
für Leute ſind dies ? what people are these ?
When two demonstratives are put together, in the genitive
and dative singular, and the genitive plural , the last of them
may assume the termination en, instead of er, em, es . By
this means the concurrence of the same syllables is avoided ,
if that should be thought objectionable. For example : die
Meinungen dieſes und jenen Mannes ( for jenes ), the opin
ion of this and that man ; or, in the plural, dieſer und jenen
Männer, of such and such men . Von dieſer und jenen
Geſchichte ( dat.fem . for jener ) , of this and that history. Aus
dieſem und jenen Buche (for jenem ), out of such and such a
book .
( b ) Determinative Pronouns. — They determine or limit
the subject, by causing it to depend upon a relative which fol
lows.
Singular. Plural.
Masc . Fem . Neut.
Nom . der , die, das . die .
Gen. deſſen (bep ), deren , deffen ( deb ) . derer.
Dat. dem , der, dem . denen .
Acc . den, die, das . die.
The genitive deß is rarely used in the masculine, and in

the neuter only when das stands for the personal pronoun
esi it.
Observe that the genitive plural always is derer, “ of
those , ” and is frequently followed by die, or welche, “ who . "
The relative “ whose” is deren .
Derjenige , that, expresses the relation of a thing, not to
the speaker ( as jener, that which is remote from me ) , but to
something to be specified in a following clause ; as , " that
one , whom I love." Der, that, does not necessarily refer to
a following clause.
Derſelbe, the same , always refers to another idea expressed
or implied, with which it is identified. Being compounded
of der, with jener and ſelber , both parts of derjenige and der:
ſelbe are declined ; der as the definite article, and jener and
ſelber after the new and imperfect form of adjectives ; as,
derjenige, diejenige, dasjenige, etc.
Further Observations.
1. These pronouns may be joined to substantives, or stand
by themselves ; as, der Menſch , welcher tugendhaft lebt, iſt
weiſe, that man who lives virtuously, is wise - der, welcher
tugendhaft lebt, iſt weiſe, he who lives virtuously is wise.
Derjenige Menſch, welcher Ungerechtigkeit liebt, iſt ein
Böſewicht, that man who loves injustice is a villian. Derjes
nige , welcher Ungeredytigkeit liebt, iſt ein Böſewicht, he who
loves injustice, etc. Derſelbe Menſch, welcher — or Derſels
be, welcher.
2. The relative generally comes after derjenige ; but not
always after der and derſelbe. For example : Es iſt der

Mann , it is that man ; es iſt derſelbe Mann , it is the same
man . When der is by itself, neither before a substantive nor
followed by a relative, some local adverb is commonly added
to it, such as, hier, da, dort : Der da, that person there ; der
hier, that person here ; der dort, that person yonder. Weſſen
Haus iſt das ? whose house is that ? Deſſen da, or deß
da, that person's. Wem gehört es ? to whom does it be
long ! dem da, to that person.
3. The genitive case of the demonstrative der, die, das, in
all genders, and both numbers, frequently serves as a substi
tute for the possessive case of the personal pronoun , viz .
deſſen , deren , deſſen , for his, her, its ; derer, pl . for their.
See Sect. 1. Obs. 3.
4. Der, die, das, when serving as a demonstrative pronoun ,
has a stronger accent in pronunciation than a definite article,
by which it is distinguished from the latter. This pronoun ,
when joined with the adverb eben, signifies the same ( Lat.
idem ), and is equal in meaning to derſelbe ; as, eben der
Mann , the same man ; eben die Frau, the same woman ;
eben das Kind, the same child.
5. Das, like dies and es, is seen in connection with dif
ferent numbers and genders ; as, das iſt der Mann, that is
the man ; das iſt die Frau, that is the woman ; das ſind die
Leute, those are the people.
6. Derſelbe, is sometimes, for the sake of avoiding ambi
guity, employed with the signification of the personal pronoun
of the third person. This occurs in sentences where two
words precede, either of which might be referred to by the
personal pronoun . The demonstrative can refer to the last 1
only, and excludes all ambiguity. Example : Der Vater
ſchrieb ſeinen Sobne, derſelbe ( the son , not the father
er might mean either ) , müge nad London reiſen, the fa
ther wrote to the son that the same ( the son ) must go to
London . It is sometimes used for the sake of euphony ; as ,
Sobald die Mutter ihre Tochter ſah , fragte ſie dieſelbe,

instead of fragte ſie ſie, as soon as the mother saw her
daughter , she asked her. But its peculiar and original power
is the Latin idem . In that sense it sometimes has the adverb
eben before it, which gives it additional force, eben derſelbe,
the very same ; and occasionally also the first numeral, which
still increases the meaning ; as, Ein und eben derſelbe, one
and the same.
7. Derſelbige, dieſelbige, daſſelbige, the same , is synony
mous with derſelbe, dieſelbe, daſſelbe. Sometimes it has a
strong demonstrative power, signifying that ; but altogether
it is a word not of the most classical stamp.
8. Der nämliche, and der gleidje, occur as substitutes for
derſelbe ; but the latter not so frequently.
9. Selbiger, e, es, Lat. is, ea , id ; ſolcher, e, es, or rather,
ein ſolcher, such a one ; and ſo ein, ſo eine, ſo ein, may be
added to the list of demonstrative pronouns. The first men
tioned coincides in its meaning, with derjenige and der, but
it is not so much in use ; as, Selbiger Menſch, that man , or
the said man , for der Menſch ; zu ſelbiger Zeit, at that time ,
for zu der Zeit.
10. Instead of the demonstrative pronouns, with certain
prepositions, the local adverbs hier, here , and da, there, are
often employed ; hier may then be changed into hie before a
consonant, and da must be transformed into dar before a
vowel. For example : Hiermit, or hiemit, herewith, for mit
dieſem , with this ; hieraus, hereout , hence, for aus dieſem ,
out of this ; hieran, hereon, for an dieſem , on this. Davon ,
thereof, for von dem, of or from that ; or for the plural , von
denen, of or from those ; daran, thereon, thereat, for an dem,
on that ; daraus, thereout , for aus dem, out of that ; darin,
therein ; darein, thereinto ; darauf, thereupon , darüber, for
über das, upon that, thereupon ; damit, therewith , for mit
dem, with that , etc.
156 On the Pronoun . " P. I. Ch. 4.
SECTION IV .
PRONOUNS RELATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ,
These are ; Welcher, welche, welches , who, and which ,

and Wer, neut. was, who, what. Der, die, das, is, like the
English that, used in a relative signification.
Singular. Plural.
Masc. Fem. Neut.
Nom . welcher , welche, welches . weldhe.
Gen. welches welcher , welches . welder.
Dat. welchem , welcher, weldjem . welchen .
Acc . welchen , welche, welches. welche.
Singular. Plural none.

Masc. and Fem . Neut.
Nom . wer , was .
Gen. weſſen (web ) .
Dat. wem,
Acc. wen , was .
Singular. Plural.
Masc . Fem . Neut.
Nom. der , die, das . die .
Gen. deſſen , derent , deſſen . deren .
i Dat. dem , der , dem . denen .
Acc. den, die, das . die .
Observations.
1. The English distinguish , in their relatives, the pronouns
who and which ; applying the former to persons, and the lat
ter to animals and things. The Germans admit no such dif
ference. They use welcher in relation to the one and the
other. In English, that frequently performs the function of
who or which, especially for the purpose of avoiding repeti
tion. In a similar manner the Germans employ der, die, das,
Sect. 4. Pronouns Relative and Interrogative. 157
instead of welcher, welche, welches. The former has the ad 1

vantage of brevity , and is therefore often preferred ; though
in many places welcher would be decidedly better. The lat
ter ought to be considered as the proper and genuine relative ;
and der, die, das , only as an occasional substitute. Welcher
should have the preference - 1. After personal pronouns of the
first and second person .* Ich, welcher — I who ; Du, welcher
thou who ; Shr, welche - you who ; Sic ( being used as a
pronoun of address, They , for you ), welche — they who. 2.
When the relative immediately precedes the verb , without
another word intervening ; as , Ein Mann, welcher ſchreibt,
a man who is writing ; ein Kind, welches lieſt, a child which
is reading. 3. When the definite article or a demonstrative
pronoun goes just before ; as, der Mann, welcher — dieſer
Menſch, welcher - jene Frau, welche dasjenige Kind, wel
ches. This third distinction is not always regarded in prac
tice, and those pronouns are promiscuously used. The de
fect of abruptness, in the relative der, is often remedied by
the addition of certain words to that pronoun. When placed
after a pronoun of the first or second person the antecedent
is repeated after the relative. For example: Ich , der ich
viele Bücher geleſen habe, I who have read many books; du,
der du hier ſteheſt, thou who standest here ; Wir, die wir
hier verſammelt ſind , we who are here assembled ; Ihr, die
ihr euer Vaterland liebt, you who love your country.f When
alone with a verb, after a pronoun of the third person , or a
substantive, the adverb da is joined with it : as, Ein Knabe,
der da ſchreibt, a boy that writes. Da signifies there, but
serves here as a mere expletive, to lengthen the short relative
* After the first person of the plural wir, it would be ob

jectionable to employ welche, on account of the alliteration.
It is, in this instance, expedient to say wir, die wir.
+ In such a connection , the preceding personal pronoun is
sometimes omitted : as, Die ihr ein Lied der Liebe wagt, ye
that venture on a song of love, for ihr, die ihr, etc. — Herder.
14
pronoun. Der, as a relative, never stands united with a

substantive ; for instance, der Mann, cannot express, which
man .
2. The adverb ſo, so, sometimes represents the relative.
For example : die Wahrheit, welche von einem Werke, wie
dasjenige iſt, ſo wir den liebhabern hiermit vorlegen, gefo
dert werden kann, beſtehet darin, etc. “ The veracity that
can be required of a work , like the one which we now lay
before the lovers of elegant literature, consists in this , ” etc.
(Wieland .) It is a peculiarity of the ancient style, and at
present only resorted to, for the purpose of preventing the re
petition of other relatives. When the verb follows, without
any other word between , da is added , as in the relative der,
die, das . For example, in Bürger's Leonore :
Doch keiner war, der Rundſchaft gab,
von allen, ſo da famen ( i . e. welche kamen ) .
But, of all that came, there was none who could give
any information .”
3. Wer, who, as a relative, always begins a sentence ; what
otherwise would be the antecedent, follows. For example :
Wer auf dem Wege der Tugend wandelt, iſt glücklich, he who
walks in the path of virtue is happy. It is never put after an
antecedent. It would , for instance, be a solecism to say,
der Mann, wer die Geſeße ehrt, the man who respects the
laws. Here a different relative is required. Nor can wer be
connected with a substantive, as wer Mann, which man ;
for welcher Mann . When wer stands alone with the verb,
da is frequently added to it, in the same manner as it is to
der ( see the former page ) ; as, Wer da glaubt, daß dieß ſo
ſey, irrt ſich , he, who thinks that this is so, is mistaken. The
neuter was, may either commence a sentence, or be placed
after an antecedent. For example : was gerecht iſt, ver
dient lob, what is just, deserves praise ; das, was du mir
geſagt haſt, that which you have told me ; alles, was ich
Sect. 4. Pronouns Relative and Interrogative. 159
geſehen habe, all I have seen . It stands here to signify

which ; and is very properly employed after an antecedent,
denoting something general and undetermined. When an
individual or particular subject precedes , it is necessary to ex
press the neuter, which, by welches ; as, das Buch, welches
Sie mir geliehen haben, the book which you have lent me.
Wer, occasionally signifies somebody ; as , es iſt wer da, there
is somebody ; and was, something ( an abbreviation of etwas,
somewhat, something ) ; as, Ich habe was, I have got some
thing ; Ich will Ihnen was ſagen , I'll tell you something.
But these expressions are not classical. In common life wels
cher is employed in a similar manner meaning some.
4. The relative pronoun is often omitted in English , and
to be understood in a sentence. For example : « The man
I love,” i. e. whom I love. In German , the relative must al
ways be expressed .
5. The pronouns wer, neuter, was ; and welcher, welche,
welches , also serve to express questions , or , in other words,
have the power of interrogatives. Wer is applied to persons,
either male or female , and was to things. They ask the
questions in a general way , as the English who and what ;
and are never joined with a substantive. Welcher, welche,
welches, refers to particular objects, and may be united with
substantives. It answers to the English interrogatire which ;
as, welcher Mann ? which man ? Was is sometimes used
for warum ; as , Was zittre ich ? Why do I tremble . - Schil
ler.
6. Was für ein is used in a general sense, and means,
what sort ; as, was für ein Mann, what sort of man ? or ,
what a man ! was für eine Frau, what woman ? i. e. ofwhat
description ( not what individual) ? was für ein Kind, what
child ? It is literally, what for a man, what for a woman. In
this form of expression the article only is declined. The in
definite article is omitted before the plural number : for ex
ample , was für Menſchen , what men ? was für Zeug, what
160 On the Pronoun. P. I. Ch . 4.
stuff ? was für Wein, what wine ? Welch ein, fem . welch
eine ; pl. welche, are occasionally used in the room of was
für ein, was für eine, and was für.
7. The local adverb wo, where, with a preposition , is gen
erally used instead of was with a preposition, and often in
stead of welcher ; as, womit, wherewith ; wovon, whereof;
wodurch, whereby ; wozu, whereto ; worin, wherein ; woran,
whereon , whereat. When the preposition begins with a
vowel, r is inserted after wo ; as , woraus , whereout, for out
of which ; worüber, whereupon , whereover, for upon which ,
or over which. Warum , wherefore, is used for worum .
SECTION V.
MISCELLANEOUS PRONOUNS.
Under this denomination are to be comprehended several

words which could not conveniently be classed with the for
mer divisions. They are, jeder, jedweder, jeglicher, mancher,
man, jemand, niemand, and ſelbſt, or ſelber.
1. Jeder, jede, jedes, each , every (one ) ; jedweder, jedwede,
jedwedes, each, every (one ) ; jeglicher, jegliche, jegliches,
each, every ( one) ; mancher, manche, manches, many a ( one).
They are either put before substantives or they stand by
themselves. Je, ever , expresses any possible time ; whereas
immer, ever, means at all times. In composition je means
ever - y possible case , each one without exception. Jeder is
every der, i . e. every one . Jedweder is an old word of the
same import, except that it represents individuals as more dis
tinct from each other than jeder, and is applied not so indefi
nitely to an unknown multitude not distinctly conceived by
the mind. This use of jedweder seems to show that the influ
ence of its etymology was never entirely lost ; for it comes
Sect. 5. Miscellaneous Pronouns. 161
from je and weder, and signified originally, uterque, each of

the two, and afterwards, each of any larger number. Jes
glicher has a similar import, every one ; it comes from je and
gleich, and is a little stronger expression than jeder. These
are all declined in both forms like adjectives, but are limited
to the singular number.
Mancher is declined in both numbers. In the singular it
means many a one ; in the plural , several , and thereby differs
from viele, many. It may often be translated by the word ,
many, taken in a limited sense. Etliche ( aliqui) and etwelche,
some, are antiquated , and irgend einer, and einige, etc. are
now used in their place. In common life, welche, some, is
still in use for etwelche. Etliche is by no means wholly out
of use now.
2. Man is not declined. It implies a general or indefinite
personality , answering to the French On ; and takes the
verb in the singular number. For example , man ſagt,
French , on dit, people say, they say ; man ſpricht, Fr. on
parle, people talk , they talk. The English make use of dif
ferent expressions, such as, we, you , they, a person, one ;
where the Germans employ man, and the French on . For
instance, Man muß ſich hüten, Fr. on doit prendre garde, a
person , or one, must take care ; man irrt ſich , wenn man
glaubt-on
, se trompe , si l'on pense, a person , or one, mis
takes, if he thinks. The oblique cases of the indefinite arti
cle are placed in a corresponding relation with man . For
example, Man ärgert ſich immer , wenn einem gewiſſe Ers
wartungen fehlſchlagen , a person is always vexed , when he
is disappointed in certain expectations. Man irrt ſich , wenn
man glaubt, der große Haufe ſchätze einen wahrer Verdienſte
wegen , one is mistaken , if he thinks that the multitude es
teems him for true merit. In these examples, einem and
einen, dative and accusative cases of the numeral ein, one ,
some one, answer to man, which is used only in the nomina
tive singular.
14*
162 On the Pronoun. P. I. Ch . 4.
The Germans also employ man in the same way as the

French employ their on, whenever they do not wish to use
any of the personal pronouns Du, Er, Sie, or Ihr . They
say, Man thue das nicht mehr ( qu'on ne le fasse plus) , let
this not be done again ! Man höre was ich ſage (que l'on
écoute ce que je dis), let what I say be listened to ! It is a
kind of modified imperative, expressive of displeasure at any
thing done, and is always construed with the subjunctive :
Man laſſe das ſeyn, leave that alone ! *
3. Jemand, some one, some body, any one, any body ; Jes
dermann, every one ; niemand, no one . These words are
composed of the foregoing man , or Mann, and of je, ever ;
jeder, each ; nie, never, and are always used as substantives.
In the genitive case they have 8 ( es ) added ; as, jemands,
Jedermanns , niemands . The dative and accusative, though
they are often like the nominative, are usually marked by the
termination en ; as, jemanden, niemanden ; which is never
the case with Jedermann . The first numeral Giner, occasion
ally stands for jemand, some one, but is so used only in the
masculine singular. It is exactly the English One, in expres
sions like " it gives one much trouble,” meaning every one,
the whole species of human being ; whilst jemand rather
points at a definite individual who is not named .
4. The invariable pronoun ſelbſt, or ſelber, resembling the
English self, may be added to any pronoun , or to any sub
stantive. For example; ich ſelbſt, I myself ; du ſelbſt, thou
thyself ; er ſelbſt, he himself; der Mann ſelbſt, the man him
self ; die Frau ſelbſt, the woman herself ; wir ſelbſt, we our
selves ; ihr ſelbſt, you yourselves ; ſie ſelbſt, they themselves ;
die Leute ſelbſt, the people themselves. The English self
must previously be compounded with a pronoun , such as, him ,
her, my , thy; our , etc. , to qualify it for an adjunct to a sub
* The pronoun, man must not be confounded with the sub

stantive, Mann .
Sect. 5. Miscellaneous Pronouns. 163
stantive, or personal pronoun , as the man himself, the woman

herself, I myself, thou , thyself; it is likewise varied in the
plural, as, we ourselves ; but the German word is neither
compounded nor declined. It may be placed, as an adverb ,
before a substantive or a pronoun , in which situation it sig
nifies even ; as, ſelbſt ich, even I ; ſelbſt du, even thou ; ſelbſt
Tie, even they ; ſelbſt der Mann, even the man ; ſelbſt die
Leute, even the people. Selber, and ſelbiger, are obsolete.
Selbſt, or abridged ſelb , is sometimes connected with ordi
nal numbers : as, Selbſtdritter, or ſelbdritter ; ſelbvierter ;
ſelbzehnter ; ſelbzwanzigſter. It then implies that the per
son , to whom the number refers, is accompanied by so many
others. For example : Ich ſelbvierter, I myself the fourth,
that means , three besides me ; der König ſelbſtzwanzigſter,
the king the twentieth, that is, the king, and nineteen persons
besides. *
* Selbzwanzigſter gefangen , und allein vom Saladin

begnadigt ; -— I was taken with nineteen others, but alone
spared by Saladin. - leffing's Nathan der Weiſe, Act 1 .
Sc. 5.
164 On the Verb. P. I. Ch . 5.
CHAPTER V.
ON THE VERB .
CONTAINING
1. The Auxiliary Verbs.

2. The Conjugation of Regular Verbs.
3. The Irregular Verbs.
4. Verbs Neuter .
5. Reflective Verbs.
6. Impersonal Verbs.
7. Compound Verbs.
SECTION I.
AUXILIARY VERBS.
If verbs auxiliary be those which are indispensably requi

red to complete a conjugation, we must recognize three such
verbs in the German language.
The first is haben, to have. This serves for the formation
of the perfect, pluperfect, and second future tenses, in the ac
tive voice.
The second , ſeyn, to be. It forms the perfect, pluperfect,
and second future, of some neuter verbs ; and likewise helps
to compose those tenses, in the passive voice.
The third is Werden . This verb signifies, 1. a future
event, which may consist in acting, being, or suffering.
Thus it expresses the English auxiliaries of the future tense,
shall and will ; and seems to resemble the Greek verb uělla .
Sect. 1 . Auxiliary Verbs. 165
With this qualification , it produces all the future tenses. *

2. It denotes the coming into a certain state or condition .
Therefore, when joined with a noun , it answers to the Latin
fio, and the English to become. But, with this power, it is
likewise employed to form the passive voice .
NOTE . — It will be seen, from the examples of the German

conjugation, in the following pages, that the principal parts of
the verb are—the present and imperfect tenses of the indica
tive mood , the infinitive and the preterite participle. These
may be considered as the roots from which all , or most, ten
ses are derived. For which reason they will be placed at the
head of every verb that is exhibited for the purpose of conju
gation.
First Auxiliary. haben, to have.
habe, present tense ;-hatte, imperfect ;-gehabt, preterite

participle .
INDICATIVE MOOD. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe, I have. 1. ich habe, ( if ) I have.
2. du haſt, thou hast. 2. du habeſt, ( if) thou hast.
3. er (ſie, es ) hat, 3. er ( ſie es ) habe,
he (she, it) has. ( if ) he (she, it) have.
Plural. Plural,
1. wir haben, we have. 1. wir haben, ( if ) we have.
2. ihr habet, or habt, 2. ihr habet, ( if ) you have.
you have .
3. ſie haben, they have. 3. ſie haben, ( f ) they have.
* The infinitive after werden was originally the present

participle ; as, wirt tragende ( wird tragen ), he will bear, but
literally, he becomes bearing, in which werden has its ordinary
signification . - Becker.
166 On the Verb . P. I. Ch . 5.
INDICATIVE . SUBJUNCTIVE .
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular .
1. ich hatte, I had . 1. ich hätte, ( if ) I had.
2. du hatteſt, thou hadst. 2. bu hätteſt, ( if ) thou hadst.
3. er hatte, he had . 3. er hätte, ( if ) he had .
Plural . Plural .
1. wir hatten, we had . 1. wir hätten , ( if ) we had.
2. ihr hattet, you had. 2. ihr hättet , (if you had..
3. ſie hatten , they had . 3. ſie hätten , ( if ) they had .
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe gehabt, 1. ich habe gehabt,
I have had. ( if ) I have had.
2. du haſt gehabt, 2. du habeſt gehabt,
thou hast had. (if ) thou hast had .
3. er hat gehabt, 3. er habe gehabt,
he has had. ( if ) he have had.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir haben gehabt, 1. wir haben gehabt,
we have had. ( if ) we haye had.
2. ihr habet, or habt, gehabt, 2. ihr habet gehabt,
you have had. ( if ) you have had .
3. ſie haben gehabt , 3. ſie haben gehabt,
they have had . ( if ) they have had .
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte gehabt, 1. ich hätte gehabt,
I had had. ( if ) I had had .
2. du hatteſt gehabt, 2. du hätteſt gehabt ,
thou hadst had. ( if ) thou hadst had .
3. er hatte gehabt, 3. er hätte gehabt,
he had had. ( if ) he had had.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir hatten gehabt, 1. wir hätten gehabt,
we had had . ( if ) we had had.
2. ihr hattet gehabt, 2. ihr hättet gehabt,
you had had . ( if ) you had had.
3. ſie hatten gehabt, 3. ſie hätten gehabt,
they had had. ( if ) they had had.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde haben, 1. id , werde haben,
I shall have. ( if ) I shall have.
2. du wirſt haben, 2. du werbeſt haben,
thou shalt, or wilt, have. ( if ) thou shalt have.
3. er wird haben, 3. er werde haben,
he shall, or will , have.. ( if ) he shall have.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden haben, 1. wir werden haben,
we shall have. ( if ) we shall have.
2. ich werdet haben , 2. ihr werdet haben,
you shall, or will, have. (if ) you shall have.
3. ſie werden haben , 3. ſie werden haben,
they shall, or will , have. ( if ) they shall have .
Second Future.
1. ich werde gehabt haben, 1. ich werde gehabt haben,
I shall have had. ( if ) I shall have had.
2. du wirſt gehabt haben, 2. du werdeſt gehabt haben,
thou shalt, or wilt, have ( if ) thou shalt have had.
had.
3. er wird gehabt haben, he 3. er werde gehabt haben,
shall, or will, have had. ( if ) he shall have had .
168 On the Verb . P. I. Ch. 5.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden gehabt haben, 1. wir werden gehabt haben,
we shall have had. ( if ) we shall have had.
2. ihr werdet gehabt haben, 2. ihr werdet gehabt haben ,
you shall, or will , have ( if ) you shall have had.
had.
3. ſie werden gehabt haben, 3. ſie werden gehabt haben,
they shall, or will , have ( if ) they shall have had .
had.
First Future Conditional.

Singular .
1. ich würde haben, I should , or would, have .
2. du würdeſt haben, thou shouldst, or wouldst, have.
3. er würde haben , he should , or would , have.
Plural .
1. wir würden haben, we should , or would, have.
2. ihr würdet haben, you should , or would , have.
3. ſie würden haben, they should, or would , have.
Second Future Conditional.

Singular.
1. ich würde gehabt haben, I should, or would have had .
2. du würdeſt gehabt haben, thou shouldst, or wouldst,
have had.
3. er würde gehabt haben, he should , or would , have had.
Plural .
1. wir würden gehabt haben, we should, or would, have
had.
2. ihr würdet gehabt haben, you should , or would , have
had.
3. ſie würden gehabt haben, they should , or would , have
had.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular . Plural.
2. habe ( du ), have ( thou ) . 2. habet, or habt ( ihr ),
have (you )
3. habe er ( ſie, es ), 3. haben ſie, let them have. *
let him ( her, it ) have.
INFINITIVE MOOD. PARTICIPLES.
Present, haben, to have. Present, habend, having.

Perfect, gehabt haben, Preterite, gehabt, had .
to have had.
Future, haben werden,
to be about to have.
Second Auxiliary. ſeyn , to be.

bin , present tense ;-war , imperfect ;—geweſen ,
preterite participle.
Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich bin, I am. 1. ich ſey , ( if ) I be.
2. du biſt, thou art. 2. du ſeyeſt ,or ſeyſt,(if) thou be.
3. er iſt, he is. 3. er ſey , (if ) he be.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir ſind, we are. 1. wir ſeyen, or ſeyn, ( if) we be.
2. ihr ſeyd, you are. 2. ihr ſeyed , or feyd , (if) you be .
3. ſie ſind, they are. 3. ſie ſeyen , or ſeyn , ( if )they be.
* The first person plural of the imperative is not commonly

met with . The verb laſſen , to let, is usually employed, to ex
press that idea. Now and then you see the bare imperative
thus used ; as, gehen wir, let us go ; haben wir Geduld, let
us have patience; reden wir nicht mehr davon , let us say
nothing more of it.
15
170 On the Verb . P. J. Ch. 5 .
INDICATIVE . SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich war, I was. 1. ich wäre, ( if ) I were.
2. dy wareſt, or warſt, 2. du wäreſt, ( if ) thou wert.
thou wast.
3. er war , he was . 3. er wäre, ( if ) he were.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir waren , we were. 1. wir wären , ( if ) we were .
2. ihr waret, or wart, 2. ihr wäret, (if ) you were .
you were.
3. ſie waren , they were . 3. ſie wären , ( if ) they were .
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich bin geweſen , 1. ich ſey geweſen,
I have been . ( if) I have been .
2. du biſt geweſen , 2. du reyeſt, or feyſt, gewes
thou hast been. ſen , ( if) thou hast been.
3. er iſt geweſen , 3. er ſey geweſen ,
he has been . ( if) he have been.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir ſind geweſen , 1. wir ſeyen , or ſeyn , gewe
we have been. ſen, ( if) we have been .
2. ihr ſeyd geweſen , 2. ihr ſeyed, or ſend, gewes
you have been. ſen , ( if) you have been .
3. ſie ſind geweſen , 3. ſie ſeyen , or ſeyn , gewes
they have been . fen , ( if) they have been .
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich war geweſen , 1. ich wäre geweſen ,
I had been . ( if) I had been .
2. + bu wareſt geweſen , 2. du wäreſt geweſen ,
thou hadst been . ( if) thou hadst been .
3. er war geweſen , 3. er wäre geweſen ,
he had been. ( if) he had been.
INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE .
Plural. Plural.
1. wir waren geweſen , 1. wir wären geweſen ,
we had been . ( if) we had been .
2. ihr waret geweſen , 2. ihr wäret geweſen ,
you had been . ( if) you had been.
3. ſie waren geweſen , 3. ſie wären geweſen ,
they had been ( if) they had been .
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde ſeyn , 1. ich werde ſeyn ,
I shall be. ( if) I shall be.
2. du wirſt ſeyn , 2. du werdeſt ſeyn ,
thou shalt, or wilt, be. ( if ) thou shalt be.
3. er wird ſeyn, 3. er werde ſeyn ,
he shall , or will, be. ( if) he shall be.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden ſeyn , 1. wir werden ſeyn ,
we shall be. (if) we shall be.
2. ihr werdet ſeyn, 2. ihr werdet ſeyn ,
you shall , or will , be. ( if) you shall be.
3. ſie werden ſeyn , 3. ſie werden ſeyn ,
they shall, or will, be. ( if) they shall be.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde geweſen ſeyn , 1. ich werde geweſen ſeyn ,
I shall have been. ( if) I shall have been .
2. du wirſt geweſen ſeyn, 2. du werdeſt geweſen ſeyn,
thou shalt, or wilt, have ( if) thou shalt have
been . been .
3. er wird geweſen ſeyn, he 3. er werde geweſen ſeyn ,
shall, or will, have been . ( if) he shall have been .
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden geweſen ſeyn , 1. wir werden geweſen ſeyn ,
we shall have been. ( if) we shall have been.
2. ihr werdet geweſen ſeyn , 2. ihr werdet geweſen ſeyn ,
you shall, or will, ( if) you shall have been.
have been.
3. ſie werden geweſen ſeyn , 3. ſie werden geweſen ſeyn ,
they shall, or will , ( if)they shall have been.
have been .

Singular.
1. ich würde ſeyn, I should, or would, be.
2. du würdeſt ſeyn, thou shouldst, or wouldst, be.
3. er würde ſeyn, he should , or would , be.
Plural .
1. wir würden ſeyn, we should , or would, be.
2. ihr würdet ſeyn , you should , or would , be .
3. ſie würden ſeyn, they should, or would , be.
Singular.
1. ich würde geweſen ſeyn, I should , or would , have been .
2. du würdeſt geweſen ſeyn, thou shouldst, or wouldst, have
been.
3. er würde geweſen ſeyn , he should , or would have been .
Plural.
1. wir würden geweſen ſeyn , we should , or would , have been .
2. ihr würdet geweſen ſeyn, you should , or would , have been.
3. ſie würden geweſen ſeyn , they should, or would, have been .
IMPERATIVE.
Singular. Plural.
2. ſey ( du ) , be ( thou ). 2. ſeyd ( ihr ) , be ( you ).
3. Tey er , let him be. 3. ſeven , or ſeyn ſie,
let them be.
Sect. 1. Auxiliary Verbs. 173
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES .
Pres. ſeyn , to be. Present, ſeyend, being.
Perf. geweſen ſeyn , Preterite, geweſen , been.
to have been .
Fut. ſeyn werden,
to be about to be.
Third Auxiliary. werden , to become.

werde, present ;-wurde ( or ward * ), imperf. ; — geworden
( or worden ), pret. part.
Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde, I become. 1. ich werde, ( if ) I become.
2. du wirſt, thou becomest . 2. du werdeft,
(if ) thou becomest.
3. er wird, he becomes. 3. er werde, if he become.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden , we become. 1. wir werden ,
( if ) we become.
2. ihr werdet, you become. 2. ihr werdet,
(if ) you become.
3. fie werden , 3. ſie werden ,
they become. ( if ) they become.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular. -
1. ich wurde ( or ward ), 1. ich würde, (if ) I became.
I became.
2. du wurdeſt ( or wardſt ), 2. du würdeſt,
thou becamest. ( if ) thou becamest.
3. er wurde (or ward), 3. er würde, ( if ) he became.
he became.
* I am of opinion that the form wurde , throughout the im

15*
174 On the Verb. P. I. Ch. 5.
Plural, Plural.
1. wir wurden, we became. 1. wir würden,
( if ) we became.
2. ihr wurdet, you became. 2. ihr würdet,
( if ) you became
3. ſie wurden, 3. ſie würden ,

they became. (if ) they became
Perfect.
1. ich bin geworden , or wors 1. ich ſey geworden , or wors
den, I have become.* den , ( if ) I have become.
2. du biſt geworden , or wor : 2. du ſeyeſt, or feyſt, gewors
den, thou hast become. den, or worden,
( if ) thou hast become.
3. er iſt geworden , or wors 3. er ſey geworden , or wor:
den, he has become. den, ( if ) he have become.
Plural . Plural.
1. wir ſind geworden , or 1. wir ſeyen , or feyn , gewor
worden, den , or worden ,
we have become. ( if ) we have become.
2. ihr feyd geworden , or 2. ihr ſeyed , or feyd , gewors
worden, den, or worden,
you have become. ( if ) you have become.
3. ſie ſind geworden , or 3. ſie ſeyen , or ſeyn, gewor
worden , den, or worden,
they have become. ( if ) they have become.
perfect, is preferable to the adoption of ward, in some of the

persons.
* Geworden is used with an adjective ; and worden after a
participle preterite : ich bin weiſe geworden , ich bin geliebt
worden .
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich war geworden , or 1. ich wäre geworden , or
worden , worden ,
I had become. ( if) I had become.
2. du wareſt (warſt) gewor: 2. du wäreſt, geworden , or
den, or worden , worden ,
thou hadst become. (if ) thou hadst become.
3. er war geworden, or 3. er wäre geworden , or
worden, worden,
he had become. (if ) he had become.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir waren geworden, or 1. wir wären geworden , or
worden, worden,
we had become. ( if) we had become.
2. ihr waret (wart) gewor- 2. ihr wäret geworden , or
den , or worden, worden,
you had become. ( if ) you had become.
3. ſie waren, geworden, or 3. ſie wären geworden, or
worden , worden ,
they had become. (if ) they had become.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde werden , 1. ich werde werden ,
I shall become. ( if ) I shall become.
2. du wirſt werden, thou 2. du werdeſt werden ,
shalt, or wilt, become. ( if ) thou shalt become.
3. er wird werden , he shall, 3. er werde werden ,
or will, become. ( if ) he shall become.
176 On the Verb. P. I. Ch. 5 .
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden werden , 1. wir werden werden,
we shall become. ( if ) we shall become. 1
2. ihr werdet werden , you 2. ihr werdet werden,
shall , or will, become. ( if ) you shall become.
3. ſie werden werden , they 3. ſie werden werden ,
shall, or will, become. ( if ) they shall become.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. id werde geworben , or 1. ich werde geworben , or
worden, ſeyn , worden, ſeyn, ( f ) I shall
I shall have become. have become.
2. du wirſt geworden, or 2. du werdeſt geworden, or
worden, ſeyn , thou shalt, worden, ſeyn , ( if ) thou
or wilt, have become. shalt have become.
3. er wird geworden, or wor: 3. er werde geworden, or
den, ſeyn, he shall , or will , worden, ſeyn , ( if ) he shall
have become have become.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden geworden , or 1. wir werden geworden, or
worden, ſeyn , worden, ſeyn , ( if) we shall
we shall have become. have become.
2. ihr werdet geworden , or 2. ihr werdet geworden, or
worden, ſeyn, you shall, or worden, reyn, ( if ) you
will , have become. shall have become.
3. ſie werden geworden, or 3. ſie werden geworden, or
worden , feyn , they shall , worden , ſeyn , ( if) they
or will , have become. shall have become.

Singular.
1. ich würde werden, I should , or would, become.
2. du würdeſt werden, thou shouldst, or wouldst, become.
3. er würde werden , he should, or would, become.
Plural.
1. wir würden werden , we should , or would , become.
2. ihr würdet werden , you should , or would , become.
3. ſie würden werden , they should , or would , become.

Singular.
1. ich würde geworden , or worden , ſeyn,
I should , or would , have become.
2. du würdeſt geworden, or worden , ſeyn ,
thou shouldst, or wouldst, have become.
3. er würde geworden , or worden , ſeyn,
he should, or would, have become.
Plural.
1. wir würden geworden , or worden , ſeyn ,
we should, or would , have become.
2. ihr würdet geworden, or worden , ſeyn ,
you should, or would have become.
3. ſie würden geworden , or worden , ſeyn,
they should, or would, have become.
IMPERATIVE .
Singular. Plural.
2. werde ( du ) 2. werdet ( ihr ) ,
become ( thou). become ( you ).
3. werde er , 3. werden ſie,
let him become. let them become.
INFINITIVE .
Pres. werden, to become.

Perf. geworden , or worden , ſeyn , to have become.
Fut. werden werden, to be about to become.
PARTICIPLES .
Present, werdend, becoming.
Preterite, geworden, or worden , become.
Observations.
1. According to the English grammar, the verbs may , will,

shall, let, are, in conjugation, employed as auxiliaries. They
are not required for the German conjugation. The ideas
which they convey , are, indeed , expressed by similar verbs,
in German , but they merely indicate the possibility or neces
sity of an action expressed by other verbs with which they
are combined , and which they govern in the infinitive mood.
But if that be admitted as a criterion of helping verbs, their
number may be still farther increased. True auxiliaries are
only those, without which no complete conjugation can be
formed ; and under this description come the three verbs
that have been exhibited. It may not be improper to say a few
words of the other supposed auxiliaries, in order to make their
nature more perfectly understood . They are : ich mag, similar
to the English , I may ; ich wil, answering to ,I will ; ich ſoll,
I shall . To these may be added : ich kann, I can ; ich darf,
I dare ; ich muß, I must ; ich laſſe, I let. Those verbs are de
fective in English , all but two , to let, and to dare ; in German ,
they are conjugated through all persons , tenses, and moods,
excepting perhaps the imperative. They are all irregular, and
will be found conjugated at the end of section third below.
In this place, their signification is to be briefly explained.
Ich mag, I may. Infinitive, mögen . The English verb ,
may, denotes the potential mood . The German signifies,
1. Possibility, depending on another's will ; being permit
ted, being at liberty to do a thing ; as , er mag lachen , er mag
weinen , ich verbiete es ihm nicht, he may laugh , he may cry ,
I do not forbid it him. 2. Chance or possibility as a con
cession on the part of the speaker ; as, er mag ein braver
Mann ſein , he may be ( I concede it) an excellent man ; es
möchte ſich ereignen , it might happen ; es möchte regnen, it
might rain. 3. A wish, or desire , particularly in the present
and imperfect of the subjunctive; as , möge er lange leben !
may he live long ! möge es der Himmel geben ! may Heaven

grant it ! ich möchte wohl etwas davon haben , I should like
to have some part of it ; and also with an accusative case ,
like a transitive verb ; as , ich mag das nicht, I do not like
that. In this signification, it is frequently applied to what is
eaten or drunk. For example : mögen Sie Sauerkraut ?
do you like sour-krout ? nein ich mag es nicht, no, I do not
like it. Ich mag dieſen Wein nicht, I do not like this wine.
Ich mag nichts mehr, I do not like any more. In such
phrases, an infinitive may be supplied , viz . eſſen, to eat, or
trinken , to drink ; and the construction with the accusative,
may be considered as elliptical. Mögen , in the sense of
fönnen , which was common in the old German, and was
sometimes employed by Luther ; as, Graben mag ich nicht,
I cannot dig, is no longer in use.
Ich will, I will. Infinitive wollen . This answers, 1. to
the Latin velle, and the French vouloir ; and implies a future
event, so far as it proceeds from will and inclination . For
example : wollen Sie ſpaßieren gehen ? will you take a
walk ? that means, is it your will or inclination, to take a
walk ? Ich will leſen , I will read ; the same as, it is my will,
or my inclination, to read . Er will fliegen, und hat keine
Flügel, he wishes to fly, and has no wings. The idea of pur
pose and inclination always accompanies this verb ; it is not
employed, as in English , to denote mere futurity, for which
werden is exclusively appropriated . It signifies, 2. an impli
ed assertion , he will have it so , he affirms it to be so ; as , Er
will dich geſehen haben, he will have it thåt he saw you ; die
Leute wollen es in der Zeitung geleſen haben, the people
affirm that they read it in the newspaper.
Ich foul, I shall. Infinitive, ſollen . The English shall may
be regarded as the literal translation of the German word,
but it does not comprehend all its meanings. The verb to be,
with the preposition to and the infinitive of another verb fol
lowing ( as, I am to see, we are to go), answers to its signifi
cations more frequently than shall. The German verb de

notes : 1. To be obliged, by necessity, or duty. It may then,
as occasion requires, be rendered by shall, must , ought, am
to ; in French , by falloir , devoir . For example : Du ſollſt
das thun , thou shalt do that, thou art to do that, thou must do
that ; il faut. Sie ſollen ſchreiben , you are to write ; vous
devez écrire, or il faut que vous écriviez . 2. To be bid, to
be commissioned or to be authorized. Ich ſoll dahin gehen,
I am to go there. Soll ich es haben ? am I to have it, may
I have it ? Soll ich es thun, oder nicht ? am I to do it, or
not ? may I do it, or not ? 3. To be said, to be reported or
supposed ; as , der König Toll angefommen ſeyn , the king is
said to be arrived . Die franzöſiſche Flotte ſoll geſchlagen
worden ſeyn, the French fleet is said to have been beaten.
Es ſoll ſich zugetragen haben, it is said to have happened.
Sie ſollen mich nicht beleidigt haben ? you are supposed
not to have offended me : er fou ſeinen Saß erwieſen haben,
he is admitted to have proved his position. These subse
quent significations have all a connection with the first and
original one, which implies a necessity. There is always a
wollen, corresponding to a ſollen ; as, Du ſolſt hier blei
ben ( Ich w i ll es ) , thou shalt remain here it is my will ) ;
Er ſoll in der Stadt ſein, die Leute wollen ihn geſehen
haben , he must be, ( according to report) in the city ; the peo
ple will have it ( affirm ), that they saw him . Hence folen
comes to be equivalent to bedeuten , to signify ; as, Was ſoll
( bedeuten ) der Hut ? ( i . e. Was wollt Ihr damit bezeich
nen ? ) what means the hat ? ( i . e. what do you will or intend
to intimate by it ? ) This word is common ' in a conditional
future, which is very frequently employed. For example :
Wenn er kommen ſollte, if he should come ; wenn das ſo
reyn ſollte, if that should be so ; ſollte ſich das Wetter än
dern, ſo wollen wir ausgehen, should the weather change,
we will go out. Sollen is often used with an ellipsis, when
the infinitive of some other verb is to be supplied. In this
Sect. 1. Auxiliary Verbs. 181
way several phrases are to be explained. For example :

Was ſoll ich ? what shall I ! -- supply thun, do, —what shall
I do ? what am I to do ? what would you with me ? what do
you want ofme ? Thus , Was ſollſt du ? was ſoll er ? was
ſoll ſie ? 'was ſollen wir, was ſollt ihr, was ſollen ſie ?
what art thou to do, what art thou wanted for, what is he to
do ? or what is he wanted for, etc. Was ſoll das, what
shall that - supply ſeyn , be , what shall that be, what does it
tend to, what does that mean ? This is sometimes fully ex
pressed by, was foll das heißen, what is that to mean , what
is the meaning of that, what do you mean by that ? From
that elliptical niode of speaking, the following significations
may be assigned to ſollen :-( a ) To mean . Examples : Was
ſollen die ſieben lämmer ? what mean the seven lambs ?
Was ſoll das Geſchwäß ? what means that talk ? Was
ſollen dieſe Kränze ? what mean these wreaths ? Was ſoll
aber dieſer ? but what means this man ? In all these phrases,
the infinitive ſeyn, or in the last, thun , may be under
stood . ( b) To be intended. Ex. Sie ſollen alle für mein
Haus, they are all intended for my house. Wem ſoll denn
dieſer Strauß ? for whom is this nosegay intended ? Seyn ,
to be, may here again be understood. ( c ) To tend to, to serve
some purpose, to be of a certain use, to be good for. Ex.
Wozu ſou dieſe Erniedrigung ? what purpose does this hu
miliation serve, what does it tend to, of what use is it ? Was
Toll mir die Erſtgeburt ? of what use is primogeniture to me ?
Was ſoll mir das Geld ? of what use is the money to me ?
Lastly, the English words , may, can , will, or, in the imper
fect, might, could , would , will sometimes aptly render the
German phrases, in which ſollen occurs.
Ich kann , I can . Infinitive, fönnen . It signifies, 1. To
be able. Lat. posse , Fr. pouvoir. 2. To be permitted, to have
the liberty to do a thing. Thus it stands frequently, where
the English put may. For example : Sie können das thun,
wenn Sie wollen , you may do that, if you like. Indeed, it
16
is more usual to express that idea by the verb fönnen, than

by mögen. The infinitive, which generally follows after föns
nen, is sometimes left out ; as, Gott kann alles was er will,
God can do all he willeth ; supply thun, do. In ancient Ger
man , the verb signified to know ( savoir ) , as the old English
to can .* Remains of this use of können as equivalent to fen
nen or wiſſen are still found in many expressions. Exam
ples : Der Knabe kann ſeine Aufgabe, the boy can say his
lesson , knows his lesson by heart ; er kann ſchöne Lieder, he
knows pretty songs, he can sing pretty songs. Here the in $
finitives ſagen , ſingen , to say, to sing, may be understood .
Können Sie Deutſch ? do you know German ? Er kann
Griechiſch, he knows Greek. In such instances, leſen, to
read , ſprechen , to speak , verſtehen , to understand , or similar
infinitives, may be supplied .
Ich darf, I dare . Infinitive, dürfen. This verb signifies,
1. To be allowed, and expresses liberty or power as depending
upon the law or will of another ; as , jedermann darf Waffen
tragen; aber nicht jeder darf das Wild ſchießen , every
body may carry arms ; but not every one may (has liberty to)
kill the game ; Wohl darf Liebe werben um die Liebe ; doch
folchem Glanz darf nur ein König nahen, it is indeed law
ful for love to woo love, but only a king should be allowed to
approach such splendor . 2. To be possible, in a logical sense ,
it may be ; as, Es dürfte jeßt zu ſpät ſein , it may be too
late now. Only the imperfect subjunctive is used in this
sense. The signification to need , requiring the genitive is
mostly obsolete, and bedürfen and brauchen have taken the
place of dürfen in such cases. So also instead of dürfen, to
In the Scotch idiom, the word to can is still found, for ex

ample : “What we first learn we best can ," i. e. what we first
learn, we know best. “ Other prayers can I none ,” i. e. I know
no other prayer. Walter Scott's Lay of the Last Minstrel, Cant.
II. St. 6 .
dare, which was formerly in use , wagen and other similar

words are now generally employed . It frequently signifies to
have occasion as growing out of the signification to need .
Example : Er darf ſich darüber nicht wundern, he should
not be ( has no occasion to be ) surprised at that. In these in
stances it has the infinitive after it. When it occurs without
an infinitive, it is by ellipsis , so that some infinitive is to be
understood. Example : Er darf nicht in das Haus, he dares
not, or may not, come into the house, where kommen, to come,
is understood .
Können, dürfen , and mögen, signifying may , differ thus :
fönnen expresses mere possibility ; as, Er fann frank ſein ,
he may be sick , i . e. perhaps he is sick , it is possible. Dürs
fen is so used only in the imperfect subjunctive, and implies
not only that a thing may be, but a probability that it will be ;
as, Er dürfte es ſchon gemerkt haben , he has probably al
ready noticed it . Mögen implies a concession on the part of
the speaker; as, Er mag Recht haben, I grant that he may
be right. This word is also employed in questions when
something very doubtful, strange or inexplicable is referred
to ; as, Was mag das wohl bedeuten ? what can that
mean ?
Ich muß, I must. Infinitive, müſſen . It coincides pretty
exactly with the English must ; now and then , it is to be ren
dered by ought ; and not unfrequently the terms, to be
obliged , am to, art to , is to, are to , answer to the significa
tion . With the negative, it occasionally expresses need not.
Sometimes, it has a mere potential meaning, and is to be
translated by may . It occurs elliptically, when some infini
tive is understood ; as, Ich muß zurück, understand gehen,
I must (go) back .
Ich laſſe, I let. Infinitive, laſſen, to let and to cause, i. e .
to permit and to command ; as , Ein Haus bauen laſſen , to
get a house built ; einen Rock machen laſſen , to get a coat
made. When combined with the reciprocal pronoun, it
seems often equivalent to the English may , or is to be with a

passive verb ; as , das läßt ſicht nicht thun , that is not to be
done; davon ließe ſich vieles ſagen , of that much might be
said ; das läßt ſich nicht begreifen , that is not to be compre
hended. As an auxiliary to the imperative, the Germans use
it only for the first person plural of that mood. Laßt uns
nicht mehr davon reden, let us say nothing more of it. Caßen,
which properly means to leave, to leave off, etc. also signifies
to look , to have an appearance, in the sense of being suitable,
fitting, or becoming. Nun läßt der Hut erſt ſchön , now the
hat looks well ; Das läßt nicht ſchön , that does not look well.
But for all such peculiarities, which are not of a grammatical
nature, the reader is referred to the larger lexicons.
2. In English, the auxiliary , to be , is joined with the par
ticiple present, to form what is called the definite, or deter
mined , time ; as , I am ( now ) writing , I was ( then ) loving .
Such a combination is foreign to the German language , in
which the definite time is not distinguished from the others.
Ich ſchreibe, stands for I write, and I am writing ; ich ſchreib,
for I wrote , and I was writing; ich ſchreibe ſo eben, I am just
now writing.
3. Another peculiarity of the English tongue consists in
the verb to do, employed to express the present , and past im
perfect, of the verb active and neuter, marking the action , or
time, with greater force and distinction ; as, I do love thee.
It is also of frequent, and almost necessary use , in interroga
tive and negative sentences. This mode of expression is not
quite unknown to the Germans ; for it is, in some provinces,
to be met with among the lower people ; as , Ich that lieben,
I did love ; thun Sie ihm ſchreiben , do write to him ; but it
is utterly banished from the general and classical language.
Sect. 2. Conjugation of Regular Verbs. 185
SECTION II.
CONJUGATION OF REGULAR VERBS.
There is but one conjugation of the Regular Verb, of

which the following is a representation, in the Active Voice :
Present.
Singular. Singular.
1 person , e ; as , Ich lobe, 1 person e.
I praise.
2 person , eſt, or ft. 2 eſt.
3 et, or t. 3 e.
Plural. Plural.
1 person , en. 1 en .
2 et, or t . 2 et.
3 en . 3 en .
Imperfect.
Singular Singular.
1 ete, or te . 1 - ete .
2 eteſt, or teſt. 2 eteſt.
3 ete, or te . 3- ete.
Plural. Plural.
1 eten , or ten . 1 eten .
2 etet, or tet. 2 - etet.
3 eten , or ten . 3 eten.
IMPERATIVE .
Singular. Plural.
2 2
1
.e . et, or t.
3 e 3 en .
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLES.
Present, en . Present, end.
Preterite , geset, or gest.
16 *
186 On the Verb. P. I. Ch . 5 .
General Rules.
I. The other tenses are compounded with auxiliaries ;

namely , the perfect, and pluperfect, with haben (or, if the
verb be a neuter , of a particular description, with ſeyn ), and
the preterite participle ; the futures with werden, and the
infinitive.
II. The first and third persons plural , of the present tense,
are always like the infinitive, and vice versa. The first and
third persons singular , and plural, of the imperfect, are re
spectively alike. This applies to all verbs, both regular and
irregular.
III. The preterite participle has everywhere the syllable
ge prefixed to it, except in verbs compound inseparable, and
some others, which make the infinitive in ieren , or iren ; as,
Regieren, to govern ; hanthieren, to handle ; haſeliren , to
jest ; ſpaziren , to walk ; ſtolziren, to be proud ; buchſtabiren ,
to spell ; barbiren, to shave ; marſchiren , to march.
IV . The radical vowels of regular verbs are never changed.
If, for instance , fragen, to ask , be considered as a regular,
it is not correct to make the second and third person sing.
pres. indic. frägſt, frägt, transforming the vowel a into the
diphthong ä .
V. The e before it, in the second pers. sing. pres. ind. ;
before t, in the third pers. sing. and second pers. plural ;
likewise before t, throughout the imp . , and before the same
letter in the pret. partic. , is commonly thrown out , when from
such an abridgment no harshness arises in the pronunciation .
But it must be observed , that this is only allowable in the in
dicative mood ; and would be improper in the subjunctive.
VI. In verbs that have the letters I, or r, in the last sylla
ble, the e of inflection, after those letters, if it be not itself
the last letter, is always omitted , even in the infinitive ; as,
Sammeln , to collect, for ſammelen ; dauern, to last, for
daneren . Sometimes the e, before 1 and r, is cast away ;
4
as, Ich ſammle , I collect, for ſammele ; du ſammleſt, thou

collectest, for ſammelſt ( ſammeleſt ) ; er ſammlet, for ſamm
elt. Es dauret, it lasts, for es dauert.
However, this mode
of contraction is neither so regular nor so much in use, as
the former.
VII . The passive Voice is universally formed by means of
werden , the third auxiliary.
ACTIVE VOICE.
loben , to praise.
lobe, pres. ;—lobete ( or lobte ), imperf. ;-gelobet (or gelobt),

pret. part.
INDICATIVE. . SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present Tense.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich lobe, I praise. 1. ich lobe, ( if ) I praise.
2. du lobeſt, or lobſt, 2. du lobeſt,
thou praisest. ( if ) thou praise.
3. er lobet, or lobt, 3. er lobe, ( if ) he praise.
he praises.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir loben, we praise. 1. wir loben , ( if ) we praise.
2. ihr lobet, or lobt, 2. ihr lobet, ( if ) you praise.
you praise.
3. ſie loben, they praise. 3. ſie loben, ( if ) they praise.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich lobte, I praised , ( did 1. ich lobete, ( if ) I praised .
praise , was praising ) .
2. du lobteſt, thou praisedst. 2. du lobeteſt,
( if ) thou praisedst.
3. er lobte, he praised. 3. er lobete, ( if ) he praised.
Plural. Plural .
1. wir lobten, we praised. 1. wir lobeten, ( if) we praised.
2. ihr lobtet, you praised. 2. ihr lobetet, ( if) you praised.
3. fie lobten, they praised. 3. ſie lobeten, (if) they praised.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe gelobt, 1. ich habe gelobt,
I have praised . ( if ) I have praised.
2. du haſt gelobt, 2. du habeſt gelobt,
thou hast praised. ( if ) thou have praised.
3. er hat gelobt, 3. er habe gelobt,
he has praised. ( if ) he have praised.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir haben gelobt, 1. wir haben gelobt,
we have praised. ( if ) we have praised.
2. ihr habt gelobt, 2. ihr habet gelobt,
you have praised. ( if ) you have praised.
3. ſie haben gelobt, 3. ſie haben gelobt,
they have praised. ( if ) they have praised.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte gelobt, 1. ich hätte gelobt,
I had praised . ( if ) I had praised
2. du hatteſt gelobt, 2. du hätteſt gelobt,
thou hadst praised . ( if ) thou hadst praised.
3. er hatte gelobt, 3. er hätte gelobt,
he had praised . ( if ) he had praised.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir hatten gelobt, 1. wir hätten gelobt,
we had praised. ( if ) we had praised.
2. ihr hattet gelobt, 2. ihr hättet gelobt,
you had praised . ( if ) you had praised.
3. ſie hatten gelobt, 3. ſie hätten gelobt,
they had praised. ( if ) they had praised.
First Future.
Singular Singular.
1. ich werde loben, 1. ich werde loben ,
I shall praise . ( if ) I shall praise.
2. du wirſt loben, 2. du werdeſt loben ,
thou shalt , or wilt, praise. ( if ) thou shalt praise.
3. er wird loben , 3. er werde loben,
he shall, or will , praise. ( if ) he shall praise.
Plural . Plural .
1. wir werden loben, 1. wir werden loben,
we shall praise. ( if ) we shall praise.
2. ihr werdet loben, 2. ihr werdet foben,
you shall , or will , praise. ( if ) you shall praise.
3. ſie werden loben , 3. ſie werden loben,
they shall , or will , praise. ( if ) they shall praise.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular
1. ich werde gelobt haben, 1. ich werde gelobt haben,
I shall have praised . ( if ) I shall have praised.
2. du wirſt gelobt haben, 2. du werdeſt gelobt haben ,
thou shalt, or wilt, ( if ) thou shalt have
have praised , etc. praised, etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde roben, I should , or would , praise.
2. du würdeſt loben, thou shouldst , or wouldst, praise.
3. er würde loben, he should, or would, praise.
Plural.
1. wir würden loben, we should , or would , praise.
2. ihr würdet loben, you should , or would , praise.
3. ſie würden loben, they should , or would , praise.

Singular.
1. ich würde gelobt haben, I should, or would , have praised.
2. du würdeſt gelobt haben,
thou shouldst, or wouldst , have praised , etc.
IMPERATIVE MOOD.
Singular. Plural.
2. lobe ( du ), praise ( thou ) . 2. lobet, or lobt ( ihr ),
praise ( you ).
3. lobe er, praise he, or let 3. loben ſie, praise they, or
him praise. let them praise.
INFINITIVE MOOD.
Present, loben , to praise.

Perfect, gelobt haben , to have praised.
Future, loben werden, to be about to praise.
PARTICIPLES.
Present, lobend , praising .
Preterite , gelobet, or gelobt, praised.
Passive VOICE.
gelobt werden, to be praised.

Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gelobt, 1. ich werde gelobt,
I am praised. ( if ) I be praised.
2. du wirſt gelobt, 2. du werdeſt gelobt,
thou art praised . ( if ) thou be praised .
3. er wird gelobt , 3. er werde gelobt,
he is praised . ( if ) he be praised.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden gelobt, 1. wir werden gelobt,
we are praised. ( if ) we be praised.
2. ihr werdet gelobt, 2. ihr werdet gelobt,
you are praised. ( if ) you be praised .
3. ſie werden gelobt, 3. ſie werden gelobt,
they are praised. ( if ) they be praised.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich wurde ( or ward ) ges 1. ich würde gelobt,
lobt, I was praised. ( if ) I were praised.
2. du wurdeſt ( or wardſt ) ges 2. du würdeſt gelobt,
lobt, thou wast praised. ( if ) thou wert praised.
3. er wurde ( or ward ) ges 3. er würde gelobt,
lobt, he was praised. ( if ) he were praised.
Plural . Plural.
1. wir wurden gelobt, 1. wir würden gelobt,
we were praised. ( if ) we were praised.
2. ihr wurdet gelobt, 2. ihr würdet gelobt,
you were praised . ( if ) you were praised.
3. ſie wurden gelobt, 3. ſie würden gelobt,
they were praised. (if ) they were praised.
Perfect.
Singular, Singular
1. ich bin gelobt worden , 1. ich ſey gelobt worden,
I have been praised . ( if ) I have been praised .
2. du biſt gelobt worden, 2. du ſeyeſt gelobt worden,
thou hast been praised. ( if ) thou hast been praised.
3. er iſt gelobt worden, 3. er ſey gelobt worden,
he has been praised. ( if ) he have been praised.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir ſind gelobt worden , 1. wir ſeven gelobt worden ,
we have been praised . ( if ) we have been praised .
2. ihr ſend gelobt worden, 2. ihr ſeyed gelobt worden,
you have been praised. (if you have been praised.
3. ſie ſind gelobt worden , 3. ſie ſeyen gelobt worden ,
they have been praised. ( if ) they have been praised.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich war gelobt worden , 1. ich wäre gelobt worden ,
I had been praised. (if ) I had been praised.
2. du wareſt gelobt worden , 2. du wäreſt gelobt worden ,
thou hadst been praised, ( if) thou hadst been
etc. praised, etc.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gelobt werden , 1. ich werde gelobt werden ,
I shall be praised . ( if ) I shall be praised.
2. du wirſt gelobt werden , 2. du werdeſt gelobt werden,
thou shalt, or wilt, be ( if ) thou shalt be praised.
praised.
3. er wird gelobt werden , he 3. er werde gelobt werden ,
shall , or will , be praised. ( if ) he shall be praised.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir werden gelobt werden, 1. wir werden gelobt werden ,
we shall be praised. ( if ) we shall be praised .
2. ihr werdet gelobt werden , 2. ihr werdet gelobt werden,
you shall , or will , be ( if ) you shall be praised.
praised.
3. ſie werden gelobt werden , 3. ſie werden gelobt werben,
they shall, or will , be ( if ) they shall be praised.
praised.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gelobt worden 1. ich werde gelobt worden
ſeyn , I shall have been ſeyn , ( if ) I shall have
praised. been praised .
2. du wirſt gelobt worden 2. du werdeſt gelobt worden
ſeyn , thou shalt, or wilt, ſeyn , ( if ) thou shalt have
have been praised, etc. been praised , etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde gelobt werden , I should be praised.
2. du würdeſt gelobt werden ,
thou shouldst, or wouldst, be praised.
3. er würde gelobt werden, he should , or would, be praised .
Plural.
1. wir würden gelobt werden, we should, or would, be praised.
2. ihr würdet gelobt werden , you should, or would , be praised.
3. ſie würden gelobt werden, they should , or would , be praised.
Singular.
1. ich würde gelobt worden ſeyn , I should have been praised.
2. du würdeſt gelobt worden ſeyn ,
thou shouldst, or wouldst, have been praised, etc.
IMPERATIVE .
Singular. Plural.
2. werde (du) gelobt, 2. werdet ( ihr) gelobt,
be ( thou) praised. be ( you ) praised.
3. werde er gelobt, 3. werden ſie gelobt,
be he praised , or let be they praised, or let
him be praised. them be praised.
17
INFINITIVE.
Present, gelobt werden , to be praised.
Perfect, gelobt worden ſeyn , to have been praised .
Future, werden gelobt werden, to be about to be praised.
Observations.
1. In the conjugation of the passive voice, the participle
worden , of the auxiliary, is used , in preference to geworden ;
because the latter, when joined with the preterite participle
of another verb, would cause a disagreeable repetition of the
syllable ge. Sometimes worden is omitted in the past tenses ;
as , Ich bin gelobt, for gelobt worden, etc.; but its omission
always is harsh. It is the verb ſeyn , in the perfect, which
may readily be omitted. We may say, daß er überall ges
hafſet worden glaube ich , instead of daß er überall gehaſſet
worden iſt, that he has been hated every where, I readily
believe.
That the German passive is rather heavy and dragging,
must be admitted ; but it has all the merits of the passive
voice in the Latin language.* We distinguish domus ædifi
cata est and domus edificatur, das Haus iſt gebauet and das
Haus wird gebauet ; litteræ scripta sunt and litteræ scri
buntur , die Briefe ſind geſchrieben and die Briefe werden
geſchrieben . Werden, construed with the participle preterite
of any active verb, constantly denotes a passive, whilst the
English is , for instance , is used indifferently before a neuter
verb, “ He is gone,” and before a passive, “ He is feared ,"
in German , er iſt gegangen , and er wird gefürchtet. In the
English language, nothing informs the hearer or reader of
these sentences — that the first expresses a circumstance or
state personal to the individual spoken of ; and the second,
an action performed upon, or a treatment suffered by, the
* See Boileau's Nature and Genius of the German Language,

chap. xii. pp . 175—178.
Sect. 3. Irregular Verbs. 195
individual, who is represented by the pronoun personal er.

Using even the same verb , er iſt gefürchtet, he is feared , sim
ply alludes to the state in which the subject happens to be,
without any reference to any agent: er wird gefürchtet, de
notes the state into which the subject is placed by an agent
under the influence of this agency , though there is no agent
mentioned. It would be the same if the agent or agents
were mentioned. Er wird von ſeinen Geſchwiſtern ges
fürchtet, “ He is feared by his brothers and sisters.” We
may say, aus dem geliebt werden folgt von ſelbſt das geliebt
ſeyn. The English, to be loved is a natural consequence of
being loved , conveys no clear idea ; whilst the German clearly
shows that to be beloved is the natural consequence of having
gained the love the affections) of another person or of other
individuals .
SECTION IIL
IRREGULAR VERBS . *
Verbs of the Old Form .

As all the original verbs of the language were at first con
jugated by changing the vowels of the imperfect and of the
preterite participle, it is obviously absurd to call that con
jugation irregular. It is the original, and consequently the
* The view given of these verbs by Becker and other modern

grammarians is so much simpler and more philosophical, than
that of Nöbden, that it has been thought best to substitute a new
section in the place of his. This could not be done without
introducing frequently the terms, “ Verbs of the Old Form,”
“ Verbs of the New Form , ” for “ Irregular Verbs,” “ Regular
Verbs.” The title of the section, as given by Nöhden, however,
is retained, and the other terms are so introduced as to explain
themselves. A complete and corrected tabular view of the Ir
regular Verbs in the ordinary form will be found in the Ap
pendix. - ED.
regular conjugation . Derivative verbs assumed a simpler

form of conjugation, that is, they were inflected by means of
terminations without any change of the vowel of the radical
syllable. Inasmuch as this class of words became more nu
merous than the other, and many of the roots themselves
( about one hundred ) assumed gradually the new or derivative
form , so that scarce two hundred were left in the old form ;
the derivative verbs have been taken by many grammarians
as the rule, and the original verbs, or roots, as the exceptions.
But as there is a third class which do not conform to either
of these , and as both of these forms have great regularity,
and are governed by pervading principles, it is much more
philosophical as well as more convenient to divide all the
verbs into three classes ; viz.
1. Verbs of the Old Form (miscalled irregular verbs).
2. Verbs of the New Form ( regular verbs ) .
3. Irregular Verbs, in which these two forms are mixed .
The old ( irregular ) form is distinguished from the new
( regular ):
1. By changing the radical vowel in the imperfect and
preterite participle ; as, ich binde (I bind ), band, gebunden .
Remark. When by this change a long vowel is made short,
the following consonant is doubled ; as, reit -en ,* to ride, ritt,
geritten ; when , on the contrary, a short vowel , followed by
a double consonant, is lengthened, one of the consonants
is dropped ; as , ſchaffen , to create, ſchuf ; kommen , to come,
fam, came ; bitten , to entreat, bat.
2. By the termination en, in the preterite participle ; as,
gebundsen . Compare gelobt.
3. By softening the vowel of the imperfect subjunctive ;
as, from ſprechen , to speak, imperfect indicative, ſprach,
subjunctive, ſpräch e.
4. By the omission of the termination e , in the first and
A long vowel is often expressed by a diphthong.

third persons of the imperfect indicative ; as, ich band, I

bound ; er band, he bound .
In the new ( regular ) form , the imperfect and the preterite
participle are formed by adding to the radical syllable of the
verb , unchanged , the termination et, to which in the imper
fect the syllables of inflection are annexed ; as, ich lo b-e t-e,
I praised ; du lo b-et-e ſt, thou praisedst ; gelob-et, praised.
The irregular verbs, properly so called, have the vowel
changes of the old ( irregular) form , and the peculiar termi
nations of the new ( irregular) form ; as, bringen, to bring,
brach-te, gebrach -t; denken , to think, dach -te, gedach -t.
The differences in the two forms are limited to the imper
fect of the indicative, and of the subjunctive, and the preterite
participle , and are represented by the following compara
tive view :
IMPERFECT INDICATIVE . IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE .
Old Form . New Form . Old Form . New Form .

Singular. Singular.
1 1 et - e . 1 - e, 1 - et -e .
2 — eſt, 2 -et-eſt. 2 - eſt, 2 — et-eſt.
3- 3 et- e . 3 - 3 - et -e .
Plural. Plural.
1- en , 1 et-en . 1 · en, 1 - et-en .
2 - et, 2 etet. 2 - et, 2 etset .
3 — en, 3 - et-en . 3 - en , 3 et-en .
Preterite Participle.
Old Form . New Form .

ge en, ge et.
The above is the full form of the terminations. The vowel

e is often omitted for the sake of euphony.
17*
198 On the Verb . P. I. Ch. 5
Examples of the verbs, ſpringen, to spring, and lieben , to

love :
1. The Old ( irregular) Form .

Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich ſprang, 1. ich ſpränge,
2. du ſprangeſt, 2. du ſprängeſt,
3. er ſprang. 3. er ſpränge.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir ſprangen , 1. wir ſprängen ,
2. ihr ſpranget, 2. ihr ſpränget,
3. ſie ſprangen . 3. ſie ſprängen.
PRETERITE PART . geſprungen .
2. The New ( regular) Form .

Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich liebte, 1. ich liebete,
2. du liebteſt, 2. du liebeteſt,
3. er liebte. 3. er liebete.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir liebten , 1. wir liebeten,
2. ihr liebtet, 2. ihr liebetet,
3. ſie liebten . 3. ſie liebeten .
PRETERITE PART. geliebt.
Verbs of the old form may be divided, according to their

radical vowels, into three classes ; and these may be subdi
vided according to the different changes which those vowels
undergo.
The first class, which includes by far the greater portion
of the so called irregular verbs, consists of those whose radi
Sect. 3 . Irregular Verbs. 199
cal vowel is i, or its kindred vowel e . In consequence of

similar vowel changes, we reckon here those few verbs' also ,
which have ä, ö, ü, or the diphthong au . The subdivisions
are according to the following forms:
1. binden , band, gebunden .

2. ſpinnen , ſpann , geſponnen .
3. ſieden , ſott, geſotten .
4. bitten, bat, gebeten .
The second class comprises those which have the diph

· thong ei, which has two subdivisions, the one in which the
vowel, when changed , remains long, the other in which it be
comes short ; as,
1. ſcheiden , ſchied, geſchieden .

2. reiten, ritt, geritten .
The third class includes those whose radical vowels are, a ,
au , o , u, to which gehen, ſtehen , and heiſſen are added on
account of the similarity of the vowel changes. This class
has two subdivisions according to the different changes of
the vowel in the imperfect : as ,
1. fallen ; fiel, gefallen.

2. ſchlagen , ſchlug, geſchlagen.
First Class
Verbs of the first class have in the imperfect a or 0 , and

in the participle u, o, or e . The vowel of the imperfect is,
in regard to length , the same as that of the root, or infinitive,
except :
bat, brach, erſchrak, aß, fraß, fam , maß, faß, ſprach ,
ſtach, traf, vergaß, in which the short vowel is made long ;
and floß, genoß, goß, kroch , roch, Toff, ſchoß, ſchloß, ſott,
ſproß, verdroß, in which the long vowel is made short.
200 On the Verb . P. I. Ch . 5 .
The vowel of the participle also is in this respect like that

of the infinitive, except,
gebeten, in which the short vowel is made long ; and ge

floſſen , genommen , genoſſen , gegoſſen , gefrochen, gero
chen ,geſoffen , geſchoſſen , geſchloſſen, geſotten , geſproffen ,
verdroſſen , in which the long vowel is made short.
In those verbs which now have the derived vowel e , the
original vowel, i, generally short, is retained in the second
and third person singular of the present, and in the singular
of the imperative ; as, ich breche, du brichſt, er bricht, brich,
except,,
geneſen , bewegen , gähren, (ä and e are interchanged ) hes
ben, melken, pflegen , ſcheren, ſchwären , ( and ſchwören ).
The vowel remains long only in geſchehen , leſen , ſehen,
empfehlen, gebären, ſtehlen , wägen ; as , du lieſeſt, lies .
Those verbs, in which the original i reappears in this man
ner, cast off the termination e of the imperative singular ; as,
gib , ſprich , nimm, give , speak , receive.
The first class comprehends under four subdivisions the
following verbs ; viz.
1. i a , u
as, fingen ſang ' geſungen .
binden , to bind, ſchwinden , to vanish,
dingen, to bargain , ſchwingen , to swing,
bringen , to press, to urge, ſingen , to sing,
finden , to find, ſinken , to sink,
gelingen, to succeed, ſpringen , to spring,
klingen, to sound, ſtinken , to stink ,
ringen , to wrestle, trinken , to drink,
ſchinden , to flay, winden, to wind ,
ſchlingen , to sling, zwingen , to force.
Dingen and ſhinden, have dung and ſchund in the im

perfect.
2. iz
es ( ä )
as, ſpinnen ſpann geſponnen
brechen brady gebrochen
befehlen, to command, ſchelten, to scold, chide,
beginnen , to begin , ſchwimmen , to swim,
bergen , to conceal, ſinnen, to think , to muse ,
berſten , to burst, ſpinnen, to spin ,
brechen , to break , ſprechen , to speak ,
erſchrecken, to be frightened, ſtechen, to sting, to prick,
empfehlen , to recommend , ſtehlen , to steal,
gebären, to bring forth, ſterben , to die,
gelten, to be worth , valid , treffen , to hit,
gewinnen, to gain , to win, verderben , to perish,
helfen, to help, werben , to sue for, to enrol,
kommen , to come, werden, to become,
nehmen , to take. werfen , to throw ,
rinnen , to run (of fluids).
The verbs, helfen, ſterben , verderben, werben, and wers
fen, have ü in the subjunctive ; &s, hülfe, ſtürbe, etc. Bez
ginnen, befehlen, empfehlen, berſten , gelten, beſinnen, gerin
nen, ſchelten, ſpinnen , and ſtehlen , have ö in the subjunctive;
as, begönne, beföhle, etc. Usage varies in regard to ge
wänne and gewönne, ſchwämme and fchwömme, as well as
höbe and hübe.
Instead of the imperfect ward, the form wurde is now
more commonly used.
3. i ? ( ie, ü ) 0 0
es ( ä, ö, au)
as, glimmen glomm geglommen
fechten focht gefochten
beklemmen , to pinch, bieten, to offer, to bid,
bewegen, to induce, dreſchen , to thresh ,
biegen, to bend, erwägen, to consider,
fechten , to fight, faugen , to suck ,

flechten, to twist, ſchallen , to sound ,
fliegen , to fly, ſcheren , to shear,
fliehen , to flee, fchieben, to shove ,
fließen , to flow , ſchießen , to shoot,
frieren , to freeze, ſchließen, to shut,
gähren, to ferment, ſchmelzen , to melt,
genießen, to enjoy, ſchnauben , to snort,
gießen, to pour, ſchrauben, to screw,
glimmen , to shine, ſdywären , to suppurate,
heben , to heave, fdwellen , to swell,
fieſen , to choose, ſdwören , to swear ,
klauben, to pick with the fieden , to boil,
fingers, ſprießen , to sprout,
klimmen , to climb, ſtieben, to fly ( as dust ),
friechen , to creep , triefen, to drop , to trickle,
( er-ver-)löſchen ,to extinguish, trügen, to deceive,
lügen , to lie, utter falsehood , verdrießen, to offend,
melken, to milk, verhehlen , to conceal,
pflegen, to cherish, verlieren , to loose ,
quellen , to gush (of fluids), verwirren, to perplex,
rächen , to avenge, weben, to weave ,
riechen , to smell , wiegen, to weigh ,
ſaufen , to drink, to tipple, ziehen, to draw.
In beklemmen, rächen , and verwirren, the imperfect is now

no longer used in the old ( irregular) form .
In melken usage varies in regard to the imperfect ; it is
sometimes in the old form ( irregular ) , and sometimes in the
new ( regular ).
Weben is still used in the old form only by the poets.
From hehlen only the word unverholen remains in the
old form .
Schallen is conjugated after the old form only in erſchallen
and verſchallen .
Schwören has ichwor and ſchwur in the imperfect.

In ziehen , h passes into g ( 30g ) ; and in fieſen , ſ is ex
changed for r , as in for and erforen.
Those verbs of this subdivision which have a long i (ex
pressed by the diphthong ie , ) formerly had eu in the second
and third persok singular of the present, and in the singular
of the imperative ; as, beugſt, beugt, from biegen ; beutſt,
beut, from bieten ; fleugſt, fleug, from fliegen ; and geuß, from
gießen . These antiquated forms are still used by the poets.
4. i 2
a se
as, bitten bat gebeten
leſen ไlas geleſen
bitten , to entreat, liegen, to lie down,
eſſen , to eat, meſſen , to measure ,
freſſen, to devour, ſehen, to see ,
geben, to give, ſißen, to sit,
geneſen , to recover , treten, to tread,
geſchehen , to happen , vergeſſen , to forget.
leſen , to read ,
The anomalous participle gegeſſen , from efſen , seems to
have a double augment. Perhaps there was once an infini
tive ge -eſſen [ contraced into geſſen ], like ge-winnen .
Second Class.
Verbs of the second class are in ei, and have the vowel i
in the imperfect and participle, and form two subdivisions,
as the i is short ( 1 ) or long ( ie ) .
1. ei i i
as, beißen biß gebiſſen
befleißen , to apply one's self, gleichen , to resemble,
beißen, to bite, gleiten , to glide,
erbleichen , to turn pale, greifen , to seize ,
feifen , to chide, ſchleifen , to grind ,

kneifen , to pinch, ſchleißen, to slit,
leiden , to suffer, ſchmeißen , to fling,
pfeifen , to whistle, ſchneiden , to cut ,
reißen, to tear , ſchreiten , to stride,
reiten, to ride, ſtreichen , to stroke,
ſcheißen , to void, ſtreiten, to contend,
ſchleichen , to sneak , weichen , to yield.
2. ei ie ie
as, bleiben blieb geblieben
bleiben , to remain , ſchreiben , to write,
gedeihen , to prosper , (dreien , to cry,
leihen , to lend, ſchweigen , to be silent ,
meiden, to avoid , ſpeien , to spit,
preiſen , to praise, ſteigen , to ascend ,
reiben , to rub, treiben , to drive ,
ſcheiden , to separate, weiſen , to show ,
ſcheinen , to appear, zeihen , to accuse of.
Third Class.
Verbs of this class have the imperfect in ie or in long u ,
which form the two subdivisions. The participle has gen
erally the same vowel as the infinitive. In this class as in
the first, the vowel of the second and third person singular
of the present is different from that of the first person , but
this change does not extend to the imperative here. Instead
of a we havo ä ; instead of o we have ö, and instead of au,
äu , except in laden, ſchaffen and hauen. Examples, du fälſt,
from fallen ; er ſtößt, from ſtoßen ; er läuft, from laufen .
1. a ? (0) ie a 2 (0)
ait 5 ( 1 ) au 5 ( u )
as, fallen fiel gefallen
laufen lief gelaufen
blaſen , to blow, braten , to roast,
fallen , to fall, laufen, to run ,

falten , to fold , rathen, to advise,
fangen, to catch , rufen, to call ,
gehen, to go, falzen , to salt ,
halten, to hold , ſchlafen , to sleep,
hangen , to hang, ſchroten, to bruise,
bauen, to hew, ſpalten, to split ,
heißen, to be named, ſtoßen, to push.
laſſen, to let,
2. a u a
as, ſchlagen fdhlug geſchlagen
backen , to bake, ſchaffen , to create,
fahren, to drive a carriage, ſchlagen , to beat,
fragen , to ask , ſtehen , to stand ,
graben, to dig, tragen , to bear,
laden, to load , wachſen , to grow ,
malen, to grind, waſchen , to wash.
Gehen has in the imperfect and participle ging, gegangen ;
and ſtehen has ſtand , geſtanden , and in the subjunctive both
ſtände and ſtünde.
Hauen has hieb in the imperfect.
From falten, ſalzen, ſchroten , ſpalten , and malen, the old
(irregular ) form is retained at present only in the participles,
gefalten , geſalzen , geſchroten , geſpalten, and gemalen, ( and
the last only in the sense of grinding ). From fragen , the
old form is retained only in the imperfect frug , and even
here the new form , fragte, is more common .
Verbs of a twofold Conjugation.

Some of the verbs which are roots in assuming the new
or regular form of conjugation , retain the old form when used
in a particular sense, and the new in all other instances.
Thus :
18
Erſchrecken , erlöſchen , and verlöſchen have the old forms,

erſchrack, erſchrocken , erloſch , erloſchen , only when used as
intransitive verbs.
Schaffen has the old form only in the sense of creating ;
as, Gott ſchuf die Welt, God created the world . But der
Arbeiter ſchaffte , the laborer worked .
Bewegen is so conjugated only when it means to induce ;
as , Er bewog mich mitzugehen , he persuaded me to go too.
But in the literal sense, to move, it has the new form ; as, Er
bewegte den Fuß, he moved his foot.
Pflegen only in such figurative expressions as Umgang
pflegen , Rath pflegen , to cultivate or hold intercourse , to
consult or advise. Examples : Ich habe mit ihm Umgang
gep flogen , I have enjoyed his society , have been intimate
with him ; Er hat den Kranfen gepflegt , he has taken
care of the sick ; Er pflegte (not p flog) früh aufzuſtehen ,
he was accustomed to rise early.
Schleifen has the old form only when it signifies to grind,
to sharpen ; as, Id habe das Meſſer geſchliffen , I have
sharpened the knife ; dię Feſtung iſt gefchleift, the for
tress is razed .
Remark . The causative verbs, as bleichen, weichen ,
ſchwellen ( die Segel, the sails ) , which are equivalent to
bleich, weich , ſchwellen machen, are derivative verbs, and
therefore belong to the new conjugation. So also heirathen,
berathſchlagen , veranlaſſen , herbergen, and willfahren , which
are derived from Heirat, Rathſchlag, Anlaß , and not com
pounded from rathen, ſchlagen , etc.
Irregular Verbs , properly so called.

Strictly speaking , only those verbs are irregular, which
conform neither to the old nor to the new conjugation. Both
forms are generally mixed in this class.
Bringen, brennen, denken, kennen, nennen , rennen, ſens
den and wenden, change the vowel to a in the imperfect and
participle, and yet take the terminations of the new form ;

as , brenn-en, brann-te, gebrann-t. In bringen, brachate,
gebracht, and denken , dach -te, gedach -t, the final letters of
the radical syllable also undergo a change .
In thun , that, gethan , the imperfect has cast off the final
e ( thate ), and the participle is the old form ( gethaen ) con
tracted ; as thun itself is contracted from thuen.
Only bringen , denken and thun soften their vowels in the
imperfect subjunctive ; as , brächte, dädyte , thäte . All the
others retain the vowel of the present infinitive ; as, brennete,
nennete.
Gönnen has, besides the new regular form , also the old
forms, gonnte, gegonnt.
Dünken has, in the third person singular of the present
indicative, besides the regular form dünket , another, namely ,
däucht, which , however, is chiefly used as an impersonal
verb.
Wiſſen is very irregular . In the present indicative it has
weis ; in the imperfect, wußte ; in the imperfect subjunc
tive , wüßte ; and in the preterite participle, gewußt.
Wollen , ſollen , müſſen , können, mögen, and dürfen , have so
many irregularities, and occasion so many difficulties in
translation, that it will be convenient for the student to have
before him all their forms with further illustrations of their
significations. *
Conjugation of the verb wollen , to be willing, wish, etc.

Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich will, I will. 1. ich wolle , I may be willing.
2. du willſt, thou wilt. 2. du wolleſt, thou mayst, etc.
3. er will, he will . 3. er wolle, he may , etc.
* For their leading significations see pp . 178—184.

Plural. Plural.
1. wir wollen , we will . 1. wir wollen ,
we may be willing.
2. ihr wollet, or wollt, etc. 2. ihr wollet, etc.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich wollte , I would , or I 1. ich wollte,
was willing. I might be willing .
2. du wollteſt, etc. 2. du wollteſt, etc.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir wollten, we would . 1. wir wollten , we, etc.
2. ihr wolltet, etc. 2. ihr wolltet, etc.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe gewollt, 1. ich habe gewollt,
I have been willing. I may have been willing.
2. du haſt gewollt, etc. 2. du habeſt gewollt, etc.
Plural . Plural ,
1. wir haben gewollt, we, etc. 1. wir haben gewollt, etc.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte gewollt, 1. ich hätte gewollt,
I had been willing. I might have been willing.
2. du hatteſt gewollt, etc. 2. du hätteſt gewollt, etc.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde wollen , 1. ich werde wollen ,
I shall be willing . I shall be willing.
2. du wirſt wollen , etc. 2. du werdeſt wollen , etc.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gewollt haben , 1. ich werde gewollt haben,
I shall have been willing: I shall have been willing.
2. du wirſt gewollt haben, 2. du werdeſt gewollt haben,
etc. etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde wollen, I should be willing.
2. du würdeſt wollen , etc.
Plural.
1. wir würden wollen , we should be willing.
2. ihr würdet wollen , etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde gewollt haben ,
I should , or would have been willing.
2. du würdeſt gewollt haben, etc.
Plural.
1. wir würden gerollt haben,
we should, or would have been willing.
2. ihr würdet gewollt haben, etc.
No Imperative.
INFINITIVE
Pres. wollen , to be willing.

Pret. gewollt haben, to have been willing, or to have willed .
Part. Past, or Perf. gewollt, willed, or been willing.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. wollend, willing.

18*
210 On the Verb . P. I. Ch . 5,
Conjugation of the verb ſollen , * to be obliged .

Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich foul, I shall , I must, I 1. ich folle, etc.
am to, I ought, etc.
2. du fouſt, or ſollt, 2. du ſolleſt, etc.
thou shalt, etc.
3. er, or ſie fou , 3. er, or ſie ſolle , etc.
he, or she shall, etc.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir ſollen, we shall. 1. wir ſollen, etc.
2. ihr ſollet, or ſollt, you shall. 2. ihr ſollet, etc.
3. ſie ſollen , they shall. 3. ſie ſollen , etc.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich ſollte , I should . 1. ich ſollte , etc.
2. du ſollteſt, etc. 2. du ſollteſt, etc.
Plural. Plural .
1. wir ſollten, we should . 1. wir ſollten , etc.
2. ihr ſolltet, etc. 2. ihr ſolltet, etc.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe geſollt,t I should l . ich habe geſout, etc.
have, or I ought to have, etc.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte geſollt, 1. ich hätte geſollt, etc.
I had been obliged, etc.
* It is impossible to translate these German verbs literally
through all the tenses.
+ Ich habe geſollt, also signifies in English, I have been
obliged, I have been commanded, or ordered ; I have been
forced
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde follen , 1. ich werde rollen, etc.
I shall be obliged.
2. du wirſt follen , etc. 2. du werdeſt ſollen , etc.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde geſollt haben, etc. 1. ich werde geſollt haben, etc.
2. du wirſt gerollt haben, etc. 2. du werdeſt geſollt haben,etc
Conditional.
First Fut. Sing. Second Fut. Sing.
1. ich würde rollen , etc. 1. ich würde geſollt haben, etc.
Plural . Plural.
1. wir würden ſollen , etc. 1. wir würden geſout haben,etc
No Imperative.
INFINITIVE .
Pres. ſollen , to be obliged .

Pret. gerollt haben, to have been obliged.
Part Perf. geſollt, been obliged.
PARTICIPLE .
Pres. ſollend, being obliged.
Conjugation of the verb müſſen , to be obliged.

Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich muß, I am obliged ,. I 1. ich müſſe,
must , I ought , etc. I may be obliged.
2. du mußt, thou must, etc. 2. du müſſeſt, thou , etc.
3. er , ( ſie) muß , 3. er , or ſie müſſe, etc.
he, or she, etc.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir müſſen , 1. wir müſſen, etc.
we are obliged.
2. ihr müſſet, or müßt, etc. 2. ihr müſſet, etc.
Imperfect
Singular. Singular
1. ich mußte, I was obliged. 1. ich müßte,
I might be obliged.
2. du mußteſt, thou, etc. 2. du müßteſt, thou, etc.
3. er mußte, etc. 3. er müßte, etc.
Plural. Plural .
1. wir mußten , 1. wir müßten,
we were obliged. we might be obliged.
2. ihr mußtet, etc. 2. ihr müßtet, etc.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe gemußt, 1. ich habe gemußt,
I have been obliged. I may have been obliged .
2. du haſt gemußt, etc. 2. du habeſt gemußt, etc.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular
1. ich hatte gemußt, 1. id , hätte gemußt,
I had been obliged. I might have been obliged.
2. du hatteſt gemußt , etc. 2. du hätteſt gemußt, etc.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde müſſen . 1. ich werde müſſen,
I shall be obliged. I shall be obliged.
2. du wirſt müſſen , etc. 2. du werdeſt müſſen , etc.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gemußt haben, 1. ich werde gemußt haben,
I shall have been obliged . I shall have been obliged.
2. du wirſt gemußt haben, 2. du werdeſt gemußt haben,
etc. etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde müſſen , I should be obliged.
2. du würdeſt müſſen , thou wouldst be obliged.
Plura) .
1. wir würden müſſen , we should be obliged .
2. ihr würdet müſſen, you would be obliged.

Singular .
1. ich würde gemußt haben, I should have been obliged.
2. du würdeſt gemußt haben, etc.
Plural .
1. wir würden gemußt haben, we should have been obliged.
2. ihr würdet gemußt haben, etc.
No Imperative.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. müſſen , to be obliged.

Pret. Gemußt haben, to have been obliged.
Part. Perf. gemußt, obliged.
No Present Participle.
Conjugation of the verb können, to be able.

Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich fann, 1. ich könne, I may be able.
I can , or I am able.
2. du kannſt, thou canst. 2. du könneſt , thou , etc.
3. er, or ſie kann, 3. er, or ſie könne, etc.
he , or she can .
Plural. Plural.
1. wir können, we can. 1. wir können ,
2. ihr fönnet or fönnt, we may be able.
you can . 2. ihr fönnet, you , etc.
3. ſie können , they can. 3. ſie können , etc.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich konnte, 1. ich könnte, I might be able.
I could , or I was able.
2. du fonnteſt, 2. du könnteſt, etc.
thou couldst, etc.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe gefonnt, 1. ich habe gekonnt,
I have been able. I may have been able.
2. du haſt gefonnt, etc. 2. du habeſt gekonnt, etc.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte gekonnt, 1. ich hätte gekonnt,
I had been able. I might have been able.
2. du hatteſt gefonnt, etc. 2. du hätteſt gekonnt, etc.
First Future.
1. ich werde fönnen , 1. ich werde fönnen ,
I shall be able. I shall be able.
2. du wirſt fönnen , etc. 2. du werdeſt fönnen, etc.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1 1. ich werde gefonnt haben, 1. ich werde gekonnt haben,
I shall have been able. I shall have been able.
2. du wirſt gekonnt haben, 2. du werdeſt gekonnt haben,
etc. S etc.

Singular .
1. ich würde fönnen, I should be able.
2. du würdeſt fönnen , thou wouldst , etc.
Plural.
1. wir würden fönnen, we should be able.
2. ihr würdet fönnen, etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde gekonnt haben, I should have been able .
2. du würdeſt gekonnt haben, etc.
Plural .
1. wir würden gefönnt haben, we should have been able.
2. ihr würdet gekonnt haben, etc.
INFINITIVE .
Pres. fönnen , to be able.
Perf. gefonnt haben , to have been able.
Part. Perf. gekonnt, been able.
PARTICIPLE .
Pres. könnend , being able.
216 On the Verb . P. I. Ch . 5 .
Conjugation of the verb mögen , * to be willing, to be able, to

like, to be permitted.
Present Tense.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich mag, I may. 1. ich möge, I may .
2. du magſt, thou mayst. 2. du mögelt, etc.
3. er, ſie, or es mag, 3. er , fie, or es möge, etc.
he, she, or it may .
Plural. Plural.
1. wir mögen , we may. 1. wir mögen , we may.
2. ihr möget, or mögt, 2. ihr möget, etc.
you may
3. ſie mögen, they may. 3. ſie mögen , etc.
Imperfect.
1. ich mochte, I might. 1. ich möchte, I might.
2. du mochteſt, etc. 2. du mödyteſt, etc.
Plural. Plural
1. wir mochten, we might. 1. wir möchten, etc.
2. ihr mochtet, etc. 2. ihr möchtet, etc.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. Ich habe gemocht, t etc. 1. ich habe gemocht, etc.
2. du haſt gemocht, etc. 2. du babeſt gemocht, etc.
Pluperfect.
1. ich hatte gemocht, etc. 1. id hätte gemocht, etc.
2. du hatteſt gemocht, etc. 2. du hätteſt gemocht, etc.
* These verbs are defective in English, and cannot be trans

Jated throughout, muless they are used in composition.
| The English of ich habe gemocht, is, I have liked.
First Future .
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde mögen , etc. 1. ich werde mögent, etc.
2. du wirſt mögen, etc. 2. du werdeſt mögen, etc.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gemocht haben, 1. ich werde gemocht haben,
etc. etc.
2. du wirſt gemocht haben, 2. du werdeſt gemocht haben,
etc. etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde mögen , etc.
2. du würdeſt mögen , etc.
Plural.
1. wir würden mögen, etc.
2. ihr würdet mögen, etc.

Singular .
1. ich würde gemocht haben, etc.
2. du würdeſt gemocht haben, etc.
Plural.
1. wir würden gemocht haben, etc.
2. ihr würdet gemocht haben, etc.
No Imperative.
INFINITIVE . PARTICIPLES .
Pres. mögen . Pres. mögend .
Pret. gemocht haben . Perf. gemocht.
19
Conjugation of the verb dürfen , to dare, to be permitted.

Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich darf, I dare. * 1. ich dürfe, I may dare .
2. du darfſt, thou darest. 2. du dürfeſt, etc.
3. er , or ſie darf, 3. er , or ſie dürfe, etc.
he, or she dares.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir dürfen, we dare. 1. wir dürfen , etc.
2. ihr dürfet, etc. 2. ihr dürfet, etc.
Imperfect
Singular. Singular.
1. ich durfte, I durst , or dared. 1. ich dürfte, I might dare,etc.
Plural. Plural.
1. wir durften, we durst. 1. wir dürften, etc.
Perfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich habe gedurft, 1. ich habe gedurft,
I have dared , etc. I may have dared, etc.
Pluperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte gedurft, 1. ich hätte gedurft,
I had dared, etc. I might have dared , etc.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde dürfen, 1. ich werde dürfen ,
I shall dare, etc. I shall dare, etc.
* The word dare is here employed as the most convenient,

though it is not accurate in sense.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde gedurft haben , 1. ich werde gedurft haben,
I shall have dared , etc. I shall have dared , etc.
Singular.
1. ich würde dürfen, I should dare.
Plural.
1. wir würden dürfen , we should dare, etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde gedurft haben , I should have dared, etc.
Plural.
1. wir würden gedurft haben, we should have dared , etc.
No Imperative.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. dürfen , to dare.
Pret. gedurft haben , to have dared .
PARTICIPLES .
Pres. dürfend, daring.
Perf. gedurft, dared.
The following examples are intended to illustrate the ap

plication of the preceding verbs, wollen , ſollen, etc.
1. Wollen , to will, to be willing, to intend, desire, wish, want.

EXAMPLES.
Wollen Sie ſpaßieren gegen ? will you take a walk ?
Ich will ſpaßieren gehen , I will take a walk .
Er will fliegen , aber hat keine Flügel, he wishes to fly, but
has no wings.
Wollten , or wollen Sie wohl die Güte haben ? would , or

will you have the kindness ?
Id wollte gerne gehen, I should wish , or like, to go , or I
would willingly go.
Ich will zu Fuße geben , I will go on foot.
Ich will zu Fuße reiſen , I will travel on foot.
Ich wollte daß wir gehen ſollten , I was for our going.
Wie viel Geld wollt ihr ? how much money do you want ?
Remark. Ich will, I will, infinitive wollen : this verb is

used when desire, will, or inclination is implied. And werden
is used to denote futurity ; as,
Ich will gehen, I will go.

Es wird bald regnen, it will soon rain.
Ich werde bald grau werden, I shall soon become, or grow
grey.
2. Sollen , to be obliged , etc.

Soll ich es haben ? shall I have it ? or am I to have it ?
Du ſollſt das thun , thou shalt do that, thou art to do it.
Sie ſollen ſchreiben , you shall write, you are to write.
Ich ſoll dahin gehen, I shall go there, ( or thither).
Was ſoll das heißen ? what does that mean ?
Es ſoll an nichts fehlen , there shall be nothing wanting.
Ich ſollte dahin gehen, I should go there.
Es ſoll ſich zugetragen haben , it is said to have happened.
Soll ich es thun oder nicht ? am , shall , or ought I to do it,
or not.
Der König ſoll angekommen ſeyn , the king is said to have
arrived .
Die franzöſiſche Flotte foủ geſchlagen worden ſeyn, the
French fleet is said to have been beaten .
Wenn er morgen ſterben ſollte, if he should die to -morrow .
Das ſollte mir leid thun, I should be sorry for it.
Wenn das ſo ſeyn ſollte, if that should be so .
Sollte ſich das Wetter ändern, ſo wollen wir ausgehen ,

should the weather change, we will go out.
3. Können, to be able, to have power , to be possible, to know .
Sie fönnen das thun wenn Sie wollen , you may do that if
you like.
Er kann weder leſen noch ſchreiben, he can neither read nor
write.
Ich hätte es thun können, I could have done it.
Ich kann mich irren , I may be mistaken.
Es kann ſo ſeyn , it may be so .
Vielleicht kann er mir helfen, perhaps he may help me.
Ich konnte ihn nicht verſtehen, I could not understand him.
Können Sie heute zu mir kommen ? can you come to me
to -day.
4. Mögen, to be willing, to be able, to like.

Ich mag das nicht, I do not like that.
Nein , ich mag es nicht, no, I do not like it.
Ich inöchte gern wiſſen, wie viel Uhr es iſt, I should like to
know what o'clock it is.
Ich möchte es wohl thun, I should much like to do it.
Ich möchte wohl etwas davon haben, I should like to have
some of it.
Ich fürchte es möchte geſchehen , I am afraid it may happen .
Es mag ſeyn, it may be.
Es mag ſeyn wie es will, be it as it will.
Ich möchte gern gehen , I would fain , or should like to go.
Ich möchte lieber, I had rather ; I would rather.
Es möchte ſich ereignen , it might happen .
Es möchte regnen, it might rain.
Möge er lange leben ! may he live long !
Möge es der Himmel geben ! may heaven grant it !
19 *
2222
ANA On the Verb . P. I. Ch . 5.
Wer mag deine Wunder erzählen ! who can relate thy won
ders !
Mögen Sie Wein ? do you choose wine ?
Ich mag dieſen Wein nicht, I do not like this wine .
Ich mag nichts mehr trinken , I do not like to drink any
more .
5. Dürfen , to dare, to have permission, to be allowed, to

be able, etc.
Thue es, wenn du darfſt, do it, if you dare.

Ich darf es thun, I am allowed to do it.
Sie dürfen es nicht thun , you are not allowed to do it.
Darf ſie kommen ? may she come ?
Darf ich fragen ? may I ask ?
Wenn ich ſo ſagen darf, if I may so express myself.
Es dürfte vielleicht wahr ſeyn , it might perhaps be true.
Es dürfte wohl geſchehen, it might easily happen.
Du darfſt es nur fordern , you need only ask for it.
6. laſſen, to let, to permit, to allow , etc.

Laſſen Sie mich gehen, let me go, or allow me to go..
Laſſen Sie ihn kommen, let him come.
Das läßt ſich nicht thun, that is not to be done.
Laßt ſehen , or laßt uns ſehen, let us see.
Laſſen Sie mich etwas erzählen, allow me to tell you some
thing.
Ich habe mir ſagen laſſen, I have been told, or informed .
Er fangt wieder an wo er es gelaſſen hat, he begins again
where he left off.
Es läßt ſich niemand weder hören noch ſehen , there is no
body to be seen nor heard.
Sein Thun und laſſen, his acts and omissions.
Sect. 4. Verbs Neuter. 223
SECTION IV.
VERBS NEUTER.
The common distinction between active or transitive and

neuter or intransitive verbs is too well known to need re
mark here. There is another distinction of more importance
in regard to the conjugation of verbs, that which separates
those which are conjugated with the auxiliary haben from
those which are conjugated with ſeyn .
There is a certain class of neuter verbs which have a com
plete sense in themselves and have no relation to an object
expressed by any of the oblique cases. These , inasmuch as
they relate only to the subject nominative, have been called
subjective verbs ; as, das Kind weint, the child weeps ;
der Knabe ſpielt, the boy plays ; der Vogel fliegt, the
bird flies; der Baum iſt groß, the tree is large ; das Pferd
iſt ſtarf, the horse is strong. The two last examples rest
on the same principle, and are therefore introduced in this
connection.
Objective verbs include not only active verbs , but all those
neuter verbs which are incomplete in sense without some con
nected object in an oblique case. Active verbs with an accusa
tive case need no examples. But neuter verbs, and those which
take other oblique cases after them than the accusative, or a
preposition with its case , when that is necessary to complete
the sense of the verb, require to be illustrated. In the phrase,
der Dolch entfällt der Hand, the sword falls from the hand,
the dative , der hand, is necessary to the sense of entfält,
falls out of. So in the expression , Der Kranke bedarf des
weine 8, the invalid needs wine , the genitive is as essential
to the meaning of the verb , as an accusative is to an active
verb. Der Arme bittet u m Brod, the poor man begs for
bread. Here um Brod explains the verb.
The auxiliary ſeyn in the compound tenses is limited to

subjective verbs, or rather to a certain class of subjective
verbs. The general rules with respect to these two auxilia
ries may now be given and understood without difficulty.
The auxiliary haben is used,
1. With all active verbs ; as, Ich habe das Waſſer ges
trunken, I have drunken the water.
2. With all the reflective verbs ; as, Ich habe mich erin
nert, I have called to mind, have remembered.
3. With impersonal verbs ; as , Es hat geregnet, it has
rained.
4. With those verbs which have been improperly termed
auxiliaries, namely, dürfen , können, mögen , wollen , ſollen ,
müſſen and laſſen ; as , Ich habe gekonnt, I have been able .
5. With all objective neuter verbs ; as , Er hat mir ges
fallen , he has pleased me ; Er hat Deiner geſpottet, he has
ridiculed you . Only begegnen, folgen and weichen, are ex
cepted from this rule ; these take ſeyn as an auxiliary.
The auxiliary ſeyn is used with the following subjective
neuter verbs :
1. With those which signify a change or transition from
one condition or state to another ; as,
Berſten, to burst, reißen , to tear,

bredien, to break , ſdheitern , to wreck ,
gedeiben , to prosper, fdhmelzen , to melt,
faulen , to rot , diwiren , to suppurate,
frieren , to freeze, ſittwellen , to swell ,
gelingen , to succeed , fidwinden , to dwindle ,
generent, to recover , ſpriegen , to germinate,
gerathen , to turn out, ſterben, to die,
gerinnen , to coagulate, trecfnen , to dry ,
geibehen, to happen , madſen , to grow ,
beilen , to heal, merten, to become,
reifen , to ripen.
Sect. 4. Verbs Neuter. 225
Here belong those verbs which have the prefixes er, ver
and ent, and subjective verbs compounded with separable
prepositions, when these particles indicate in composition a
change of condition ; as, Erkranken, erlahmen, erlöſchen ,
erſchlaffen, erſchrecken , erſtarren , erſticken ; verarmen , vers
derben, verdorren, verlöſchen , veröden, verweſen ; ents
ſchlafen , entſtehen , entbrennen ;-einſchlafen, aufwachen ,
aufbrennen, anbrennen, abbrennen , aufſchlagen , abſchlagen ,
abſtehen , and many others. Several of these compounds
take ſeyn though the simple verbs take haben . Examples
with the auxiliary : Er iſt ausgeartet, he is degenerated ;
es iſt nicht gut ausgefallen , it has not turned out well ; er
iſt geſtorben, he is dead.
2. With those which signify motion to or from a place ; as,
dringent, to urge, rinnen , to leak ,
eilen , to hasten , rücken , to advance,
fahren , to ride, ſcheiden , to separate,
fallen , to fall, ſchießen , to shoot,
fliegen , to fly, ſchleichen, to sneak ,
fliehen , to flee, ſchlüpfen, to slip,
fließen, to flow , ſchreiten, to stride,
gehen , to go , ſchwimmen , to swim ,
gelangen , to attain, ſegeln , to sail,
gleiten , to slide, ſinken , to sink ,
hinken, to go lame, ſpringen , to jump ,
jagen, to chase, ſteigen , to mount,
klimmen, to climb, ſtoßen, to thrust,
kommen , to come , ſtreichen, to strike, let down,
kriechen , to creep , treiben, to pursue, practice,
landen , to land , treten , to tread ,
laufen , to run, umherirren , to wander about,
quellen , to gush, waten , to wade,
reiſen , to travel , weichen , to yield,
reiten, to ride, ziehen, to draw ,
rennen, to run.
The place or distance may either be named or understood ;

in both circumstances, ſeyn serves for the auxiliary to the
verb in the past tenses. For instance : Ich bin nach London
geritten, I have ridden to London ; der Feind iſt nach der
Hauptſtadt marſchiret, the enemy has marched to the capi
tal. Here the locality is expressed. Frequently it is under
stood , as in the verbs compounded with the local particles :
ab, off ; an, on ; auf, upon ; aus, out ; bei, near ; durch,
through ; ein, into ; fort, forth, forward ; her, and hin, to
wards ; über, over ; um , about ; vor, before; vorbei, beside,
passing by ; weg, away ; z1 , towards ; zurück, back. For
example : abreiſen , to set off, to depart; anlangen , to come
to, to arrive ; auftreten , to tread or step upon , to step forth ;
ausſteigen , to get out ; beitreten, to step near to , to agree
with in opinion ; durchſegeln , to sail through ; eintreffen , to
come into , to arrive at : fortſchleichen , to sneak off; herflies
gen, hinfliegen, to fly towards ; überlaufen, to run orer ; um
fahren , to drive about, that means, to go the longest way ;
vordringen, to press forward ; vorbeieilen, to hasten by ;
wegmarſchiren , to march away ; zufliegen , to fly towards.
The notion of space, through which the motion proceeds, or ,
in other words, the idea of locality, presents itself to the mind
in those verbs, though the place is not itself expressly intro
duced . Here also belong the compound subjective verbs,
abprallen, abſdyweifen, abſißen , abſtammen , and others.
When , however , the verbs, eilen, fließen, hinten , jagen,
klettern, kriechen , landen, laufen, quellen , reiſen, reiten, rins
nen, regeln , ſchiffen , ſchwimmen, ſpringen, ſtoßen , treiben ,
and wandern, do not express motion to, or from a place, they
take the auxiliary haben ; as, Er hat viel gereiſet, he
has travelled much ; Er hat lange gehinkt, he has long gone
lame; Du haſt vor ihm gefrochen, you have crawled before
him ; Er hat ausgewandert, he has emigrated ; Ich habe
geritten , I have been riding ; Er hat geſprungen, he has
Sect. 4. Verbs Neuter . 227
jumped ; Wir haben geſchwommen , we have been swim

ming.
All other subjective neuter verbs, that is, those not inclu
ded in the two foregoing rules, are conjugated with the aux
iliary haben , such as, bellen , to bark ; lauten , to sound ;
lachen , to laugh ; weinen , to weep ; ſcheinen, to appear; glü
hen , to glow ; blühen , to blossom ; beben, to tremble ; ſtehen ,
to stand ; rigen , to sit ; liegen , to lie , etc.
The same verb may take ſeyn when used in one sense, and
haben when used in another.
1. Some take haben, to denote the completion of an ac
tion or a state, and ſein to denote the condition of a thing ; as,
Das Feuer hat ausgebrannt, the fire has burnt out.
Das Kamin iſt ausgebrannt, the chimney is burnt out.
Die Rohlen haben ausgedampft, the coals have done smoking.
Die Feuchtigkeit iſt ausgedampft, the damp is evaporated.
Die Erde iſt gefroren , the earth is frozen.
Wir haben gefroren, we have been frozen.
Es hat gefroren , it has frozen .
2. Verbs expressive of motion take ſein , when the place,
or the manner of the motion , is referred to ; but take haben,
when the simple action is designated ; as,
Ich bin in die Stadt geritten, I have ridden or rode into the
city.
Ich bin langſam geritten , I have ridden or rode slowly .
Ich bin den ganzen Tag geritten, I have been riding the
whole day.
Ich habe das Pferd geritten, I have ridden the horse.
Der Feind iſt in die Stadt gedrungen , the enemy has pene
trated into the city.
Er hat in mich gedrungen, he has urged me.
Wir ſind in die Stadt geeilet, we have hastened into the
city.
Wir haben mit der Sache geeilet, we have hastened with
the affair.
228 On the Verb. P. I. Ch. 5
Wir ſind fortgefahren, we have left or gone on in a vehicle.

Wir haben fortgefahren zu arbeiten, we have continued to
labor.
Der Vogel iſt in das Feld geflattert, the bird has fluttered
into the field .
Er hat lange geflattert, it has been long fluttering.
Die Reiter ſind ſchon aufgeſeſſen , the horsemen are already
seated.
Ich habe die ganze Nacht aufgeſeſſen, I have sat up the whole
night.
Ich bin in das Haus gegangen , I have gone into the house.
Ich habe mich müde gegangen , I have tired myself with
walking.
3. Some verbs expressive of motion require ſeint when ta
ken in the proper sense , and haben in the figurative sense ; as,
Wir ſind gelaufen , we have run.
Das Faß hat gelaufen , the cask has leaked.
Die Thränen ſind gefloſſen , the tears have flowed.
Die Röhre hat gefloſſen, the pipe has leaked.
Er iſt ihm gefolgt, he has followed him .
Er hat meinen Lehren gefolgt, he has followed my precepts.
SECTION V.
REFLECTIVE VERBS.
When the action , expressed by a verb , returns back to the

subject, from which it proceeds, the verb is called reflective
or reciprocal : as, I love myself, I cut myself , he hurts him
self.
It must immediately appear, that every verb, implying ac
tion , is capable of assuming this form ; but there are several,
Sect. 5. Reflective Verbs. 229
in German , which are never used without the reciprocal pro

nouns. These are reflectives, in the strictest sense of the
word ; and to them , in particular, the present section is de
voted. They always express an intransitive action. It may
suffice, out of their number, to state the following : Sich an
maßen, to presume, to claim ; fich anſchicken , to prepare ;
ſich aufſchwingen , to rise ; ſich äußern, to intimate, also to
come forth , to appear ; ſich bedanken, to thank for a thing ;
ſich bedenken, to consider ; ſich befinden , to find ; ſich beges
ben, to resign ; ſich behelfen, to put up with, to be contented ;
ſich berühmen , to boast ; ſich beſinnen , to reflect ; fich bewers
ben, to sue, or apply for ; ſich einbilden , to imagine ; ſich ents
halten, to abstain ; ſich entſchließen , to resolve ; ſich erbar:
men, to pity, to have mercy ; ſich freuen , to rejoice; ſich
grämen , to grieve ; fich getrauen , to be confident; ſich rüh
men, to boast ; ſich unterſtehen , to venture, to dare ; fich wi
derſeßen , to resist.
It will be useful to show an example of the conjugation of
those verbs ; and for that purpose, one shall be selected, the
inflection of which is regular.
Sich freuen, to rejoice.
Present.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich freue mich, I rejoice. 1. ich freue mich,
( if) I rejoice.
2. du freueſt, or freuſt dich, 2. du freueſt dich ,
thou rejoicest. ( if ) thou rejoicest
3. er ( ſie, es ) freuet, or freut 3. er ( ſie, es ) freue fich,
fich, he ( she, it) rejoices. ( if ) he (she, it ) rejoice.
20
Plural. Plural.
1. wir freuen uns , 1. wir freuen uns,
we rejoice. ( if ) we rejoice.
2. ihr freuet, or freut euch , 2. ihr freuet euch,
you rejoice. ( if ) you rejoice.
3. fie freuen ſich , 3. Tie freuen ſich ,
they rejoice. ( if ) they rejoice.
Imperfect.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich freuete, or freute mich , 1. ich frenete mich,
I rejoiced. ( if ) I rejoice.
2. du freueteſt, or freuteſt 2. tu freueteſt dich,
dich, thou rejoicedst, etc. ( if ) thou rejoicedst, etc.
Perfect.
Singular Singular.
1. ich habe mich gefreut, or 1. ich habe mich gefreut,
gefreuet, I have rejoiced. ( if ) I have rejoiced.
2. du haſt dich gefreut, 2. du babeſt dich gefreut,
thou hast rejoiced . ( if ) thou hast rejoiced.
3. er hat ſich gefreut, 3. er babe ſich gefreut,
he has rejoiced . ( if) he bave rejoiced , etc.
Plural.
1. wir haben uns gefreut,
we have rejoiced .
2. ihr habt euch gefreut,
you have rejoiced .
3. ſie haben ſich gefreut,
they have rejoiced .
1
Sect. 5 Reflective Verbs. 231
Pluperfect
Singular. Singular.
1. ich hatte mich gefreut, 1. ich hätte mich gefreut,
I had rejoiced. ( if ) I had rejoiced.
2. du hatteſt dich gefreut, 2. du hätteſt dich gefreut,
thou hadst rejoiced. ( if ) thou hadst rejoiced.
3. er hatte ſich gefreut, 3. er hätte ſich gefreut,
he had rejoiced, etc. ( if ) he had rejoiced , etc.
First Future.
Singular. Singular.
1. ich werde mich freuen , 1. ich werde mich freuen ,
I shall, or will , rejoice. ( if ) I shall rejoice.
2. du wirſt dich freuen , 2. du werdeſt dich freuen ,
thou shalt, or wilt, rejoice. ( if ) thou shalt rejoice.
3. er werde ſich freuen ,
3. er wird ſich freuen ,
he shall, or will , rejoice. ( if ) he shall rejoice, etc.
Plural.
1. wir werden uns freuen ,
we shall rejoice.
2. ihr werdet euch freuen ,
you shall, or will , rejoice.
3. ſie werden ſich freuen ,
they shall, or will , rejoice.
Second Future.
Singular. Singular
1. ich werde mich gefreut has 1. ich werde mich gefreut
ben, I shall have re haben, ( if ) I shall have
joiced. rejoiced .
2. du wirſt dich gefreut has 2. du werdeſt dich gefreut
ben, thou shalt have re haben , ( if ) thou shalt
joiced, etc. have rejoiced, etc.

Singular.
1 ich würde mich freuen , I should, or would, rejoice.
2. du würdeſt dich freuen , thou shouldst, or wouldst, re
joice, etc.

Singular.
1. ich würde mich gefreut haben,
I should , or would, have rejoiced , etc.
IMPERATIVE .
Singular. Plural .
2. frene (du ) dich, 2. freuet ( or freut ) ( ihr)
rejoice ( thou ). euch, rejoice ( you ) .
3. freue er ( ſie, es ) fich , 3. freuen ſie ſich ,
let him (her, it) rejoice. let them rejoice.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. ſich freuen , to rejoice.

Perf. ſich gefreut haben, to have rejoiced.
Fut. fich freuen werden, to be about to rejoice.
PARTICIPLE PRESENT.
ſich freuend, rejoicing.
Observations.
1. Most of the reflective verbs govern the reciprocal pro
nouns in the accu cusative, a few in the dative case. Of the
latter class are anmaßen, einbilden , getrauen ; as, Ich maße
mir an, du bildeſt dir ein , ich getraue mir. The impersonal,
es däucht, it seemeth , either takes the accusative or the da
tive ; as, es däucht mich, or es däucht mir, it seems to me.
But we always say , mich dünft, which has the same meaning.
Sect. 5. Reflective Verbs. 233
2. Several transitive verbs, when used as reflectives, not

only become intransitive, but differ in signification from the
transitive verb. For example : Sich bedenken , to pause for
the purpose of reflection , to hesitate, from bedenken , to reflect
upon , to consider ; ſich berufen , to appeal to, from berufen ,
to call ; ſich beſcheiden , to be contented with , from beſcheiden ,
to point out, to direct, to enjoin ; ſich fürchten , to' be afraid ,
from fürchten, to fear ; ſich hüten, to be cautious, to beware,
from hüten , to guard ; ſich verantworten , to excuse one's
self, to argue against accusation , from verantworten , to an
swer for ; ſich ſchicken, to be becoming, from ſchicken , to send ;
ſich fügen, to accommodate one's self to, to suit, from fügen,
to join ; ſich zutragen , to occur, from zutragen, to carry to ;
ſich taüſchen, to err , from taüſchen , to deceive ; ſich ſtellen,
to dissemble, from ſtellen , to place ; ſich nennen, to be called,
from nennen, to call .
Thus a transitive verb receives not only an intransitive ,
but often a passive signification ; as , Der Hiinmel bedeckt
ſich , the sky is overcast (covers itself ) ; Der Schlüßel hat
ſich gefunden , the key is found ( has found itself).
When those verbs which are not reflective are used in the
plural with the reciprocal pronouns, they express reciprocal
action, and must be distinguished from reflective verbs ; as,
Die Kreiſe berühren ſich, the circles touch each other ;
die Knaben ſchlage it fich , the boys are beating each other ;
wenn ſich die Fürſten befehden , müßen die Diener ſich
morden und tödten, when princes quarrel with each other ,
their servants must murder and kill each other ; was ſich
liebt, das neckt ſich ( proverb ) , those who love each other,
banter each other ; nie häten wir uns ſehen ſollen, we
ought never to have seen each other.
3. Others are, in the same signification , employed as sim
ple verbs, and as reflectives ; for instance, irren, and ſich
irren , to be mistaken ; ſcheuen , and ſich ſcheuen, to be afraid
of a thing ; zanfen, and fich zanfen , to quarrel.
20 *
On the Verb. P. I. Ch. 5.
4. The reflective verbs are joined with the first auxiliary,

haben. Du baſt dich, mit deinem Bruder gezankt, thou hast
been quarrelling with thy brother.
SECTION VL
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Verbs, which only occur in the third person of the singular

number, inasmuch as they are destitute of the other persons,
are termed Impersonal. Such are, for example, es grauſet
mir, I am frightened at, I shudder ; es bewölkt ſich, it gets
cloudy ; es geziemet lich , it is proper, it is becoming ; es
efelt mir , or mir efelt, I loathe ; es grauet mir, or mir
graut, I am afraid ; and those which relate to natural phe
nomena, such as, es donnert, it thunders ; es blißt, it lightens ;
es regnet, it rains ; es ſitneiet, it snows ; es friert, it freezes ;
es thauet, it thaws; es bagelt, it hails ; es reifet, there is a
hoar trust ; es tagt, it dawns ; es heißt, it is said ; es ver
liuret, it is reported. And these : es hungert mich, or mich
bunjert, I am hungry ; es durſtet mich , or mich durſtet, I am
thirsty ; es iblifert mich, or mich ſchläfert, I am sleepy.
To these last may be added another class, which are imper
svual in form , though not in sense ; viz. es wird geraucht,
ther, or men , are smoking ; literally, it is smoked ; es wird
getan ; s, they are dancing, there is dancing ; es wird geſun
gert, they are singing ; es ſchlaft ſich hier gut, one sleeps well
here .
Those impersonal verbs, which have a pronoun after them,
may be said to participate in the nature of reflective verbs ;
as, en geziennet pits. And, on the other hand, some of the
retlectives have occasionally the impersonal form ; for in
stance , es frenet mity , it pleases me, I am glad , from ſich
freuen ; es ärgert midt), it vexes me, from ſich ärgern .
Sect. 7. Verbs Compound. 235
SECTION VII.
VERBS COMPOUND.
This division comprehends chiefly verbs that are compound

ed with prepositions, and such invariable words, as in gram
mar are styled particles. The other combinations, for exam
ple, those with a verb, and a noun , require little notice.
A Verb Compound is either Separable or Inseparable ;
that is to say , the particle or preposition , at the beginning,
may either be separated from the verb, or not.
( a) Separable, are those compounded with
ab, as, ablegen, to lay down, from legen, to lay.

an , - anfangen , to begin , - fangen , to
catch.
anheim , -anheimſtellen , to refer to — ſtellen ,to place.
auf, - aufhören, to cease, - hören, to hear.
aus , - auslaſſen , to leave out , - laſſen , to leave.
bei, - beiſtehen, to assist, ſtehen ,to stand.
da, - dableiben, to remain at - bleiben, to re
a place, main.
dabei, - dabeiſtehen , to stand - ſtehen ,to stand.
close by ,
daher , – daherfliegen , to fly – fliegen , to fly
along, with wings.
dahin, - dahineilen , to hasten - eilen,to hasten.
away,
bafür , - dafürhalten, to hold an – halten, to hold .
opinion,
dagegen, - dagegenſeyn , to be against; - ſeyn , to be.
danieder, – daniederbeugen , to bend – beugen, to
down, bend.
bar , - darthun , to show , to thun , to do.
prove ,
236 On the Verb . P. I. Ch. 5
daran, as , daranſezen , to stake, from ſeßen , to place.

darauf, - daraufgeben, to give - geben, to give.
earnest money,
darein , - bareinreden , to interrupt , - reden , to talk .
davon , - davonlaufen , to run off, - laufen, to run.
davor, - ſich davorhüten , to guard - hüten , to heed.
against,
dawider , - dawiderhaben, to have - haben, to have.
objections,
dazu, - dazuthun, to add, - thun, to do.
dazwiſchen , — dazwiſchenreden , to inter - reden , to talk .
pose a word,
ein, - einkaufen , to purchase , kaufen , to buy.
einher, - einhergehen , to walk — gehen , to go.
along proudly,
empor, - emporfriechen , to rise by – friechen , to
sneaking , creep .
entgegen , entgegengehen, to go to - gehen, to go.
meet,
entzwei, - entzweibrechen, to break - brechen , to
asunder, break.
fort, – fortfahren , to continue, — fahren , to
move along
frr , - fürſprechen , to intercede, — ſprechen, to
speak.
gegen, gegenhalten , to compare, - halten , to hold.
in, - inwohnen , to dwell - wohnen , to
within , dwell.
heim, - heimkehren , to return — kehren, to turn.
home,
her, - herbringen, to bring bringen, to
along, bring .
herab, - herabfeßen , to lower, - reken , to set
heran , - heranführen , to bring on , führen , to lead .
herauf, as, heraufſteigen, to ascend, from ſteigen, to

mount.
heraus, - herausholen , to fetch out, -- holen, to fetch.
herbei, - herbeirufen , to call to - rufen , to call.
wards you ,
herein, – hereinbringen, to bring — bringen, to
in , bring.
hernieder, - herniederblicken , to look - blicken, to look
down ,
herüber, - herüberkommen, to come kommen, to
over, come.
herum, - herumgeben, to hand - geben , to give.
about,
herunter, —- herunterbringen, to bring – bringen, to
down , bring.
hervor, - hervorleuchten , to shine – leuchten , to
forth , shine.
hin - hingehen, to go along, - gehen, to go.
hinab, – hinablaſſen , to let down, - laſſen , to let.
hinan, – hinanſteigen, to ascend, – ſteigen, to
mount.
hinauf, hinaufziehen, to pull up, ziehen, to pull.
hinaus, – hinauswerfen , to fling - werfen ,to fling.
out,
hinein, - hineingießen, to pour - gießen, to pour.
into,
hintan, - hintanſeßen , to put be – ſeßen , to put.
hind, to undervalue,
hinterher, - hinterhertraben , to trot - traben, to trot.
behind, >
hinüber, – hinübertragen, to carry — tragen, to
over, carry.
hinum, - hinumflattern , to flutter – flattern , to
about, Autter.
hinunter, as, hinunterſpringen, to leap from ſpringen , to

down , leap.
hinweg, - hinwegraffen , to sweep - raffen , to raff.
away.
hinzu , - hinzueilen, to hasten to a - eilen , to has
spot, ten.
mit, - mitnehmen, to take with - nehmen, to
you , to censure, take.
nach , - nachfolgen, to follow af - folgen , to
ter, to succeed , follow .
nieder, -niederſtoßen , to strike - ſtoßen , to push.
down ,
ob - obliegen , to be incum - liegen , to lie.
bent on ,
überein, - übereinkommen , to - kommen , to

agree , come.
umher, - umherſchweifen , to ram – ſchweifen , to
ble about, ramble.
umhin, - umhinkönnen, to be able, – können , to
to forbear, be able.
vor , — vorgeben, to pretend, -geben , to give.
voran, vorangehen , to walk be - gehen , to go.
fore,
vorauf, – voraufſteigen, to ascend ſteigen, to
before, mount.
voraus, vorausbezahlen, to pay – bezahlen , to
beforehand, pay.
vorbei, — vorbeigehen , to pass by , - gehen, to go.
to pass over,
vorher, - vorherwiſſen, to have a – wiſſen, to
foreknowledge, know.
vorüber, - vorüberfahren , to pass - fahren , to ride
by in a coach , in a coach .
vorweg , – vorweg genieß en , to an - genießen , to
ticipate an enjoyment, enjoy.
Sect. 7. Verbs Compound . 239
· weg , as, wegbleiben , to stay from bleiben , to

away , stay.
zu, – zureden , to persuade, – reden, to talk.
zuvor, - zuvorthun , to excel, to - thun, to do.
outdo,
zurück, — zurückkehren , to return , - kehren , to turn .
zuſammen , — zuſammenſeßen , to put - feßen , to put.
together, to compose ,
to construct,
Rules :
I. The separation takes place
1. In the imperative mood ; as, fange ( du) an, begin
( thou ); fange er an, let him begin ; fanget ( ihr ) an , begin
(you ) ; fangen ſie an, let them begin. Thus : Höre auf,
cease , etc.
2. In the indicative and subjunctive, when the verb is not,
by the influence of a pronoun or a conjunction, removed to
the end of a sentence. For instance : Ich fahre fort, I con
tinue ; du fährſt fort, thou continuest ; er fährt fort, he con
tinues ; wir fahren fort, we continue ; ihr fahret fort, you
continue ; ſie fahren fort, they continue.
3. When the infinitive has the preposition zu before it,
that preposition is placed between the compounding particle
and the verb ; as, anzufangen , aufzuhören, fortzufahren .
4. The augment ge, in the preterite participle, is inserted
between the particle and the verb ; as , angefangen, aufges
hört, fortgefahren.
II. The particle, separated from the verb by ge and zu
is put
1. In the infinitive, and preterite participle, before the verb ,
as appears from the examples adduced.
2. In the other instances, after the verb ; and not only af
ter the verb from which it has been disjoined , but also after
the subject nominative, if that should happen to stand after
the verb ; as, So fange ich an, thus do I begin ; nun hört
der Lärm auf, now the noise ceases ; and, generally, after
the cases governed by the verb. For example : Ich fange
das Buch an, I begin the book , verb anfangen ; nehmen
Sie mir die laſt ab, take from me the burden , verb abneh
men ; wir theilten unſern Freunden die Nachricht mit, we
communicated the information to our friends, verb mittheis
len . Frequently also after the relative members of a sen
tence ; as, Ich ſtellte die Sache meinem Vruder und zwey
Männern, welche meine Freunde waren , anheim, I referred
the matter to my brother, and to two men who were my friends,
verb anheimſtellen . Indeed, the particle is hardly ever found
before the cases governed by the verb, except it were from
the necessity of rhyme or metre ; and, even then, it is not
justifiable, if the cases be mere pronouns ; as, Ich fange es
an, I begin it ; where you could not say, Ich fange an es.
Or, nehmen Sie mir es ab, take it from me, which could
not possibly be expressed by nehmen Sie ab es mir . Some
times the particle is placed after the infinitive, governed by
the compound verb ; as, Er fängt zu leſen an, he begins to
read , for er fängt an zu leſen .
( b ) Compound Verbs Inseparable, those beginning with

after, as, afterreden , to backbite, from reden, to talk .
be, - beweiſen, to prove , - weiſen , to show
emp , empfangen, to receive, – fangen , to catch.
ent, - entehren , to dishonor, - ehren, to honor.
er, - erhalten , to preserve , to - halten, to hold
receive,
ge , -gebrauchen, to make - brauchen , to
use of, need.
miß, - mißfallen , or mißgefal -fallen ,to please.
len to displease ,
ur , - urkunden, to certify, to — fünden, to make
attest, known.
ver , - verzehren , to consume, - zehren, to waste.
verab, as, verabſcheuen ,to detest, from ſcheuen , to shun.

vernach , - vernachläſſigen , to neg - laſſen , to leave.
lect ,
verunt, - verunreinigen , to soil , - reinigen, to
clean.
zer, – zerſtören , to destroy, - ſtören , to stir .
Rule :
These verbs never admit a separation of the prefix, nor re
ceive the augment ge, in the preterite participle, except a few
compounded with miß, which, though inseparable, take the
syllable ge, in the said participle. Such are those of an ac
tive and transitive signification : as, mißbilligen, to disap
prove, preterite participle, gemißbilliget ; mißbrauchen , to
abuse, preterite participle, gemißbraucht; mißdeuten , to mis
interpret, preterite participle, gemißdeutet ; mißhandeln,
to treat ill , preterite participle , gemißhandelt. Others, com
posed with miß, especially neuters, refuse the augment in
the preterite participle: as mißfallen, to displease, preterite
participle, mißfallen, not gemißfallen ; mißglücken , to turn
out ill , to fail, preterite participle, mißglückt; mißlingen, to
fail, preterite participle, mißlungen ; mißrathen, not to pros
per, preterite participle, mißrathen . Sometimes the augment
ge, in the preterite participle, and the preposition 311, in the
infinitive, are inserted between the particle and the verb ; as,
mißgeboten, mißzubieten, from mißbieten, to underbid ; miß
geartet, mißzuarten, from mißarten, to degenerate. But
this seems to be an unnecessary departure from the rule.
( c ) Separable and Inseparable, are verbs compounded with

the following prepositions :
durch, as, durchbrechen , to break through , separable and in

separable ; preterite participle , durchgebrochen , and
durchbrochen , from bredien, to break .
21
242 On the Verb. P. I. Ch. 5 .
binter, as, hintertreiben , to prevent, inseparable ; preterite

participle, hintertrieben ; and hintertreiben , to drift be
hind, separable : ſie ſind mit dem Schiffe hintergetries
ben, they have fallen astern , from treiben , to drive.
über, as überſetzen, to get over , to leap over, separable ; pre
terite participle, übergeſeßt ; and überſeßen, to trans
late, inseparable ; preterite participle, überſeßt — both
from ſegen , to put.
um, as, umlaufen , to run round, separable and inseparable ;
preterite participle, umgelaufen , and umlaufen, from
laufen, to run.
unter, as, intergeben , to go down , to perish , separable ; pre
terite participle, untergegangen , from gehen, to go ; uns
ternehmen, to undertake, inseparable ; preterite parti
ciple, unternommen , from nehmen , to take.
wieder, as, wiederholen, to fetch back , separable ; preterite
participle, wiedergeholt ; and wiederholen , to repeat,
inseparable ; preterite participle, wiederholt, both from
holen , to fetch .
wider, as, widerhalten , to resist, separable ; participle prete
rite, widergehalten, from halten , to hold ; and widerles
gen, to refute, inseparable ; participle preterite , wider
legt, from legen , to lay .
Rules :
I. Those verbs, when separable, have a neuter significa
tion, without a case following ; as, Er bricht durch, he breaks
through ; er iſt durchgebrochen , he has broken through.
When inseparable , they are transitives, and govern the accu
sative case ; as , Die Sonne durchbricht die Wolfen , the
sun breaks through the clouds. Add the following example :
Das Rad läuft um, the wheel runs round, separable ; der
Hund umläuft das Feld, the dog runs round the field , in
separable. Die Pferde ſeßen über, the horses leap orer, sep
arable ; der Knabe überſeßt den Homer, the boy translates
Sect. 7. Compound Verbs. 243
Homer , inseparable. Die Sonne geht unter, the sun sets,

separable ; ich unternehme das Werk, I undertake the work,
inseparable. Such is the rule ; but a deriation from it oc
curs in some verbs, composed with durch and um . For ex
ample : umſtoßen, to knock down , to overset, to overturn ;
umwerfen , to throw down , to overturn ; umſtürzen, to over
throw ; umdrehen , to turn about, to twist about; umbringen,
to kill ; are separable, though they are used as verbs transi
tive. This must be considered either as a mere exception,
or may be explained , by saying, that the rule is only applica
ble , when the component particle has its first, or original , sig
nification. When that signification is altered, the verbs,
which were inseparable , become separable. The original
signification of um , is circular motion ; but in the instances
above, the idea of inversion and change, or some other mo
tion, seems to prevail.
II . In these compounds the accent varies ; for, when they
are used as separables, it is laid upon the prepositions, as,
durch brechen ; when they are inseparable, the preposition
is void of accent, as , durch brechen . Thus um laufen ,
separable- umlaufen, inseparable ; über feben , separa
ble - über ſe Ben , inseparable ; unter gehen , separable
unter n e h me n, inseparable.
( d ) Some verbs are doubly compounded, with particles
separable and inseparable ; for example, Auferziehen , to bring
up, to educate ; anvertrauen, to entrust ; verabſcheuen, to
detest. The particles auf and an are to be found among the
separables ; er and ver are inseparable. These verbs, though
separable according to one of the particles, do not take the
syllable ge, in the preterite participle ; as, auferzogen , ans
vertraut, verabſcheut.
( e) Of those which are composed with nouns or adjectives,
it is to be observed, that some are separable ; as , fehlſchlagen ,
to miscarry ; freyſprechen , to acquit ; gleichkommen , to equal;
losreißen, to tear loose ; and some inseparable Several of the
latter have the augment ge, in the preterite participle, like

simple verbs. For example : frohlocken , to exult ; handha
ben, to handle ; frühſtücken, to breakfast ; liebäugeln, to ex
change fond looks ; which make the preterite participles,
gefroblockt, gehandhabt, gefrühſtückt, geliebängelt . Those
with voll, full, are inseparable, whenever they denote com
pletion or achieving. They then reject the augment ; as,
vollziehen , to execute , pret . part. vollzogen ; vollenden , to
achieve , vollendet ; vollbringen , to complete, vollbracht.
But they are separable when they denote full in the physical
sense , and take, of course, the augment . Vollgieſſen , to pour
full, vollgegoſſen ; vollſchütten , to cast, to shed full, volge:
ſchüttet ; and also figuratively: er hat mir die Ohren vollges
winſelt, he has filled my ears with his moanings. There is,
moreover, this peculiarity to be observed ; that although the
radical verbs compounded with voll govern the accusative of
the thing , when used without voll, yet the instant they are
joined to vol , they require the accusative of the vessel which
is filled. Gieffen ſie den Wein in das Glas, aber Sie
müſſen das Glas vollgieſſen ; pour the wine into the glass,
but you must fill the glass.
Concerning the Signification of Compound Verbs.
In reviewing those which are separable, few difficulties

occur. The prefixes, for the most part, may be rendered in
telligible by translation . Thus , ab, signifies off ; an , on ;
auf, up , or upon ; aus , out of ; bei, by ; dar, there; ein, in ,
or into ; fort, forth, or forward ; gleich, like ; heim, home ;
mit, with ; nady, after ; nieder, down ; ob, on , upon ; vor,
before ; weg, away ; wieder, again . Only hin and her re
quire an explanation. They are both particles of locality.
Hin expresses motion proceeding from the person who is
speaking to another point ; her denotes motion from any
place towards that person. Thus, er geht hin, he goes along,
Sect. 7 . Compound Verbs. 245
means, he goes from the point in which the subjective person

is, to some other point ; and er fömmt her , signifies, he
comes from any place towards the person . Therefore, when
I bid any one to proceed from me , it will be gehen Sie hin ;
and when I desire him to come towards me , kommen Sie
her . But more is to be said of the compounds inseparable.
The nature and meaning of their prefixes are complicated,
and call for some illustration .
After was anciently the same as the English “ after," be
hind ; and it still denotes a deviation from its kind , an inferi
ority, what is not genuine ; ein Afterpabſt, an anti-pope ;
ein Afterfönig , a false king , a pretender.
Be, related to the preposition bei, serves1. To direct the
action of the verb to the object on which it terminates. It
transforms verbs neuter into transitives.* For example : Fol
gen , to follow , is a neuter , construed with the dative case ;
befolgen , to follow , in a metaphorical sense, to obey, a verb
transitive, with the accusative ; arbeiten , to work , to labor,
neuter ; bearbeiten, to bestow labor upon a thing, to elabo
rate, transitive; lachen, to laugh , neuter ; belachen , to laugh
at, transitive ; ſteigen, to ascend , or descend, neuter ; beſteis
gen, to ascend a thing, to mount upon , transitive ; as, den
Thron beſteigen , to ascend the throne ; antworten , to an
swer, to make answer , neuter ; beantworten , to answer, tran
sitive ; as, einen Brief beantworten, to answer a letter ; zweis
feln, to doubt, becomes bezweifeln . Thus in English, to
rhyme, is a verb neuter, to berhyme, a transitive.
2. In composition with verbs transitive , it has the effect of
changing the direction of the action, or of exchanging the
case , governed by the simple verb, for one depending upon the
*
Only a few , by way of exception, remain intransitive ; viz .
beſtehen , to consist; beruhen , to rest ; bebarren , to persevere ;
behagen , to please ; begegnen , to meet , to happen to ; bewach
ſen , to be overgrown with anything; bekommen, to become.
21 *
preposition mit, with. For example : Blumen auf den Weg

ſtreuen , to strew flowers on the way ; den Weg mit Blumen
beſtreuen, to strew the way with flowers ; Figuren auf das
Papier malen , to paint figures on the paper ; das Papier mit
Figuren bemalen, to paint the paper with figures.
3. By means of this prefix many active verbs are formed
from nouns* and adjectives, which have no corresponding
simple verbs ; as, befebden , to attack ; begaben, to endow ;
beſchränken , to limit ; bemühen, to trouble, to take pains ;
befriedigen, to satisfy ; beſeitigen , to set aside ; beſtätigen , to
confirm ; beſtuldigen, to accuse ; and from adjectives, bes
freien , to liberate ; beengen , to reduce to straits ; bereichern ,
to enrich ; beſänftigen , to appease ; beſchönigen , to palliate.
The German grammar admits this operation with consider
able freedom ; though not every combination , which may be
formed in that manner, can be regarded as classical. For
instance : Er direit incibey ! he cries huzza - ich will ihn
bejubeyen, I will huzza him ; that means, I will make him
change his note , I will punish him , or something like it.
Here an interjection is transformed into a verb . Er nennt
ſich Herr Maſcow , he calls himself Mr. Mascow - ich will
ibn bemaſcowen , I will maskow him , i . e . I will teach him
how to use that name, I will make him know what he is
doing, or a similar idea. Here a rerb is made of a proper
name, by the aid of the particle be. These expressions are,
in fact, a sort of jargon , or cant language ; yet they show the
nature of that particle.
4. In some instances, the signification of the simple rerbs
does not seem to be materially altered, by the composition
with be ; as, fördern , and befordern , to further , to forward ;
fürditen and befürchten, to fear. The simples, as well as
the compounds are employed as transitives. However, if the
* Thus in English, to befriend, to beguile, to behead, to bedew ,

from friend, guile, head, deur.
use of such verbs be strictly inquired into, a difference may

be discovered. For example : Befördern, means to pro
mote a person to a higher rank ; in which sense the simple,
fördern, rarely , or never , occurs ; and befürchten , to fear, is
not applied to persons, as objects, but only to things ; as, Ich
befürchte dieſen Umſtand, I fear this circunstance ; whereas
fürchten is capable of both significations. Moreover, the lat
ter seems to denote a stronger fear, and befürchten merely
apprehension . Indeed , be prefixed to active verbs, generally
adds intensity , or expresses the idea of spreading the action
over the whole object, as in English. Compare smear , and
besmear ; spatter and bespatter. So in German, bauen and
bebauen ; kleiden and befleiden .
Ent,
In the signification of ent, the following distinctions are to
be noticed .
1. It signifies separation , or removal.
( 1 ) If it is prefixed to a word that is already a verb, it ex
presses a separation or removal of the subject nominative of
a neuter verb, and the separation of the object of an active
verb. Examples of neuter verbs : Entgehen , to go away so
as to be separated from ; entlaufen , to run away from ; ent
fliehen , to escape. Doch dem war kaum das Wort ents
fahr e n , yet scarce had the word escaped from him . Ex
amples of active verbs : entführen, to carry away ; entziehen,
to withdraw ; entſetzen , to displace ; entreißen , to tear, or
snatch away ; entwenden , to take away, to purloin. Ihn
entbindet nur der Zod, death alone will relieve him , sep
arate him from the evil ; Und die entließen mich mit
leerem Troſt, and they dismissed me with mere words of
comfort.
(2) If it is prefixed to a substantive or an adjective there
by forming a new verb, it expresses the separation or dissolu
tion of the substance or thing indicated by the noun , and the
extinction of the state indicated by the adjective. Examples
of verbs thus formed from nouns : Entkräften , to enervate,

to destroy the power ( Kraft) ; entblättern, to strip off the
leaves ; entvölfern , to depopulate. Die Schule hat ſie ent
ſeelet, the school has taken away its soul , destroyed its
vitality ; Nach dem Befehl roll er enthauptet werden,
according to order , he is to be beheaded . Example of verbs
formed from adjectives: ſich entblöden , to become shameless.
But if the verb existed , as such , before the composition with
ent, the particle may express the idea of the adjective in the
manner explained in number ( 1 ) ; as , leer, empty ; leeren,
to empty ; entfeeren, to empty by removal .
2. It expresses direction towards an object, like an or ge
gen . Before f, ent in composition becomes emp . Examples:
Entbieten , to offer to ; entſprechen , to answer to, to corres
pond to ; entfalten , to unfold towards something outward ;
entwerfen, ( to throw out ) , to sketch ; empfehlen , to recom
mend to.
Under this meaning is included that of the commencement
of an action or of transition to another condition ; as, ents
brennen, to take fire, to pass into a state of combustion ; ents
fernen , to withdraw, to become retired. The leading signi
fications here given undergo various modifications which
need not be particularly specified.
Er denotes
1. A direction towards a person , i . e. an action for a per
son, and is the opposite of ver. This action for one may re
late either to the subject nominative, or to the object of the
action . Examples : Erbitten, to entreat (for one's self ) ;
erkaufen, to obtain ( for one's self ) by purchase ; erlernen,
to obtain ( for one's self ) by learning. Compare verbitten,
to decline ( to beg to be excused from ) ; verkaufen , to sell ;
verlernen , to unlearn . So also erſparen and erübrigen , to
lay aside for one's self ; erlangen and erwerben , to obtain for
one's self ; erzwingen, to obtain by force. Examples of er
relating to the object of the verb : Erlauben, to grant (to
another) permission ; erzeigen , to point out (to another) ;

ergeben, to deliver up ( to another ) ; erklären, to explain ; ers
zählen, to relate, to narrate ; ertheilen, to impart ; erſeßen,
to make up ( to another ).
2. Connected with the above is very generally, if not al
ways , the idea of obtaining an object by exertion , success in
the object for which the action is put forth. This idea is in
some words more prominent, in others less obvious. Erler :
nen and erzwingen belong to the former class, and erbetteln ,
to obtain by begging ; erblicken, to catch a view of ; erfinden ,
to invent ; erjagen , to take in the chase.
3. The relation of the action to some person ( for his bene
fit) is often very general , as for any one, for mankind. So
erhalten, to maintain ; erſchaffen , to create ; erſtehen , to rise
up , to stand ; erwachſen , to grow .
The idea of a motion upwards which some have assigned
to this particle, belongs rather with the verb with which it is
compounded ; as, erheben, to raise up , errichten, to erect ;
erwachſen , to grow up, erhalten, to hold up. In all these
cases er merely denotes success in the action expressed by
the verb .
The signification, to bring forth , to produce, grows out of
the preceding. From what has been said it is easy to explain
why some writers say er is often nearly the same in signifi
cation as auf ; as in erbauen and aufbauen, errichten and
aufrichten .
4. With this prefix are often found compound verbs, which
have no existence as simple verbs, but are taken directly
from adjectives. These verbs express change into a new con
dition ; as, erkalten , to get cold ; erſtarken, to become strong ;
erwarmen , to become warm ; erkühnen, to become bold ; er :
weichen, to make soft ; erblinden , to make blind , to become
blind ; erlahmen, to become lame ; erklären , to make clear ,
to explain ; erweitern , to make wide.
Se.
The power of this prefix may have been the same as the
Latin con, together, and thus have come to signify intensity.
But now most of the verbs, composed with this particle, seem
to be the same in meaning as the simples ; for example,
brauchen and gebrauchen, to use ; denken and gedenken, to
think - though it may happen , that some particular significa
tion is more usual in the simple verb than in the compound,
and again another more common with the compound than
the simple. For instance, brauchen, frequently denotes to
want, to stand in need of, to have occasion for ; but gebrau
chen is scarcely ever employed in that sense . Thus gedenken,
with the genitive case , means to remember, to think of ; as,
gedenke meiner, remember me, think of me ; in which con
struction denken never occurs. This is the same particle which
is prefixed to the preterite participle, where it evidently is ap
plied to indicate the past action of the verb.* In the districts
of the Upper German dialect, it is, here and there , by the
common people, put before every infinitive ; as , Geloben ,
for loben, to praise ; gelieben , for lieben, to love.
Ver implies,
1. The idea pay , in a bad or injurious sense ; as vertrei
ben, to drive away , from treiben, to drive ; verjagen , to
chase away, from jagen ; verſchenken , to give away , from
ſchenfen. We need only reverse all the rules in regard to
er , and we have substantially those that belong to ver, as
may be seen in the following examples : verbieten, to forbid ;
verhindern, to hinder ; verwehren , to prohibit; verbitten , to
decline ; verſagen , to deny, to refuse ; verrücken, to move a
* This shows that Se denotes iteration , repetition , frequency.

Even in substantives it indicates assemblage, repetition, and vexa
tion at the annoying repetition of an action :
Gewölk, Getos, Getöſe, Gerenne, etc.
clouds( collectively ); noise ; clattering ; continual running.
thing out of its place ; verſchieben , to put off; verſeßen , to

transpose ; verpflanzen , to transplant; verändern , to change ;
verwechſeln , to confound ; verſchließen , to lock up ; verſtop
fen , to stop up ; vermauern , to stop by means of a wall , to
wall up ; verſiegeln , to seal up ; verpichen , to close or stop
with pitch ; vernageln , to nail up , to spike. Hence it sig .
nifies,
2. A loss,* destruction , or consumption ; as , Verlieren ,
to lose ; verſpielen , to lose at play .; verblühen, to fade, ver:
welfen, to wither ; verhungern , to be famished , to die of
hunger; verbluten, to bleed to death.
3. It signifies doing wrong, deviating from what is just
and proper ; as, verführen, to seduce ; verleiten , to mis
guide ; verſalzen , to spoil by adding too much salt ; ſich ver
rechnen , to misreckon ; fich verſchreiben , to commit an error
in writing ; ſich verſprechen , to make a mistake in speaking ;
vergeſſen , to forget ; ſich verſtellen , to dissemble.
4. It enforces and strengthens the signification of the
primitive verbs ; as, verehren, to honor, from ehren ; ver
ſpotten, to mock ; verlachen , to laugh at ; verleihen , to
grant ; verflechten, to entwine, to implicate ; verbinden , to
connect; verbrüdern , to join by a brotherly tie ; verſchwä
gern, to unite by intermarriage ; verſchwören , to conspire.
And , lastly,
4 5. Compounded with adjectives and nouns , it expresses
change of condition ; as, verbeſſern , to better, to make bet
ter ; verdunkeln, to darken , to obscure ; veredeln , to enno
ble , to improve ; vergöttern , to deify ; veralten , to grow ob
solete, to fall into disuse ; verarmen , to fall into poverty,
Zer,
denotes separation of parts, dispersion, destruction ; as, zer
* This is answered by the adverb away, in the English lan

guage ; as in these examples, to triſte away one's time, to drink
away one's senses.
treten , to tread in pieces, to crush ; zerreiben, to rub to atoms ;

zerſtreuen , to scatter, to disperse ; zerſtören , to destroy ; zers
fließen , to be spilled , run apart.
Mib ( or mis ) , answering to the English mis
1. Marks an action done or carried on in a wrong man
ner ; as, mißbrauchen , to abuse, from branchen, to use ; miß
handeln , to treat ill , from handeln , or behandeln , to deal
with ; mißbeuten, to misinterpret, from deuten , to interpret ;
mißverſtehen , to misunderstand , from verſtehen .
2. It has a negative power : as, mißfallen , to displease,
from gefallen , to please ; mißbilligen , to disapprove , from
billigen , to approve. Those significations are also to be seen
in union with nouns ; as, das Mißverſtändniß, the misun
derstanding ; der Mißbrauch, the abuse ; das Mißtrauen ,
distrust : mißfällig, unpleasing, offensive ; mißtrauiſch , dis
trustful.
Hinter signifies
1. Behind ; as, Hinterlaſſen , to leave behind.
2. It is used in a metaphorical sense ; as, Hinterbringen ,
to give secret intelligence ; hintergeben , to deceive ; hinter:
treiben , to prevent. And in nouns ; as, die Hinterliſt, cun
ning ; hinterliſtig, crafty.
Unter corresponds to
1. The English under , Lat. sub ; as , unternehmen , to un
dertake.
2. The Latin inter , and ob ; as , unterbrechen, to interrupt ;
unterlaſſen, to omit.
Um,
in the verbs umbringen, to put to death , to murder ; and
umkommen, to perish, needs an explanation, though it is hard
ly here in its proper place, as it is separable in those verbs.
It first signifies about ; then denotes change ; after that loss ;
in which last sense, it is applied to those verbs. Jemanden
umbringen , to put a person to death , is an elliptical expres
sion for, jemanden um das Leben bringen, to cause some
Sect. 1 . On the Participle. 253
body to lose his life. In a similar way umkommen is to be

interpreted.
The particle Un, like the English un, is a privative, but
occurs only in combination with nouns and preterite partici
ples.
Erz, answering to arch, before nouns , denotes the chief or
first class. It is also taken in a bad sense , and answers to
the English arrant ; for example : ein Erzbiſchof, an arch
bishop ; ein Erzböſewicht, an arrant villain ; ein Erzſpieler,
a professed gamester.
CHAPTER VI.
ON THE PARTICIPLE .
The Germans have three participles, the present, the fu

ture and the preterite.
SECTION I.
THE PRESENT AND THE FUTURE PARTICIPLE .
The present participle has the signification of the verb

from which it is derived , and may govern the same case as
the verb. With these qualifications it unites the nature of
an adjective. In fact, it is never used otherwise than in con
nection with some substantive, or with the same relation to
it, that a common adjective generally bears. For example :
der lachende Frühling, the smiling spring ; der tanzende
Knabe, the dancing boy ; das laufende Jahr, the running
( or current) year.
22
254 On the Verb . P. I. Ch. 6 .
It is, like any other adjective, capable of both forms ; as,

the old form , erquicfender Wein , refreshing wine ; ſtärfende
Speiſe, strengthening food ; fühlendes Getränke, cooling
drink. Examples of the new form have been given above.
The adverbial form is never put after any verb, especially
not after the second auxiliary , ſeyn , to be. Here the parti
ciple not only deserts the function of the adjective, but also
leaves us destitute of a verbal combination, much in practice
with the English. For, with regard to the adjective, it is
common , in German , to place it adverbially after verbs ; for
instance : dieß iſt ſchön , this is beautiful; jenes iſt häßlich,
that is ugly. And by means of the present participle, joined
to the second auxiliary , the English produce what is termed
the definite, or determined , time ; as, “ I am writing ; he is
reading ; we are looking ; he has been walking ; they will
be going .” But the German participle cannot be thus em
ployed , except where, from its signification, it is regarded as
an adjective : es iſt reißend, it is charming ; dieſe Beleidi
gung iſt fränkend, this insult is mortifying ; ihre Sitten
waren ſehr einnehmend, her manners were very captivating ;
die Roth iſt dringend, the necessity is pressing ; die faſt iſt
drückend, the burden is oppressive.
As an adjective, it may be said to admit the degrees of
comparison , by means of additional endings. However , these
degrees are not equally in use with all participles. Indeed ,
the comparative only occurs of such, as have more the signi
fication of adjectives than of the verbs from which they are
taken . At least , they are become so current as adjectives,
that, in common practice, they are hardly looked upon as
parts of a verb . Of that description are , for example , reitend
( from reißen, to charm ) , charming, pleasing ; comparative,
reißender, more charming ; einnehmend, captivating, agree
able, comparative, einnehmender ; fließend, flowing, fluent,
comparative, fließender ; dringend, pressing, urgent , compar
ative, dringender ; drückend, oppressive, heavy, comparative,
Sect. 1 . Present Participle. 255
drückender . Now these, and others of the same kind , suffer

the comparative degree in the adverbial , but scarcely in any
other form. Other participles are not to be met with in the
comparative degree at all . If with them a comparison is to
be made, it must be done through the medium of the word
mehr, more. The superlative degree may be applied to
those participles which allow the comparative ; as, der reiks
endſte, der fließendſte, but it cannot be transferred to the
others.
Like an adjective, the participle may elliptically be turned
into a substantive ; as , der leſende, he that reads or is read
ing ; der Schreibende, he that writes ; die fachende, she who
is laughing .
The German participle has not enough of the nature of the
verb to serve for the purpose of constituting a member of a
sentence ; which power is principally assigned to it in other
languages. In English you may, for example, say with pro
priety, “ Seeing the great number of prisoners, I concluded
that the action had terminated in our favor.” This sentence
consists of two members : first, I saw the prisoners ; second,
I concluded . The first member is expressed by the partici
ple. So the following : " Hearing the noise of the cannon,
he started up”—for, he heard the noise of the cannon , and
started up. In German , the participle cannot perform this
office ; the members of a sentence are constructed in some
other way , and generally by means of a conjunction : as, “ I
saw the great number of prisoners , and concluded ;” or,
“ when ( as ) I saw the number of prisoners, I concluded ;"
“ when he heard the noise of the cannon , he started up ;” or ,
as soon as he heard the noise of the cannon , he started up . "
Much less would the language bear the compound participle
with the auxiliaries : as, “ having loved,” or , “ having been
loved . ” It would , for instance , be a great error to translate
by the participle the following sentence. “ Having received
your letter , I immediately desired my servant to proceed .”
256 On the Participle. P. I. Ch . 6.
habend erhalten Ihren Brief, etc. The structure must be

changed , in this, or a similar manner : “ I received your let
ter, and immediately desired, ” etc. — or, “ When ( as soon as)
I had received your letter, I immediately desired my servant,
etc. The conjunction indem , while, was formerly much used
for resolving the participial construction of other tongues in
to the German idiom ; but it occurs, at present, less fre
quently.
Though that is the most proper use of the participle in
other languages, the German does not acknowledge it ; un
less the following mode of employing the participle be con
sidered as connected with the former. Namely , it sometimes
expresses the manner of acting, being , or suffering, and is
then adverbially joined to a verb. For example : weinend
ſprach er zu mir, weeping, he said to me ; er ſetzte ſich [ diwei
gend nieder, he sat down , preserving silence ; ſie ſtanden
trauernd bey dem Grabe, they stood mourning near the
tomb.
Poets occasionally give a greater latitude to the verbal ca
pacity of the participle. Voss has it frequently in his trans
lation of Homer . For example :
Iliad , Book I.
V. 51. Doch nun gegen ſie ſelbſt das herbe Geſchoß hin
wendend,-Traf er - Turning the bitter arrows against
them, he inflicted wounds.
V. 130. Gegen ihn rief antwortend der Völkerfürſt Aga
memnon -- Agamemnon , ansiering, called to him.
V. 147. Ha ! du in Unverſchämtheit gehülleter, ſinnend
auf Vortheil - Ah ! thou , clad in impudence, thinking
of gain .
V. 290. Som in die Red ' einfallend begann der edle Achil
leus — Interrupting him , the noble Achilles began.
V. 345. Jener ſprachs, und Patroklus, dem lieben Freunde
gehorchend — He spoke it , and Patroclus, obeying his
dear friend.
Sect. 1 . Present Participle. 257
Book I X.
V. 57. Hoch das Wort anſtaunend - Greatly admiring the
speech.
V. 86. In den Händen die ragenden Speere bewegend
Brandishing in their hands the lofty spears.
V. 199. Beid ' an der Hand anfaſſend — Seizing them both
by the hand.
This construction is also elegantly employed in modern
prose. We may say : den Stab in der Hand haltend, hold
ing a staff in his hand ; das Buch mit den Fingern durchs
blätternd, turning the book over ; and Goethe has : Bis er
endlich im Schooße einer Roſe, Küſſe nehmend und Küſſe
gebend, erſtirbt.
It must, however, be observed , that in these examples, the
participle expresses more a manner of acting, than it aims at
forming a member of the sentence .
The most essential quality, which the present participle
retains of the verb, is, that it may govern a case . And this
is perfectly agreeable to the nature of the language, provided
the sentence is not clogged by long, or many , words of that
description . For instance : Die alles belebende Sonne, the
sun , which animates everything ; der Früchte bringende
Sommer, the summer which produces fruit ; die mir bes
vorſtehende Gefahr, the danger hanging over me ; das uns
verfolgende Geſchick, the fate persecuting us. Let it be no
ticed , that the cases governed are placed before the participle.
Sometimes the case and participle are drawn together and
written as one word ; for instance, Ein ehrliebendes Ges
müth, instead of ein Ehre liebendes Gemüth , a mind that
loves honor ; der wachhabende Officier, for der Wache has
bende Dfficier, the officer upon guard ; die geſebgebende
Gewalt, for die Geſeße gebende Gewalt, the legislative au
thority ; die kriegführenden Mächte, for Krieg führenden,
the belligerent powers.
22 *
From analogy to the foregoing, the participles of reflective

verbs might likewise be admitted ; as , der ſich freuende Vas
ter, the father who rejoices; die ſich grämende Mutter, the
mother who chagrins, or frets herself. Yet they are seldom
made use of. Of impersonal verbs, as such, no present par
ticiple can exist .
The Future Gerundive Participle.

To answer to the Latin participle in dus, which is of a ge
rundive signification, and in English expressed by the prete
rite participle, with to be before it, the Germans have formed
a similar future participle from the present , by means of the
preposition 31, to . This participle is formed from active
verbs only . For example , das hoch zu ſchätzende Verdienſt,
merit to be highly esteemed ; die zu tadelnde Strenge , se
verity which is to be blamed ; eine ſchwer zu behauptende
Beſitzung, a possession to be maintained with difficulty. It
is chiefly used in compound verbs. We may translate the
Latin mutatis mutandis, by Abzuänderndes abgeändert. Der
Auszuſöhnende, he who is to be reconciled. Thus, Hochzu
ehrender Herr, honorable sir ( who is greatly to be honored ).
This use of the participle springs from the infinitive, con
nected with the preposition zu . This infinitive, joined with
the verbs ſeyn and haben , forms a peculiar idiom in which
the idea of necessity or possibility is expressed in the man
ner of a gerund . Becker terms even this a participle with
out the usual termination d . It may, therefore, be suitable
to illustrate it in this connection . Examples : Er iſt nir
gends zu finden , he is nowhere to be found , cannot be
found ; Keine Zeit iſt zu verlieren, no time is to be lost ;
Dies iſt zu loben, this is to be praised ; das iſt zu
tadeln , that is to be blamed. This form of the verb after
habe is similar to the English expression , have to do ; as , Ich
habe hier zu walten , I have to rule here ; Laßt mich
Sect. 2. Preterite Participle. 259
wißen , was ich zu fürchten, was zu hoffen habe,

let me know what I have to fear, what to hope.
The present participle may, in English, be converted into
a substantive by a preceding article ; as , the writing , the
reading. This cannot be done in German, where the infini
tive only serves for that purpose ; as , das Schreiben , das
Lefen .
The Germans employ , in many instances, the infinitive,
where the English use the participle ; as , da er ſeine Jungen
ſchmachten ſah, when he saw his young ones starve, i. e.
starving.
SECTION II.
THE PRETERITE PARTICIPLE .
Its formation has been referred to in the fifth chapter. It

either ends in t ( et) , or n ( en ) ; and has, for the most part,
the augment ge before it ; as, gelobt, geſprochen . We must
now give the rules for the augment more fully. Its use de
pends on accent.
1. Polysyllabic verbs, not having the chief accent on the
first syllable, dispense with the augment ; viz.
( 1 ) Those which have the foreign accented ending iren ;
as, reg ire n, to govern ; haus iren, to peddle from house
to house ,
( 2 ) Those which already have this (unaccented ) augment;
as, gefallen, to please : gehören, to belong to.
(3 ) Those with the unaccented inseparable prefixes ; as,
bekommen , to obtain ; erfahren , to experience ; verderben,
to destroy; entgehen, to escape ; zerſtören , to disturb ; ums
armen , to embrace ; überſetzen , to translate ; vollenden , to
perfect; wiederholen , to repeat; mißfallen , to displease.
2. Verbs compounded with a separable preposition , or other

ACCENTED words, always receive the augment, though the
augment then comes between the component parts of the
verb ; as, ab-g e -gangen, vor-g e -tragen , zurück-g e - kommen .
But verbs thus compounded must be distinguished from
derivative verbs formed from compound substantives or ad
jectives; as, antworten, argwöhnen , frühſtücken , handhaben ,
liebkoſen , urtheilen, etc. derived from Antwort, Argwohn,
etc. In the participle of these, as well as other derivative
verbs, the augment is placed at the beginning of the word.
Inasmuch as the chief accent in offenbaren and will
fahren falls on the last component part of the verbs, they
take no augment.
The participles of the verbs dürfen , können, mögen , wollen ,
ſollen , müſſen and laſſen, have the augment, as gedurft, ge
konnt, etc. only when the principal verb is omitted, and the
emphasis consequently falls on these. In other cases the
participle of these verbs takes the form of the infinitive ; as ,
Ich habe gewollt, aber ich habe nicht gekonnt, I had
the will , but not the ability . Ich habe kommen wollen,
aber ich habe nicht kommen können , I desired to come,
but could not. Er hat warten müſſen , he was obliged to
wait.
So also the participle of the verbs , heißen ( to command),
helfen , hören, ſehen , lehren and lernen , when connected
with an infinitive, takes itself the form of the infinitive ; as,
Wer hat dich gehen heißen ? who commanded you to go ?
Ich habe ihm arbeiten helfen , I helped him work . Ich
habe ihn ſingen hören, I heard him sing. Er hat Dich
tanzen lehren, he taught you to dance.
Verbs compounded with an accented and yet inseparable
particle, do not fall within any rule ; as, m iß gedeutet,miß
geſchaffen , miß gebildet and miß geboren , where miß is in
separable and yet has the accent, and is treated as if it were
separable.
Sect. 2. Preterite Participle. 261
The function of the preterite participle is twofold ; first,

when combined with the auxiliary verbs, it makes some of the
compound tenses of conjugation ; and , secondly , as an adjec
tive , it is joined to substantives. In the latter capacity it is
more freely used by the Germans than by the English.
Many preterite participles , are no longer used as such , but
are used as adjectives exclusively, e. g. gelehrt, learned ;
erfahren, experienced ; verſchwiegen , secret ; geſchworen ,
sworn ; abgelebt, decrepid ; gewandt, skilful ; befannt,
known ; verdroſſen , reluctant. The following classes may
be specified :
1. Participles from reflective verbs.
Veſcheiden , modest ; betrunken, intoxicated ; beſonnen ,
discreet ; befliſſen , industrious ; betrübt, sad ; entſchloſ
ſen, decided ; ergeben, devoted ; vermeſſen , presump
tuous ; verlegen ; uneasy ; verſtellt, dissembling ; ver
ſchworen, engaged in a conspiracy ; which are from
ſich beſcheiden , etc.
2. Participles from verbs no longer in use.
Verſtohlen , clandestine ; verſeſſen , greedily desirous ;
angeſeſſen, settled as a resident ; verſchieden , different ;
verwegen, audacious ; gewogen, friendly, civil ; ver
ſchlagen , crafty.
3. Participles, not from verbs, but from nouns.
Getiegert, like a tiger ; geſtielt, having stems ; geſtiefelt,
having on boots ; geſtirnt, starry , starred ; gehörnt,
horned ; bejahrt, aged.
The participial adjective often has a form different from
that of the participle. Compare geſcheidt and geſchieden ,
beſcheiden and beſchieden , erhaben and erhoben, gediegen
and gediehen, gewandt and gewendet, beredt and beredet,
gewohnt and gewöhnt , verderbt and verdorben .
The nature of an adjective is further manifested in the de
grees of comparison of which this participle is susceptible ;
though the use of those degrees is limited , as has been stated

Part I. Chap. III. Sect. 5.
The preterite participle , in English , may be put together
with the present participle of an auxiliary verb ; as, " having
loved , being loved , having been loved : " the German language
does not license this connection , as has been observed in the
first section of the present chapter.
The signification of the preterite participle is either pas
sive, or denotes a certain state or quality. But some of these
participles, joined with the verb Rommen , and expressing
the manner of coming, or approaching, seem to have an ac
tive power : as, Er kömmt geritten, he comes ( lit. ridden )
riding, or on horseback , from reiten ; er fömmt gelaufen, he
comes running, from laufen ; er fömmt gefahren , he comes
driving, i . e. in a carriage , from fahren ; er fömmt geflogen,
he comes flying, i. e. upon wings, from fliegen. The pre
terite participle is also employed instead of the imperative.
We say : Umgefehrt ! turn about ; zugeritten ! ride on ; vors
getreten ! advance ; aufgeſthaut ! look up ; aufgethan ! open ;
wohl aufgemerkt ! attend, pay attention ; ausgetrunken !
let the glass be emptied.
The syllable un, being put before any participle, in Ger
man as in English reverses the signification, or makes it neg
ative. For instance ; ungeliebt , not loved ; ungeſtraft, un
punished ; ungerächt, unavenged .
r
Ch . 7. On the Adverb. 263
CHAPTER VII.
ON THE ADVERB .
FORMATION OF ADVERBS, AND THEIR CLASSES .*

Adverbs are formed from verbs, nouns, adjectives, pro
nouns and numerals.
A few are of unknown origin ; as, nun, now ; noch, still,
yet ; je, ever, at any time ; jeßt, now, at this time, ( in a strict
sense ); doch, however ; ja, yes ; and the negative ne which
appears only in composition , as in nie, i . e. ne je , never.
Most other adverbs can be traced with more or less dis
tinctness to their origin . They may be classed in regard to
derivation as follows :
1. Pronominal adverbs, formed from demonstrative and
interrogative pronouns ; as, da and dort, there, from the de
monstrative der, die, das ; hier, her, hin, here , hither , thither,
from a lost demonstrative, hir ( ? ) , equivalent to dieſer ; dann,
then, from the accusative den ; ſo, thus, from the pronoun
ro or ſa. To these demonstratives correspond the interroga
tives, from wer,was. Wo, where ; wann , when ; wie, how.
2. Nouns used adverbially.
( 1 ) In the genitive ; as, morgens, in the morning ; abends,
in the evening ; feineswegs, by no means ; flugs , quickly ;
theils, partly ; falls , in case that ; links, to the left ; rechts ,
to the right ; rings, in a circle ; anfangs, in the beginning ;
bereits, already ; ſtets , constantly ; beſonders , especially ;
vergebens, in vain , and many others .
The syllable en is often inserted for euphony ; as , vollends
( vollens ), perfectly ; höchſtens, at most ; nächſtens, imme
diately ; wenigſtens, at least ; erſtens, in the first place.
* From Becker with alterations.-- Ed.

264 On the Adverb. P. I.
(2 ) In the accusative ; as , allezeit, constantly ; alleweil,

now ; einmal, once ; manchmal, oftentimes ; weg, way , away,
etc.
3. By the terminations, lich ( ly ) , and lings, expressive of
manner, many adverbs are formed ; as, freilich, to be sure ;
wirklich, actually ; and rücklings, backwards ; blindlings,
blindly. In Old German o was an adverbial termination , re
mains of which are seen in jeßo, nunmehro, for jeßt and
nunmehr.
4. Adverbs formed by composition ; as, hervor, forth ;
hiernieden, here below , etc. There are several adverbs in
German ending in weiſe, which answer to the Latin adverbs
in tim ; as, gliederweiſe, by joints, by links (membratim ) ;
haufenweiſe, by heaps, in crowds ( acervatim ); herdenweiſe,
in flocks, by troops (gregatim ) ; ſchrittweiſe, step by step
(pedetentim ); ſtückweiſe, piecemeal ( frustatim ); ſtufenweiſe,
by steps, gradually (gradatim ); theilweiſe, by parts ( partim ) ;
tropfenweiſe, by drops (guttatim ); wogenweiſe, by waves
(undatim ). Whenever they are derived from adjectives, they
retain the genitive absolute in the feminine ; as, boshafters
weiſe, maliciously ; diebiſcherweiſe, thievishly ; glücklicher
weiſe, fortunately, etc.
5. Those formed by joining together an adverbial phrase
into one word ; as, beizeiten , betimes ; fürwahr, verily ; ins:
gemein, generally , etc.
Here belong the negative ne with je in nie, never ; with je
mebr in nimmer , never ; with ein in nein , no ; with irgend
in nirgend, nowhere ; with auch in noch , still, etc. So also
zwar, indeed , from ze Ware (old German ), in truth ; immer ,
ever , from iomer, old German for je mehr, evermore ; ſonſt,
otherwise, from ſo ne iſt, if it is not , otherwise.
Those adverbs which are derived from adjectives, nouns
and verbs, have an independent or absolute signification ;
pronominal adverbs, like the words from which they are de
rived, have no signification except as they relate to something
else .
Ch. 7. On the Adverb. 265
( a) Adverbs of an absolute sense.

These are divided according to their signification into :
1. Adverbs of place ; as, Oſtwärts, eastward ; weſtwärts,
westward ; bergauf, up hill .
2. Adverbs of time; as, morgens , in the morning; täg
lich, daily ; jährlich, yearly ; augenblicks, in a moment.
3. Adverbs of manner ; as, mündlich, orally ; ſchriftlich,
in writing ; weislich, wisely.
Adverbs of place and time belonging to this general divi
sion are very few , whereas those of manner are very nume
rous.
All adjectives except the few which cannot be used as
predicates* and all those participles which have become ad
jectives can be used as adverbs of manner. This, therefore,
is by far the most numerous class of adverbs ; and all the ad
verbs of manner except six or seven belong to this general
division.
Comparison of Adverbs.
All adverbs of manner which are absolute, and only those
are susceptible of the degrees of comparison ; as, Er ſpricht
laut , lauter , am lauteſten , he speaks loud, loud
er, loudest. Er iſt hoch , höher , höchſt geachtet, he
is highly , more highly , most highly respected.
There are two kinds of superlatives, one which is a strict
comparison of individuals, another which merely expresses a
very high degree of anything ; and these have different forms
in German .
1. A strict comparison is expressed by am with the dative
of the superlative ; as, Er grüßt am freundlich ſten,
( i. e. von Allen ) , he greeted the most cordially (of all ) . Uns
ter allen Völkerſchaften haben die Griechen den Traum des
* Such as, hieſig, jebig, etwaig. We can say, der hieſige

Wein, the wine of this place, but not der Wein iſt hieſig.
23
Lebens am ſchönſten getraümt, the Greeks have of all

people dreamed the dream of life the most beautifully.
2. A very high degree of anything is expressed absolutely
( 1 ) by a simple superlative without inflection ; as , Er grüßt
freundlich ſt , he greets most cordially, i . e. very cordially.
Innig ſt geliebt, most tenderly beloved ; höchſt nachah
mungswerth , most highly deserving imitation .
But in meiſtbietend , bidding highest ; beſtmöglich , best
possible ; and nächſtfolgend, the next following, this simple
form expresses a strict comparison. ( 2 ) By auf with the
accusative of the superlative ; as , Er grüßt aufs freund
lichſte, he greets most cordially. Ich bin aufs tödt:
lich ſte gekränkt, I am most mortally chagrined.
This last form is employed only in such expressions as the
above, where a person's mode of action is represented. We
cannot say , Die Roſe blühet aufs ſchönſte, the rose
blossoms most beautifully. Neither is the other form of the ab
solute superlative ( as, freundlichſt) very common . It is more
common to resort to such words as , ungemein , uncommonly ;
aüßerſt, extremely ; ſehr, very , etc. to express a very high
degree in an absolute way. Examples : Sie ſingt unges
mein ſchön , she sings uncommonly well . Der Wind
wehet außerordentlich heftig , the wind blows un
usually strong. ( 3 ) By the superlative termination ens ; as ,
Er empfiehlt ſich beſtens , he sends you his best compli
ments . Er dankt ſchönſtens, he thanks you most cor
dially. Neither is this form frequently used . In höchſtens,
längſtens, wenigſtens, and ſpäteſtens, it excludes any higher
degree, and is equivalent in sense to nicht höher , nicht län
ger, nicht weniger, and nicht ſpäter, at the highest, at the
longest, etc.
( b) Relative Adverbs
These are mostly pronominal and qualify verbs in a way
that is always relative. They may be divided into classes
as follows :
Ch. 7. On the Adverb . 267
1. Adverbs of place, and those which denote direction ;

as , hier, here ; da and dort, there ; her, hither ; hin , thither ;
wo, where ; daher, hence ; dahin, thither ; hierber and hiers
hin, hither , this way ; woher, whence; wohin, whither ;
außen, without ; innen, within ; oben, above ; unten, below ;
nieder, down ; hinten, behind ; vorn, before ; fort, onward ;
weg, away ; zurück, back ; rechts , to the right ; links, to the
left ; ſeitwärts , sidewise , vorwärts, forward ; rückwärts,
backward ; rings, around ; irgend, somewhere; überall and
allenthalben, everywhere ; beiſammen and zuſammen , to
gether ; droben, up there, above ; drüben, the other side ; hits
ben , on this side ; drauzen , out there ; hiernieden , down here ;
diesſeits , this side ; jenſeits, that side.
2. Adverbs of time; as, dann and alsdann, then ; wann,
when ; vorher, formerly ; nachber, hereafter ; bisher, hither
to ; forthin , afterwards, in future ; damals, at that time ;
unterdeſſen, in the mean time ; jeßt, now ; heute ( hodie ),
to -day ; heuer, this year ; einſt, once, formerly ; erſt, first,
not till ; erſtens, in the first place ; zweitens, secondly ; je
and jemals, ever , at any time ; nie and niemals, never ; im
mer , ever ; nimmer, never , (mostly of the future) ; zuerſt, at
first; allezeit, always; morgen, to -morrow ; übermorgen,
day after to-morrow ; geſtern , yesterday ; vorgeſtern, day be
fore yesterday ; ſonſt, formerly ; nun , now (in a wide sense) ;
nody, still ; bald, soon ; eher (ere ) , before ; eheſtens, at the
earliest ; bereits, already (only of what is past ); ſchon, al
ready ( which may be transferred to the future ); eben , just
now ; ſogleich and zugleidy, on the spot, instantly ; nächſtens,
immediately ; zuweilen and bisweilen, at times ; meiſtens,
for the most time ; fortan , then , in the next place ; neulich,
recently ; jüngſt, a short time since ; ſtets, constantly ; oft,
often ; ſelten , rarely, etc.
3. Adverbs of manner ; as, ſo and alſo , thus ; als, as (ex
pression of degree) ; wie, as (ofmanner ) ; anders, otherwise ;
umſonſt, in vain ; gerade ( ſo ) and eben ( ſo ), exactly so .
4. Adverbs denoting frequency ; as, einmal, once ; zweis

mal, twice ; manchmal, several times; allemal, every time ;
and ſelten , rarely ; oft, often ; wieder , again ; abermal, a se
cond time ; insgemein , commonly .
5. Adverbs denoting intensity ; as, ſo , wie, als ( ſo wie
hier, so as it is here. So groß als Du, as large as you ) ;
ſehr, very , gar and ſogar, even , very ; beinahe and faſt, nearly,
almost ; nur, merely , only ; kaum , scarce ; zu, too ; theils ,
partly ; einigermaßen , in some measure ; dermaßen, in such
a degree ; gänzlich , entirely ; böchſt, in the highest degree ;
mindeſt, least ; weit, far ; bei weitem , by far.
6. Adverbs expressing reality and its opposite , possibility ,
and necessity ; as, ja, indeed ; doch , still ; wahrlich , truly ;
fürwahr, verily ; gewiß, certainly ; wirklich, actually ; zwar,
indeed ; freilich, to be sure ;—nein , no ; nicht, not ; keines
wegs , by no means ; weder - noch , neither — nor; etwa,
somehow , perhaps, ( used in a very slight and delicate sense,
like the Greek ti when used adverbially ); wol (or wohl),
probably ( in slight sense) ; vielleicht ( from viel and leicht,
very easy ) perhaps; wahrſcheinlich , probably ; gern, gladly ;
-allerdings, to be sure, by all means ; ſchlechterdings, di
rectly, simply , to be sure ; durchaus, altogether, certainly.
To this general division may be reckoned adverbs express
ing the relations of number and degree ; as, allein , alone ;
ungefähr, about, nearly ; beilaüfig, about, in round numbers ;
-and überhaupt, throughout, universally ; beſonders and
insbeſondere, particularly ; vorzüglich, especially.
Of this whole class of relative adverbs, only oft, felten ,
bald and gern, are susceptible of the degrees of comparison .
Bald and gern have an irregular comparison ; as , bald, eher ,
am eheſten , or eheſtens ; gern , lieber, am liebſten .
Signification of certain Relative Adverbs.

Da, there, as an adverb of place is correlate to hier, here.
It often is an adverb of time, and expresses by implication
Ch. 7 . On the Adverb . 269
ground or cause in a relative way ; as, Da noch Alles lag

in weiter Ferne, da hatteſt Du Entſchluß und Muth, while
yet all lay in the distance , then you manifested decision and
courage ; und jeßt, da der Erfolg geſichert iſt, da fängſt
Du an zu zagen, and now, when the result is secured, at this
time you begin to falter. Da Du es ſo wünſcht, will ich
mich bemuhen , as ( since) you so desire, I will endeavor to
do it. Here it partakes of the nature of a conjunction .
Als and wie, as, closely resemble each other. But als ex
presses resemblance in degree ; wie, likeness in manner .
Hence the former is more used after comparatives ; as, Tus
gend iſt beſſer als Gold (not beſſer wie Gold ; poetically
it might be, beſſer denn Gold ), virtue is better than gold.
Karl iſt ſo fleißig wie (not als ) Heinrich, Charles is as in
dustrious as Henry. Als expresses identity in such phrases
as, ich als Vater , I as father ; wie would only express like
ness . Hence wie only can be used in such expressions as,
ſo, wie er ſpricht, and die Weiſe wie er ſpricht, so as, the
manner in which he speaks.
Sonſt, another time, place or way, implies contrast. As
an adverb of time, it signifies another time, and especially
the past as contrasted with the present. Examples : Wie
war die Aufnahme ſonſt ? How was the reception in other
respects ? War der Mann nur ſonſten brav und tüchtig,
ich pflegte eben nicht nach ſeinem Stambaum viel zu fragen ,
if the man were otherwise but noble and energetic, I used to
make little inquiry respecting his lineage. Es iſt nicht Alles
mehr, wie ſonſt, everything is (now ) different from what it
was formerly. Ich war ſonſt nicht unzufrieden, I was for
merly (before this ) not dissatisfied .
Kürzlich, jüngſt, neulich , all express past time near to the
present, a short time since, lately, recently. Kürzlich denotes
time nearest to the present ; jüngſt, the next nearest ; and
neulich, the most remote of the three.
23*
270 On the Adverb . P. I. Ch . 7 .
Eben, even , signifies coincidence, or agreement of time, of

manner, and of intensity. It represents past time as border
ing directly on the present, just now . Examples : Wir wol
ten es eben genießen , als uns ſie wieder begegneten , we
were intending just then to enjoy it, as they met us again.
Mach ' es eben ſo, wie ich), do it exactly as I do. Jene
könnten eben ſo unſchuldig ſein , those might be just as in
nocent. Ein Nachen fährt ſo eben drunter, a boat sails
directly under it. Ich hab ' ſie ſo eben im Glücksrad ges
wonnen, I have this very instant won it in the wheel of for
tune . It gives emphasis to a declaration ; as, Der alte Re:
ſpect war e ben fort, the respect of former times had quite
passed away . Das kann ich eben nicht ſagen , I cannot say
so much as that — exactly that.
Erſt, when it signifies first, is always emphatic ; as, Erſt
handeln, und dann reden , first act , then speak . When it
contrasts a future with a former time, or a less with a higher
degree, it is without the emphasis, and means not till, not
more ; as, Ich kam ſeit wenig Monaten erſt ( nicht früher .)
in dieſes Amt, I did not come into this office till a few
months ago . Erſt jetzt begrüß' ich Euch als König, not till
now — now for the first time, do I salute you as king. Er
iſt erſt zehn Jahre alt, he is only (not more than ) ten years
old . Wir ſind erſt an dem Fuße des Berges, we are only
at the foot of the mountain - no more, not farther.
Schon, already, denotes not only past time in distinction
from the future, but a larger number in distinction from a
smaller ; as, Schon in den ſechsten Mond liegt er im
Thurm, already the sixth month ( i. e. not less than that
time) he lies in the tower. Es wanken ſchon ganze Regi
menter, already whole regiments (nothing less than whole
regiments) are giving way. It sometimes expresses mere
certainty ; as, Du wirſt mich ſchon verſtehen , you will cer
tainly ( already ) understand me. Es wird ſchon gut gehen ,
Sect. 1 . On the Preposition. 271
it will certainly go well. Wir wollen ihn ſchon friegen, we

will surely attack him.
Jeßt simply denotes the present time; nun denotes also
past or future time conceived as present. Nun , like our
word now , expresses also a logical conclusion ; as, Nun mir
iſt Alles lieb , geſchieht nur Etwas , now I am satisfied with
everything, if something may but come to pass.
Wol, or wohl, sometimes strongly affirms; as, ja wol,
yes, indeed . Wol iſt er Reiner von den weichen Thoren,
die eine fälſche Weiberthräne ſchmelzt, surely he is not one
of those soft pates, whom woman's false tears can melt.
Oftener it signifies mere probability, and accompanies a
conjectural declaration ; as, Mich wird er wol in Frieden
laſſen , he will , I doubt not, leave me in peace.
CHAPTER VIII.
ON THE PREPOSITION .
CONTAINING
1. General View .
2. The Prepositions with the Dative Case.
3. Those with the Accusative.
4. With the Dative and Accusative.
5. With the Genitive.
SECTION 1.
GENERAL VIEW.
Prepositions express relations of space and direction .
They are either compounded with verbs or they govern
substantives.
272 On the Preposition . P. I. Ch. 8.
In composition with verbs they denote the direction of an

action.
Remark. In such compositions ab is always used for von,
and ein for in ; as, abgehen, to go away ; eingehen, to go in.
In is so used only a ew nouns ; as , Inhalt, contents ; In
begriff, summary . Some separable prepositions, like the in
separable prefixes, have received other significations than
those which relate to space.
Auf, denotes opening ; as in aufthun , to open ; aufbrechen ,

to break open ; aufſchneiden , to cut open .
Aus, cessation , completion ; as , ausreden, to finish speaking;
ausſchlafen , to sleep out ; ausruhen , to recover from
fatigue.
Nach , imitation ; as, nachmachen and nachahmen , to copy,
to imitate : nachſingen, to follow in singing.
Um, a change ; as, umkleiden, to change one's dress ; um
ſeßen , to exchange ; umſchaffen, to alter.
Zu, closing ; as, zumachen, to close ; zuheilen, to heal up ;
zufrieren, to freeze up.
In connection with substantives original prepositions ex
press in general the idea , Whither ? with the accusative ;
and Where ? and Whence ? with the dative. The genitive
is governed only by other parts of speech used as prepositions
-mostly by nouns and adverbs. All the substantive prepo
sitions* and während, ungeachtet, unweit and vermittelſt,
govern the genitive. The adverbial prepositions,t except the
* Statt ( anſtatt ) , halben , and its compounds, diesſeits,

jenſeits, fraft, laut, vermöge, längs, troß, wegen , um-wil
len , zufolge. Trotz, längs and zufolge, govern the dative also.
† Binnen , neben , nebſt , ſammt, entlang, nächſt, zwiſchen ,
unweit, vermittelſt (mittelſt ), ſeit, gemäß, ſonder, ohne, bis ;
to which may be added the compounds, zuwider and gegenü
ber , and the participles, während and ungeachtet. Neben and
zwiſchen, govern the accusative or dative ; and entlang, the
genitive or dative.
Sect. 1 . General View . 273
four last mentioned and ſonder, ohne and bis, (these three
require the accusative ) generally govern the dative. This
whole class of substantive and adverbial prepositions, denotes
place simply , never direction or motive in a proper sense.
The original prepositions are used thus : with the
Dative . Accusative. Dat. or Acc.
aus , out of, zu , to, auf, upon ,
außer, outside of, durch , through , hinter, behind,
bei, close by, für, for, in, in ,
mit, with , gegen (gen ),towards, über, the other side,
nach, after, um , about, unter, among ,
ob, over , wider, against, vo r , before.
von, of, an , on ,
Remark. Only nach and zit, signifying motion to a place

take the dative, where the general principle would require
the accusative.
Comparison of some of the prepositions with one another.
Unter, under, is opposed to über, over ; ob, above ; and
auf, upon . Unter, among, and über, the other side, do not
here come into the account. In, in , is opposed to aus and
außer, out of. Vor, before, and hinter, behind, are opposed
to each other. Durch, through, expresses an interior direc
tion ; um, about, an exterior. Bei, near to, and mit, with,
denote rest in a place merely ; an, on , to, denotes both mo
tion and rest. Von and ab, from , and zu and nach, to and
towards, are opposed to each other ; as also gegen and wider,
against , and für, for. The following also are contrasted ,
mit and ohne, with and without ; oberhalb and unterhalb,
above and below ; innerhalb and außerhalb , within and with
out ; ſammt and ſonder, together and apart.
274 On the Preposition . P. I. Ch . 8.
SECTION II.
PREPOSITIONS WITH THE DATIVE CASE .
Aus , out of.

Außer - 1. Out of, on the outside of ; as, Außer dem
Hauſe, out of the house. 2. Out of, not within, passing the
bounds of, in a state of deviation from ; as, außer Ordnung,
out of order ; außer Stande, out of condition ; ich war außer
mir , I was beside myself, I was deprived of the use of my
senses . 3. Exclusive of, besides ; as, außer den Bürgern
von London kamen auch viele Fremde, besides the citizens
of London , many strangers also came.
Bei, near , in the most general sense denotes, 1. Proximity,
by the side of, by ; the Latin jurta ; as, er ſteht bey dem
Könige, he stands by or near the king. 2. With , in company
of; in French , chez, auprès de ; as, der Arzt iſt bei ihm geweſen ,
the physician has been with him . 3. At , present at , with , de
noting co - existence of time ; as, bei der Schöpfung, at the
creation ; bei dem Gedanken , at the thought; bei allen dem
blieb er unentſchloſſen , with all that he remained irresolute.
4. It serves for quotation ; in Latin apud, the French chez ;
as, bei dem Plato, in Plato ; beim Cicero , in Cicero. 5.
For a solemn asseveration , by, upon ; as, bei Jupiter, by
Jove ; bei meiner Ehre, upon my honor.
But Bei never can be used to express a locomotion , as it
never is construed with the accusative. In that case we
have zu with the dative, or neben with the accusative : er
trat zu mir, he came up to me , und ſetzte ſich neben mich,
and sat down near me.
By, in English, frequently expresses the agent, cause, or
instrument ; but the German bei never does.
Binnen , within ; but only in reference to time ; as, binnen
acht Tagen, within eight days ; binnen dieſer Friſt, within
this term .
Sect. 2. Prepositions with the Dative. 275
Entgegen - 1. Towards, so as to meet ; united with verbs

of motion ; as, Wir wollen unſerm Freunde entgegen gehen,
we will go to meet our friend ; der Knabe läuft ſeinem Va
ter entgegen, the boy runs to meet his father. 2. Against,
opposed to, contrary to ; as, das Heer ſteht ihm . entgegen ,
the army stands against him ; dies war ſeiner Meinung ent
gegen, this was against his opinion . It stands after its case.
Gegenüber, over against, opposite to ; as, dem Hauſe ge
genüber, opposite the house ; Er ſtellte ſich mir gegenüber,
he placed himself opposite to me. It is never divided, and
stands after the case .
längs, along, is more specific than an , on ; as, längs dem
Fluſſe, along the river. Sometimes with the genitive ; as,
noch ſo viele längs ſeines Zuges durch Deutſchland zurück
gelaſſene Beſaßungen, hatten ſein Heer nicht vermindert,
even the many garrisons he left behind him , along his route
through Germany , had not diminished his army.
Inner, the same as in , in the interior ; inner dem Hauſe,
is not common ; but innerhalb with the genitive is more gene
rally employed ; as, innerhalb des Hauſes , in the inner part
of the house.
Mit, with, in company with , in conjunction with.
Nach - 1. After, posterior in time, behind. 2. To, in a
direction to, towards ; with names of places and verbs of mo
tion , but not with names of persons ; as , dieſer Mann reiſt
nach Deutſchland, this man travels to Germany ; wenn gehen
Sie nach der Stadt, when do you go to town ; laſſen Sie
uns nach Hauſe gehen, let us go home. When it is con
nected with zu, it denotes direction simply, and zu points out
the object ; as , Der Haſe lief nach der Stadt zu, the hare
ran towards the city. Hin strengthens the expression ; as,
Es donnert nach dem Gebirge hin , it thunders away to
wards mountains. - 3. It denotes what may be called con
comitant direction , in certain phrases ; as , der Naſe nach ,
following your nose , straight forward ; dem Strome nach,
276 On the Preposition. P. I. Ch. 8.
following the stream ; dem Striche nach, following the grain .

And in these instances, it stands after the case it governs.
4. According to ; as, nach der Beſchreibung des Livius, ac
cording to the account of Livy. In the signification last
mentioned , it may be put after its case when no other word
is governed by , and follows after, that case ; as, der Veſchrei
bung nach, according to the description ; ſeiner Geburt nach,
according to his birth ; ſeiner Herkunft nach, according to
his origin , by origin ; meiner Meinung nach , according to,
or in my opinion ; dem Anſehen nach, according to appear
ance. But if the substantive were to have another substan
tive after it, which it governs, the preposition must stand be
fore its case ; as, nach der Beſchreibung des Livius.
Nächſt, the superlative of Nabe, near , and zunächſt, de
note a very near approach, and also a proximity of rank : Er
faß nächſt ihr, or ihr zunächſt, for zunächſt may stand before
or after its case . Nächſt Ihnen iſt er mir der Liebſte.
Nebſt, together with , is equivalent to and in sense, or im
plies a conjunction only in the speaker's thoughts, not neces
sarily in reality as is the case with mit and ſammt; mein
Bruder trat nebſt einem Fremden herein, my brother enter
ed , together with a stranger, i. e. both he and a stranger en
tered , but not necessarily at the same time.
Ob, over , on, at, during, on account of. It is not much
in use .
Es ſtußt ob ſolchem Getöſe das Wild, und eilet von dannen .

Kleiſt, Frühling, p. 28 .
Sammt, together with, denotes actual conjunction ; hence
it is often joined to mit ; as, das Schiff mit ſammt
dem Steuermann, the ship together with the helmsman. Al
most obsolete.
Seit, since. Seitdem, since that time, is used as a con
junction or an adverb.
Von denotes, 1. Of. 2. From. With an following, it
Sect. 2. Prepositions with the Dative. 277
marks extent of time ; as, Von der erſten Kindheit an, from
the first infancy. 3. An agent ; Eng. by ; Lat. a, ab ; as,
das Haus iſt von dem Könige erbaut, the house was built
by the king ; das Buch iſt von ihm geſchrieben, that book
was written by him.
31—1. To ; as, Komm zu mir, come to me. It is used with
reference to persons as nach is with reference to places in the
sense of to and towards. 2. At , of place ; as, zu Windſor,
at Windsor ; zu Hauſe, at home ; zu Waſſer, by water, at
sea ; zur See, at sea ; z1 lande , on land ; of time ; as , zu
jener Zeit, at that time ; of proportion ; as, die Guinee zu
ein und zwanzig Schillingen , the guinea at twenty -one shi]
lings ; das Pfund zu ſechzehn Unzen geredynet, the pound
reckoned at sixteen ounces. 3. On ; as, zu Pferde, on
horseback ; zu Fuße, on foot. 4. It denotes the transition ,
or transformation to a certain state ; as, zum Könige wählen,
to elect a person king ; zum Thoren machen , to make a fool
of a person ; zum Narren gemadyt werden, to be made a fool
of. In English , the preposition to forms the dative ; in Ger
man , as that case is distinguished by the article, and fre
quently also by the termination of the substantive, zu must
not be employed , except where motion , place, or direction ,
are to be expressed. Zu is, in certain circumstances, like
the English to, the sign of the infinitive mood . It is used as
an adverb ; as, Geh zu, go on ; fahre zu, drive on ; zu viel,
too much.
Zufolge, in consequence of, according to ; is always put
after the dative ; it is sometimes, but rarely, joined to a geni
tive case, which it precedes ; as, zufolge Ihres Befehles, in
consequence of your order.
Zuwider, against, in opposition to . After the case.
The following prepositions, Außerhalb , without; inners
halb, within ; oberhalb, above ; unterhalb, below ; unges
achtet, notwithstanding — sometimes take the dative case ,
but most commonly the genitive.
24
278 On the Preposition . P. I. Ch. 8 .
SECTION III.
PREPOSITIONS WITH THE ACCUSATIVE .
Durch - 1. Through . 2. By, noting an instrument, or

means ; as, durch einen Piſtolenſchuß getödtet, killed by a
pistol shot ; durch Sturm erobert, taken by storm . 3. It
notes duration , when it is put after ; as , die ganze Nacht
durch), all the night through ; das ganze Jahr durch, all the
year through. In this sense , hindurch , which is an adverb ,
is also frequently used, die ganze Nacht hindurch , etc.
Für, for
Gegen - 1. Towards ; expressing direction and tendency,
in an indifferent sense, friendly or hostile ; and thereby dif
fers from wider , against. The connection only can show in
which sense it is to be taken . Gegen also implies exchange ;
as , Gegen einen Schein Geld empfangen, to receive money
in exchange for a receipt ;-comparison ; Gegen Dich ein
Rieſe, a giant compared with you. Formerly it was used
with the dative where gegenüber is now used ; as, Er ſaß
gegen der Thur des Hauſes, he sat over against the door
of the house. Gen is an ancient abbreviation of gegen, not in
use at present, except in a few phrases; as, gen Himmel, to,
or towards, heaven.
Ohne, without, not with ; Fr. sans .
Sonder, the same in signification, as the former, but not
much used. It can only be put when the substantive has no
article : ſonder Geiſt, without spirit ; ſonder Zweifel, with
out doubt.
Um-1 . Around, about; as, um den Tiſch Fiben , to sit
about the table ; um die Stadt gehen, to go around the town ,
that is to say, round the circumference of the town. 2. It sig
nifies succession , change , vicissitude; as, Einen Tag um den
andern, every other day. 3. A loss ; as, um etwas kommen,
to lose a thing ; es iſt um ihn geſchehen , it is over with him ,
Sect. 4. Prepositions with the Dat. and Accusative. 279
he is lost ; der Menſch hat mich um mein Geld betrogen, the

man has cheated me out of my money. 4. It marks an ob
ject ; as, um Geld ſpielen, to play for money ; um den Sieg
fechten , to fight for the victory. 5. A comparison ; as, um
zwey Drittel reicher, more rich by two thirds ; um zehn Jahre
jünger, younger by ten years. 6. It expresses a reference,
with respect to, so far as relates to ; for example, Es iſt eine
ungewiſſe Sache um den Krieg, as for war , it is an uncertain
thing ; wie ſteht es um Ihre Geſundheit ? how is it with
respect to your health ? Um sometimes precedes the prepo
sition zu, before the infinitive, and indicates purpose and de
sign ; as, um zu ſchreiben , for the purpose of writing. As
an adverb , um denotes a circuit ; as, dieſer Weg iſt um , this
way is about ; and conclusion ; as, das Jahr iſt um , the
year is broughtto a conclusion , has passed through its circle.
Uin und um, means, on all sides.
Wider, against , in opposition to . It must not be confound
ed with the adverb Wieder, again. Thus we say, der Wind
iſt wieder wider uns, the wind is again against us ; we have
again a contrary wind.
SECTION IV.
PREPOSITIONS WITH THE DATIVE AND ACCUSATIVE CASES.
These prepositions depend , for the most part, upon the

notion of locality, with which they are connected , to deter
mine the case they are to govern. If a state of rest, or per
manent locality, is understood, the dative case is required to
be joined with them ; and the accusative should be made use
of, when motion to a place is signified. A few examples will
show this. An, means, on , near to, against. Der Tiſch
ſteht an der Wand, the table stands near, or against the wall.
Here the preposition governs the dative ; for a state of rest,

or permanent locality, is intimated . In the following : Sebe
den Tiſch an die Wand, put the table against the wall; a
motion to the place is implied ; the preposition is therefore
united with the accusative. Thus with auf, upon : das
Buch liegt auf dem Tiſche, the book lies upon the table ; da
tive case, Legen Sie das Buch auf den Tiſdy, lay the book
upon the table ; accusative, the book is to be moved to some
place. Er ſteht hinter mir, he stands behind me ; dative.
Kommen Sie hinter mich , come behind me ; accusative.
Er ſaß zwiſchen dem Bruder und der Schweſter, he sat be
tween the brother and the sister ; dative. Er trat zwiſchen
den Bruder und die Schweſter, he stept between the brother
and the sister ; accusative. Hence in, with the dative case,
signifies in ; and with the accusative, into. When that idea
is not precisely determined, an uncertainty likewise arises in
the use of the cases . For example : ein Haus auf dem
Berge bauen , to build a house upon the mountain ; auf , with
the dative ; and, ein Haus auf den Berg bauen ; auf , with
the accusative. If the notion prevails, that the operation of
building is carrying on , in such a place, the dative case is
proper. But if motion be imagined, by which , through the
process of building, a house is, as it were, conveyed upon the
mountain , then the accusative may be admitted. Das Heer
lagert ſich auf dem Berge, the army encamps upon the
mountain. Here is the dative case. But the accusative may
stand, if, in idea of motion towards the mountain precedes
the act of encamping : das Heer lagert ſich auf den Berg.
Sometimes those two cases involve a difference of significa
tion. For, der Knabe läuft in dem Garten ( in with the da
tive ) , and der Knabe läuft in den Garten ( accusative ) , great
ly differ in meaning. The former expresses, the boy runs,
or takes the exercise of running, in the garden ; and the lat
ter , he runs into the garden. Er reitet auf dem Berge ( da
tive ) , he rides, takes the exercise of riding, upon the moun
Sect. 4. Prepositions with the Dat. and Accusative. 281
tain ; and er reitet auf den Berg ( accusative) , he rides to

the top of the mountain.
An implies a closer contact than bei. With the Dative,
it denotes- 1 . Locality, at, on , near, in ; as, an einem Drte
wohnen , to live at a place ; an dem Ufer eines Fluſſes, on
the bank of a river ; an der Thür, at the door ; also, upon
the door ; an meiner Stelle, in my place. Es liegt bloß an
Ihnen, it only rests with you . So viel an mir iſt, as far as
it is in my power. Hence it indicates office ; as, Er ſteht an
der Schule, an der Kirche, he is a teacher, preacher ; suc
cession, turn, as , Es iſt jeßt an mir, und nicht an ihm, it is
now my turn , not his ;-round numbers, as, an tauſend, about
a thousand. 2. The object of an action, in , at ; as, die Vers
dienſte des Vaters an dem Kinde belohnen, to reward the
merits of the father in the child ; mein Freund arbeitet an
einem Buche, my friend works at , or is engaged in , a book .
3. A cause, by, of ; as, der junge Menſch iſt an einer Auss
zehrung geſtorben , that young man died of a consumption.
4. A state, condition , manner, in , by ; as, reich an Freuns
den, rich in friends ; groß an Nuhme, great in fame ; ſchwach
an Verſtande , weak in understanding ; man kennt den Vos
gel an den Federn und das Silber an dein Klange, the bird
is known by its plumage, and the silver by its sound. To
this signification, the adverbial form of the superlative degree
may be referred ; as, am ſchönſten, in the handsomest man
ner ; am beſten, in the best manner. And the expression,
am Leben, living, alive ; as, er iſt noch am Leben, he is still
alive. 5. Time, in, at, on ; as, am Anfange, at the begin
ning ; am dritten Lage, on the third day. 6. When com
bined with von , it signifies extent of time ; as, Von dieſem
Tage an , from this day forth .
An , with the Accusative, expresses -- 1. Direction , to ; as,
an einen Freund ſchrieben, to write to a friend ; ich werde
das Buch an meinen Bruder ſchicken , I shall send the book
24 *
n
282 On the Prepositio . P. I. Ch. 8 .
to my brother. 2. An object ; as, an eine Sache glauben,

to believe in a thing ; an etwas denken, to think of, to re
member, a thing. 3. Extent of space, and time, when con
nected with bis : for example, bis an die See, as far as the
sea ; bis an den Abend, to, or until , this evening.
Auf, upon, with the Dative, denotes - 1. The locality of
a higher place, upon , on , in ; as , auf dem Thurme, upon the
tower ; auf dem Berge, upon the mountain ; auf dem Dache,
upon the roof ; auf dem Schloſſe, on , or in , the castle. 2. It
signifies locality, in general; for example, auf dem Dorfe
ſeyn, to be in the village ; auf dem Lande wohnen, to live in
the country ; auf der Jagd, at the chase ; auf dem Balle,
at the ball ; auf der Poſt, at the post-office ; auf der Gaſſe ,
in the lane ; auf der Straſſe, in the street ; auf dem Hofe,
in the yard ; but am Hofe, contracted for an dem Hofe, al
ways means, " at Court;" auf der Univerſität, or plur. Uni
verſitäten, at the University ; auf der Schule, or plur. auf
Schulen , at school; auf der Reiſe, on the journey, or plur.
auf Reiſen , on one's travels.
Auf, with the Accusative, has the two foregoing significa
tions, attended with the question whereto ? and therefore de
notes - 1. Direction to a higher place ; as, auf den Thurm
ſteigen, to mount upon the tower, etc. 2. Local direction
in general; as, auf das land reiſen , to travel, or to go, into
the country ; auf die Gaſſe laufen , to run into the street.
When zu follows the direction is rendered more explicit, or
prominent; as, Er ging auf den Baum zu , he went directly
towards the tree. 3. It denotes an object; and may be ya
riously rendered, in English. For instance, auf eine Sache
denken , to think of a thing ; aufmerkſam auf etwas ſeyn, to
attend to a thing ; auf jemanden zürnen, to be incensed
against somebody ; auf einen Freund warten , to wait for a
friend. 4. It denotes proportion ; as, ſo viel auf den Mann,
so much per man . 5. Extent , when preceded by bis ; as,
bis auf den leßten Pfennig, up to the last farthing ; bis auf
. Sect. 4. Prepositions with the Dat. and Accusative. 283
den leßten Blutstropfen, to the last drop of blood ; bis auf

vier Thaler, up to four dollars. 6. It signifies a way and
manner ; as, auf Deutſche Art, in the German way ; auf
Engliſchen Fuß, in the English manner. Thus, auf Deutſch ,
in German ; auf Franzöſiſch , in French ; auf Engliſch , in
English—applied to the languages. To this may be added
the expressions, with the superlative degree of adjectives; as,
auf das Beſte, or aufs Beſte, in the best manner, aufs Vors
treffliciſte, in the most excellent manner. Likewise the fol
lowing ; auf Angriff, upon attack, or upon the offensive ;
auf den Hieb, literally, upon the cut, as with the broad-sword ;
auf den Stoß, or auf den Stich, upon the thrust, or point,
as with the small-sword. 7. It means in consequence of,
pursuant to ; as, auf Befehl, in consequence of an order,
pursuant to an order. 8. It denotes future time ; as, auf
den Montag, on Monday, or next Monday. 9. Duration of
time ; as , Vorrath auf viele Jahre, store for many years ;
auf zwey Monate, for two months ; auf kurze Zeit, for a
short time. Auf einmal, at once. Auf, as an adverb, an
swers to the English up ; as, Steh auf, get up. It is put
before the conjunction daß , to signify purpose, or design ; as,
auf daß, in order that, for the purpose that. It is used as an
interjection, to animate and encourage ; as, auf ! folget mir,
come, follow me ; auf ! auf ! up ! up ! auf denn ! up then !
Hinter, behind, governs, like the other prepositions, the
Dative case, with the question where ? and the Accusative,
with the question whereto ? When connected with the par
ticle her - hinter-her, behind , after, following — it only admits
the dative. For example; ich ging hinter dem Manne her,
I walked after the man , I followed him ; er kommt hinter mir
her, he comes after me .
In, with the Dative, in.
In, with the Accusative — 1 . Into. 2. With bis, it marks
extent of space, or time ; as, bis in das Zimmer, as far as
284 On the Preposition. P. I. Ch. 8..
the chamber ; bis in die Nacht, till night ; bis in Ewigkeit,

to eternity.
Neben , beside, at the side of; Lat juxta.
Ueber, with the Dative - 1. Over , above ; with respect to
place. 2. Above ; with respect to excellence, or rank. 3.
During ; with respect to time, or occupation ; as, über der
Arbeit, while at work ; über dem Leſen , while reading ; über
Tiſche, at dinner, while at table.
Ueber, with the Accusative — 1 . Over, implying motion ,
extending over , spreading over. 2. Above, beyond, signify
ing excess ; as, über meine Kräfte, beyond my strength ; über
vierzig Jahre, above forty years. 3. With the adverb bis,
it expresses extent ; as, bis über die Dhren, over the ears.
4. It denotes a cause, about, on account of; as , ſich über
eine Sache ärgern , to be vexed on account of a certain thing ;
ſich über etwas grämen, to grieve about something. 5. It
marks an object, upon , concerning ; as , über einen gewiſſen
Gegenſtand ſprechen , ſchreiben , to speak, or write , upon a
certain subject ; über die Tugend, upon virtue ; über das
faſter, upon vice. 6. It signifies future time ; as, Heute
über acht Tage, this day se'nnight, or in a se'nnight from
hence ; über das Jahr, or übers Jahr, next year ; über
Nacht, to -night; über lang oder kurz, literally, over long or
short, that means, some time or other. But it expresses con
tinuance of time, or duration , when it is put after the case ;
as, den Sommer über, during the summer ; das Jahr über,
during the year, or the year through ; den Tag über, during
the day.
Unter, with the Dative, and Accusative - 1. Under , be
neath. 2. Among. 3. With the Dative, it has the power
of denoting time, in , under , during ;, as, unter der Regierung
Georg des Dritten, in the reign of George the Third ; unter
dem Eſſen , during dinner, while at dinner ; unter dem Leſen ,
while reading. In this sense, it seems to have formerly gov
erned the genitive case ; for we still say, unter Weges, on
Sect. 5. Prepositions with the Genitive. 285
the way. But this is now spelt unterwegs, unterweges, and

considered as an adverb, like unterdeß, or unterdeſſen , in
the mean time.
Vor, before, with the Dative, and Accusative. - With the
Dative, it sometimes involves a cause ; as , vor dem Feinde
fliehen , to fly from the enemy ; * vor dem Tode erſchrecken ,
to be frightened at death ; vor Freude weinen , to weep for
joy ; vor fachen zerplasen, to burst with laughing ; vor
Gram ſterben , to die with grief. With the same case it also
denotes time past, signifying ago ; as, vor drey Jahren, three
years ago.
Zwiſchen , between. It is sometimes, but improperly, used
instead of unter, among .
SECTION V.
PREPOSITIONS WITH THE GENITIVE CASE.

Anſtatt, o» ſtatt, instead of; more definite than für. Die
Statt, denotes a place, and is the same as the English stead ;
anſtatt, therefore, means literally, in the place of, like the
English instead. Sometimes it is separated ; as, an des
Bruders Statt, instead of the brother ; where it resumes the
nature of a substantive. Thus in English , in his stead, for,
instead of him ; in its stead , for, instead of it. Statt, as a
preposition , is an abridgment of anſtatt.
Beſage, pursuant, according to ; used only in state papers.
Halben, or Halber, on account of. It expresses a motive ;
and is always put after the case it governs. Halben seems
to be preferred, when the substantive to which it is joined
* In English, the expression might also be, to fly before the

enemy, in which, however, a different idea prevails.
286 On the Preposition . P. I. Ch. 8.
has an article or pronoun before it ; as, des Geldes halben ,

on account of the money ; but halber is generally used , when
there is no article ; as, Vergnügens halber, on account, or
for the sake , of pleasure. It occurs abbreviated in deshalb,
on that account ; weshalb, on which account ; and in the
four following compound prepositions :
Außerhalb , without, on the outside of.
Fnnerhalb, within, in the inner part of.
Oberhalb, above, on the upper side of.
Unterhalb, below , on the lower side of .*
Diesſeit, on this side of; Lat. cis ; as, diesſeit des Fluſſes,
on this side of the river.
Jenſeit, on the other side of ; Lat. trans; as, jenſeit des
Fluſſes, on the other side of the river. When there is no
substantive joined to these prepositions, they take an 8 : dies
feits ſey weiſe, jenſeits ſey glücklich .
Kraft, by the power of.
laut, according to , conformably to, by the tendency of;
as , laut bes Befehls , according to the order , or by the ten
dency of the order.
Mittelſt, or vermittelſt, by the means of.
Um -willen , for the sake of; as, um Gottes willen , for
God's sake ; um Ihrer Ehre willen , for the sake of your
honor.
Ungeachtet, notwithstanding. It may be placed before or
after its case . Sometimes it is found with the dative ; as,
Dem ungeachtet, notwithstanding that.
Unweit, unfern , not far from ; as, unweit das Dorfes, not
far from the village.
Vermöge, by dint of, by the power of, by means of ; as,
* Those four prepositions sometimes govern the dative case ,

which is indeed to be preferred, whenever another genitive fol
lows. Example : Er ſtebet innerhalb dem Ziele ſeiner
Ungnade, he is within the scope of his displeasure.
Sect. 5. Prepositions with the Genitive. 287
vermöge der Uebung, by dint of practice ; vermöge des

Fleißes, by means of diligence.
Während, during ; as, während des Krieges, during the
war.
Wegen- 1 . Because of, on account of; as, ich that es
meines Vaters wegen, I did it because of my father. 2.
Concerning , with regard to, relating to ; as, er ſprach mit
mir wegen des Hauſes, he spoke to me concerning the house.
It may stand before or after the word it governs : man ſchäßt
ihn wegen ſeines Fleißes, und liebt ihn ſeiner Tugend wes
gen .
Längs, entlang, along, with the genitive. See section
second.
Troß, in spite of; trok aller Gefahren , in spite of all dan
gers. It also takes the dative.
Zufolge, in consequence of, occurs with the genitive, be
fore the noun ; and after it with the dative.
Außer, out of, has the genitive case after it, in one single
instance, viz. außer landes, out of the country ; in which
case it is used instead of auſſerhalb. See section second.
Additional Remarks on the Prepositions.
I. The proper use of the prepositions requires an intimate

acquaintance with the character of the German language.
For it is not sufficient to render them literally ; but the pe
culiar nature of every expression must be considered. The
phrase, which, in English, demands such a preposition , may,
in German , have one different in signification ; one language
may employ for, where the other will use upon , with, etc.
It is, therefore, not enough to peruse a list of prepositions, but
it is necessary to attend to their application in phraseology.
II. The prepositions are always placed before their cases,
a few only excepted. In English, a preposition may be put
quite at the end of the sentence ; and this must be done,
when the relative pronoun is to be understood ; as, The man
I spoke of, for, the man of whom I spoke; the books he re

ferred to, for, the books to which he referred ; the subject I am
engaged in , for, in which I am engaged. Nor is it unusual
with interrogative pronouns ; as , Who for ? who to ? what
for ? who is this money for ? what is that for ? These modes
of speaking are common in English ; but the German lan
guage neither allows the omission of the relative pronoun ,
nor the transposing of the preposition.
III. It has been remarked , in the foregoing pages ,* that,
instead of pronouns demonstrative, relative, and interrogative,
the local adverbs , hier, da , wo, are joined with prepositions ;
as , hiermit, hiervon ; damit, daran , daneben , daraus, das
rüber ; wobei, woran , etc. Namely , bier, here ( which , in
this composition , is sometimes changed into hie , as hiemit ,
holds the place of the demonstrative dieſer ; da , there , is put
for derſelbe, or der ; wo , where, for welcher, wer, was . The
preposition in , combined with such an adverb , is made ein,
when it signifies into . Say, therefore, es iſt darin , it is in it ;
but, thue es darein, put it into it . So hierin , herein , in this ;
herein , in here , into this place. Those adverbs are , occa
sionally, separated from the prepositions ; as, ta hüten Sie
ſich vor, for davor hüten Sie ſich, beware of that ; da bat er
feine Neigung zu, for dazu bat er feine Neigung, for that
he has no inclination. It is better to preserve those words
united. The separation is , howerer, very usual in these
phrases : Da ſev Sett vor, God forbid ; da Giott ver ſey),
which God forbid. The following contractions are to be met
with : Dran , drauf, draus , trein , trin , frunter, trüber,
drum , etc. , for daran , darauf, daraus , Curein , darin , da
runter , daruber , Narum ; but they are improper, except in
popular expressions, like es geht alles frunter und drüber,
all goes topsr- turry. It may be noticed , that prepositions
are permitted to stand before adrerbs, as in English ; for in
* Part I. Chap IV . Sect. I. Obs 10 , and Sect. IV . Obs. 7

Sect. 5. On the Preposition . 289
stance, von hier, from hence ; von da, von dort, from thence,
from yonder ; von oben, from above ; von unten, from be
low ; ſeit geſtern, since yesterday ; auf heute, for to -day.
IV . The Abbreviation of Prepositions. In the familiar
or colloquial style, the definite article and the preposition
are generally contracted into one word ; as, am, for an dem.
EXAMPLES ,
am for an dem as, am Fenſter, at the window .

ans , an das, ans Licht, into the light.
aufs , auf das, aufs Haus, upon the house.
beim, bei dem , beim Vater, by the father.
durchs, durch das , durd ;s Feuer, through the fire.
fürs , für das , fürs Geld , for money .
im , in dem , im Himmel, in heaven.
ins, in das , ins Waſſer, in the water.
vom, von dem , vom Uebel, from evil.
vors , vor das, vors Fenſter, before the win
dow.
vorm, vor dem, vorm Thor, before the door.
überm , über dem, überm Feuer, upon the fire.
übers, über das , übers Meer, by sea .
unterm , unter dem, unterm Ropfe, under the head.
zum, zu dem zum Bache, to the rivulet.
zur, zu der, zur Ehre, for the honor.
Some of these abbreviations occur not only in the familiar

but in every kind of style ; as, am, im, vom, zum, zur.
25
290 On the Conjunction . P. I.
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE CONJUNCTION.
We subjoin a list of the most obvious German conjunc

tions, in alphabetical order, accompanied with the necessary
observations.
Aber, but. It does not always place the sentences in op
position, but like the Latin autem, vero, sometimes only joins
them ; in other words, it has not only a disjunctive, but also
a copulative power. Aber originally signified the same as
wieder, as in abermals, again ; nach hundert und aber
hundert Jahren, after a hundred and still another hundred
years, i. e. after centuries. Compare Aberglaube , super
stition ( false belief), and Aber wit, false wit.
Allein , but ; Lat . sed, at ; is merely disjunctive.
Als, has - 1 . A comparative signification, expressing as
and than ; for instance, ſo warm als im Sommer, as warm
as in summer ; reicher als Cröſus, more rich than Cræsus.
2. It denotes quality and condition ; as , ich als Herr von
dieſem Hauſe, I as master of this house. 3. It is temporal
or consecutive , and signifies when : Als ich in London ankam ,
when I arrived in London . Als wenn , as if ; ſo wohl als
auc ), as well as.
Alfo > 1. So, thus. 2. Therefore. Literally , all ſo, ex
actly so.
Auch, also , implying increase, climax . Compare Lat. au
geo. Added to other particles (either immediately or with
intervening words ) , it answers to the Latin eunque, and the
English ever ; as, wo er auch will, wherever he will ; wer es
auch ſei, whoever he may be.
Auf daß, in order that ; for which daß alone is now more
common .
Ch. 9. Conjunctions. 291
Bevor, before; Lat. priusquam ; of very limited use in

German ; Ehe is more employed,
Da–1 . Then. 2. When. . 3. Since, as, implying a cause.
As an adverb, it signifies there.
Daher, therefore, thence. Adverb , da her, from that
place , thence. The conjunction has the accent on the last,
the adverb on the first syllable. The accent, however, may
vary ; the conjunction may have it on the first, and the ad
verb on the last. Whenever it is on the first, it renders the
word pointedly demonstrative.
Dafern, if, in case that.
Dann, then ; improperly. Alsdann, is the same in signifi
cation . Adverb, dann und wann, now and then.
Dar um , on that account, for that reason . Dar u m,
therefore . When the accent is on the first syllable, it is
strongly demonstrative.
Daß, that.
Denn-1 . For, because ; Lat. nam, enim . 2. Then. 3.
Unless, after some verbs in the subjunctive mood ; as, ich
werde nicht ausgehen , es ſey denn, daß die Noth mich
zwänge, I shall not go out, unless it be , that necessity should
compel me. Du ſollſt nicht ſterben , du habeſt denn den
Herrn geſehen , thou shalt not die , unless thou have seen the
Lord. It is, however, not very common in this sense, except
after es ſey , it be , where the whole phrase , es ſei denn, means
except, unless. 4. Than : Wer iſt beſſer denn Gott, who is
better than God ? Ehe denn ich flöhe, sooner than I should
run away. This signification is rather antiquated ; modern
language would prefer als in the first example, and omit denn
in the second, without substituting for it another word.
Dennoch , notwithstanding, nevertheless, still.
Deshalben, or deshalb, therefore, on that account.
Deſto, stands always before a comparative degree, and de
notes proportion , which, in English , is expressed by the defi
nite article ; for example, ich erwartete Ihre Ankunft nicht,
und deſto größer iſt meine Freude, I did not expect your ar
rival, and the greater is my joy. When two comparative
sentences are brought together, the first generally begins with
the conjunction je, and deſto answers it in the second ; as, je
ruhiger das Leben iſt, deſto geſchickter iſt es zum Nachdenken,
the more quiet life is, the more fit it is for reflection. Some
times deſto is placed in the first member of the sentence, and
je in the second ; as, Ein Kunſtwerk iſt deſto ſchöner, je
vollkommener es iſt, a work of art is the more beautiful, the
more perfect it is.
Dieweil, because ; obsolete .
Doch, yet, nevertheless , however, but ; Lat. tamen . With
the imperative mood, or elliptical expressions of similar im
port, it has the meaning of entreaty, and may be rendered by
pray, I pray you ; as, Sagen ſie mir doch, pray tell me ;
Was ſagte er doch , pray, what did he say.
Ehe, before ; Lat. priusquam . It also means sooner ,
rather.
Entweder, either ; always followed by oder, or.
Falls, in case that. Falls es geſchehen ſollte, in case it
should happen.
Ferner , farther, moreover .
Folglich , consequently.
Hingegen, on the other hand.
Je, is proportional, before a comparative degree. See
Deſto. Sometimes it is used instead of deſto ; as, je eher,
je lieber, the sooner , the more agreeable ; je mehr, je beſſer ,
the more, the better ; for, deſto lieber, deſto beſſer. Je nach:
dem , according as .
Jedennody, yet , nevertheless.
Jedoc ), yet, the same as Doch .
Im Falle, in case that, if.
Immaßen, in proportion as, whereas, since. It is little
used now except in official documents.
Indem - 1. While. 2. Because, since.
1
Indeſſen , indeß, in the mean while, while, however, yet.

Ingleichen , or Imgleichen , likewise.
Kaum , scarce . Kaum hatte er ausgeredet, als ihn ein
plötzliches Grauſen überfiel, scarce had he finished his speech,
when a sudden horror seized him.
Mithin, consequently.
Nachdem , after ; Lat. postquam . Je nachdem , according
as .
Nämlich, namely ; often used where the English would
omit it.
Nicht allein, nicht nur, nicht bloß, not only ; followed by
ſondern auch, but also . Nicht nur, is more used with refer
ence to magnitude, literally and figuratively ; nicht allein ,
with reference to kinds and individuals ; nicht bloß, with
reference to the extent of an idea . The two former are some
times used in the same sense .
Noch, has two significations, so different in their nature,
that it is difficult to conceive how they can belong to the
same word . 1. It denotes continuations of time ; as, noch
eine Stunde, one hour more ; noch vier oder fünf Wochen ,
four or five weeks more. It answers to the English, yet , still.
Noch nicht, not yet. 2. It has a negative power, expressing
the English nor, when weder, neither, or a negative sentence
with nicht, has preceded. Weder Sie, noch Er, neither you
nor he ; Ich werde Sie nicht verlaſſen noch verſäumen , I
will not abandon nor neglect you.
Nun, now. It sometimes has a causal sense .
Ob, whether, if.
Obgleich, obſchon , obwohl, though , although. These con
junctions are often divided ; as, ob ich gleich frank war, al
though I was ill ; ob er ſchon zu Hauſe war, though he was
at home. That separation generally, and almost necessarily ,
takes place when a monosyllable follows ; such as, ich , du,
er, es , wir, ihr, ſie, or the oblique cases of these pronouns.
Even two, or three, of these monosyllables may be put be
25 *
tween ; as, ob ich mich gleich freue, though I am glad. With

other words , it is optional whether these conjunctions are to
be divided or not. When they begin a sentence, the follow
ing member corresponds to them by means of the conjunc
tions doch, dennoch) ; or similar particles ; as, demungeachtet,
notwithstanding that ; nichts deſto weniger, nevertheless.
Ob er gleich alt iſt, ſo hat er doch den völligen Gebrauch
ſeiner Geiſteskräfte, although he is old, he still has the per
fect use of his mental faculties.
Dder, or.
Ohngeachtet, notwithstanding. It is not so correct as
Ungeachtet.
Seit, Seitdem, since, from the time that.
Sintemal, or Sintemalen, because, since ; antiquated.
So-1 . So, thus. 2. It serves to connect the subsequent
member of a sentence with the foregoing, commonly, when
the conjunctions, wenn , when ; weil, da , nachdem , wie , das
init, obgleidy, obſchon , precede, and almost always after wenn,
if, beginning the sentence. For example : Wenn mein Brus
der fömmt, ſo ſagen Sie es ihm, when my brother comes,
tell it him . Da er in Rom eintraf, To fand er die Stadt in
den Händen ſeiner Feinde, when he arrived at Rome, he
found the city in the hands of his enemies. Wenn der Knabe
fleißig iſt, ſo kann er zu großen Ehren gelangen , if the boy
be diligent, he may arrive to great honor. Sometimes the
conjunction wenn , if, is understood in the first member ; and
ſo must likewise begin the following member ; as , wäreſt du
hier geblieben, ſo würden die Sachen beſſer ſtehen , hadst
thou staid here ( which is the same as — if thou hadst staid
here ) , affairs would be in a better condition. 3. So, occa
sionally denotes, therefore. 4. If, on condition that ; as , ſo
Gott will, if God please, or please God. 5. So wohl als
auch , or ſo wohl als , as well as . Likewise, with the same
meaning, ſo als ; but seldom . 6. When auch follows, it is
to be rendered by however ; So groß die Schrecken des
Krieges auch ſeyn mögen, ſo konnten ſie doch ſeinen Sinn

nicht bändigen, however great the terrors of war may be, yet
they could not curb his spirit. Here als is sometimes put
before it ; So angenehm als es auch ſeyn mag, ſo kann es
doch nie gebilligt werden, agreeable as it may be, it can never
be approved. And it is sometimes omitted, als remaining
by itself in the same signification. Reißend als es mir war,
ſo einförmig würde es in der Erzählung werden, attractive
as it was to me, it would be monotonous in narration . So
wie, as .
Sondern, but, disjunctive, from ſondern , to separate, like
our word sunder. It is only used , when a negative goes be
fore, and implies contradiction . Nicht edel, ſondern klein
müthig, not noble, but pusillanimous.
Sonſt, else, otherwise. See Adverbs, end of the chapter.
Theils — theils, partly, -- partly ; not to be confounded with
zum Theile, in part, i. e. the part of a thing. Theils refers
to a connection of thought.
Uebrigens, as for the rest, however.
Ueberdieß , besides.
Und , and.
Ungeachtet, notwithstanding.
Während, während dem, während daß, while.
Wann, for wenn, when ; improperly. Adverb, Dann
und wann, now and then. As conjunctions wenn and denn
are written properly with e ; written with a they signify
time, and are then adverbs.
Weder, neither , followed by noch , nor.
Weil, because. ( Sometimes, while. )
Wenn-1 . When . Thus it is synonymous with Da, ( als ,
wie ; for these occur under the same meaning as da ) ; though
it is differently applied. Da, is always connected with pre
terite tenses, and declares an action that is passed. Wenn ,
on the other hand, refers to what is present or future. It is,
therefore, peculiarly appropriated to convey general ideas ;
whereas da relates to particular events. This will be better

understood from some examples . Da er nach London fam ,
To fand er ſeinen Freund, when he came to London , he found
his friend . He came, and he found, are preterite tenses ; the
actions that are intimated , are passed, and , consequently, da
must be employed to express when . Wenn ich zu ihm
komme, ſo finde ich ihn immer bey den Büchern , when I
come to him, I always find him at his books. I come, I find,
are present tenses, and the subject is of a general import ;
therefore, wenn is made use of. In the following, one verb
is in the future, the other in the present ; and wenn is like
wise required to answer to the English when . Wenn ihr
meine Stimme hören werdet, ſo eilt, when you shall hear
my voice, hasten. Wenn Sie nach Paris kommen, ſo wers
den Sie die alten Kunſtwerke nidyt mehr ſehen , when you
come to Paris, you will no longer see the ancient works of
art. The English interrogative when , is now always render
ed by Wann, even in indirect questions: Sagen Sie mir
wann Sie kommen wollen , tell me when you will come.
2. If, expressing a condition, followed by ſo in the following
clause. 3. Even though , concessive, in connection with
1
gleich , audy and ſchon ; as, wenn gleich, although. It never
stands in the signification of whether, after indirect or dis
junctive questions, in which sense if is used by the English ;
in other words, it never expresses the English whether ; or
the Latin an. In these sentences , for example ; " I do not
know if ( or whether ) it is so ; ask him if (or whether ) he
has got it ;" — the German wenn .could not be employed.
The proper word would be , ob : Ich weiß nicht ob dem ſo
iſt ; fragen Sie ihn ob er es hat.
Wenngleich , wennſchon, although. They may be separa
ted in the same manner as obgleich, obſchon.
Wie~1 . How , as an adverb. 2. As, both as a compara
tive of equality , like, and in a consecutive sense ; as, when.
Wie die Jugend, ſo das Alter, as the youth, so old age ; er
Ch. 10. On the Interjection . 297
betrug ſich wie ein Raſender, he behaved like a madman ;

comparative. Wie er das ſah , rief er aus, as, or when he
saw that, he exclaimed ; consecutive.
Wiewohl, though.
Wo, sometimes stands for if. Otherwise it signifies where,
and is an adverb.
Wofern, if, in case that.
CHAPTER X.
ON THE INTERJECTION .
We shall mention only those interjections which occur

most commonly in the German language. Some indicate
joy ; as, ah ! ach ! Mirth and gaiety ; as, ſa ! hei ! heiſa !
Loud exclamations of the same kind : Juch ! juchhe ! juch
hey ! The following betoken sorrow and displeasure : Ach !
ah ! oh ! Pain : Ach ! weh ! au ! auweh ! Disgust : Fi !
Pfui ! The next are expressive of admiration : O ! ah !
ey ! Of surprise, in a small degree : Hum ; in a greater
degree : Ah ! ha ! -Ha ! ha ! when you have found out,
or unraveled a thing ; either denoting surprise or satisfac
tion. He ! and holla ! are used for calling to a person.
Hui ! expressive of rapidity : quick ! mark ! hence in einem
Hui, in a trice. Other words are employed in the capacity
of interjections, such as, Gracious Heaven ! Good God !
but though they are exclamations proceeding from the feel
ings of those by whom they are uttered, they must not be
confounded with those simple sounds which properly belong
to this class. They may be called compound interjections,
and be said to contain an association of ideas, however rapid,
which does not apply to the simple interjections.
PART II .
CONTAINING
THE SYNTAX.*
As it is not so much the design of this work to teach gene

ral grammar as to explain the peculiarities of the German
language, a knowledge of the former will be presupposed ex
cept where nice distinctions are necessary in order to the
latter. It will be found convenient to analyze sentences and
to classify their several parts more than is common, inasmuch
as we may hereby ascertain many general laws of construc
tion which would otherwise escape our notice.
THE ARTICLE .
The Definite Article is omitted in the following instances:

1. Before the vocative case , because, when a person or any
other object is spoken to , it is by this circumstance sufficiently
marked .
2. Before the name of the Supreme Being , Gott, God .
But when a heathen dignity is signified, the article is used ;
der Gott, plural , die Götter .
* The syntax of Nöhden is altogether too summary to give

the student a critical knowledge of the structure of German
sentences. No apology is needed for substituting, to a great
extent, the more comprehensive, exact and detailed system of
Becker.- ED.
On the Article, 299
3. Before proper names of persons; as , Säſar, Alerander.

In the oblique cases, however, it is employed for the purpose
of declension. And sometimes it also precedes the nomina
tive in speaking familiarly of a person ; as, der Rant, Kant ;
der Jones , Jones ; der Käſtner, Kästner.
4. Before names of towns and countries, where it is not
even admitted in the oblique cases ; as, london ; von lon
don, of London. England ; von England, of England.
There are, however, some names of countries which are
never expressed without the article; as, die Turkey , Turkey ;
die Wallachey, Wallachia ; die Schweiß, Switzerland ; die
Lauſitz, Lusatia ; and a few more.
5. The definite article does not stand before certain words,
denoting the quarters of the globe ; Diten , East; Weſten ,
West ; Süden , South ; Norden, North ; and the synonymous
terms, Morgen, Abend, Mittag, Mitternacht.
6. It is suppressed before titles, when these are placed af
ter the proper names ; as, Victoria, Königen von England,
Victoria, Queen of England. Johann Ramus, Doctor der
Rechte, John Ramus, Doctor of Laws. Sometimes, likewise,
when the title is put before the name ; as , Königin Victoria,
Queen Victoria ; Kaiſer Franz, Emperor Francis ; Doctor
Luther, Profeſſor Sanderſon . And even in the oblique
cases ; as, König Friedrich's Feldzüge, King Frederick's
campaigns ; Doctor Luther's Gelehrſamkeit, Doctor Luther's
erudition .
7. In the language of the law, a few appellatives occur
without the article, which properly ought to have it. Such
are Beklagter, defendant ; Kläger, plaintiff; Inhaber, hol
der , proprietor ; Appellant, he that appeals ; Supplicant,
petitioner.
8. The article definite is left out before some other expres
sions, which, in English, would require it. For example ;
Ueberbringer dieſes , the bearer of this ; in beſter Ordnung,
in the best order ; vor Endigung des Schauſpieles , before
300 Syntar.
the conclusion of the drama. To which may be added the

expressions, ich habe es in hinten , I have it in my hands ;
ich habe es vor Augen , I have it before my eyes.
9. When a word is put after the genitive case , wbich it
governs, it cannot have an article . This is the same in En
glish , as in German . For example : Werther's feiden ,
Werther's sufferings. The Genitive, Werther's , stands be
fore the word by which it is governed, consequently the lat
ter can have no article . So, Schnſon's Werke, Johnson's
works. Des Baters Haus, the father's house ; haus with
out an article.
10. Several substantives of the same gender, number, and
case , following, the article is prefixed to the first, and gene
rally understood before the others ; as in this example, die
Gute, Liebe und Nachſicht der Mutter, the goodness, affee
tion and indulgence of the mother. These three substantives
are of the same gender, number, and case ; therefore one ar
ticle is sufficient for all. Thus it is before two adjectives ;
as , die reichſte und angenehmſte Belehrung, the most abun
dant and most agreeable instruction. But when the gender,
number, or case differ, the article must be adapted to each
substantive ; as, der Tod, die Auferſtehung, und das Leben ,
death, resurrection , and life. Here the genders differ, and
the repetition of the article, accordingly , is necessary. When
ever two or more substantives are joined by und, and serve as
a title or superscription, the article is commonly put before
each , though they should be of the same gender, number,
and case ; as, der Rabe und der Fuchs, the raven and the
fox. This is done for the purpose of distinctness.
The English and German languages agree, for the most
part, in the foregoing observations ; but in the following
there is a diversity .
1. The English leave out the article before words that con
vey a general idea , or have a comprehensive meaning. The
Germans, on the other hand , employ the article. For exam
The Article. 301
ple, die Natur iſt die beſte Lehrerinn, nature is the best in
structress. Der Menſch iſt ſterblich , man is mortal ; das.
menſchliche Leben iſt kurz, human life is short ; das Laſter
ſtürzt ſeine Anhänger ins Verderben, vice plunges its fol
lowers into perdition ; die Veredſamkeit iſt mädytig, eloquence
is powerful; die Dichtkunft iſt bezaubernd, poetry is enchant
ing. Here, the words which convey the general idea, na
ture , man , human life, vice, eloquence, poetry , are, in Ger
man , accompanied with the article. This is also found in
other languages , for instance, the French and Italian. But
moral ideas may be generalized in German without the arti
cle, as in English , and particularly in the plural : Tugend
belohnt ſich ſelbſt, virtue is its own reward ; Menſchen fön
nen fehlen, men may err.
2. The English have certain expressions without the arti
cle, where the German language cannot dispense with it.
Such are Government, die Regierung ; History, die Ges
ſchichte ; Holy Writ, die heilige Schrift ; Saint Paul,Saint
Peter, der heilige Paulus, der heilige Petrus ; unless Saint
be rendered by the abbreviated Latin word Sanctus, which is
sometimes done ; as , Sanct Paulus, Sanct Petrus . The
English also omit it before most ; as, most of his contempora
ries, where the Germans say , die meiſten . In town, in der
Stadt ; at church, in der Kirche ; to go to church , in die
Kirche gehen .
3. The English put the article before some proper names,
where the Germans leave it out ; as The East Indies, Oſtin
dien ; the West Indies, Weſtindien . The article is, some
times, in German , dispensed with before certain adjectives
and participles , where it would be required in English
Such are, erſterer, the former ; lekterer, the latter ; beſagter,
the one aforesaid ; etwähnter, gedadyter, the one mentioned ;
genannter, the one named ; folgender, the following.
4. The English place the definite article always after the
word half, when followed by a substantive ; as, half the num
26
302 Syntar. P. II.
ber ; whereas, in German , the article stands before it , die halbe

Zahl. The English article frequently stands after both ; as,
both the brothers ; the Germans either put the article before
beide ; as, die beiden Brüder, which is the new form of the
adjective ; or omit it, as, beide Brüder, which is the old
form .
5. In English , the preterite participle is sometimes put
after the substantive, and the article is then omitted. For ex
ample, Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained. In German, that
participle always precedes the substantive, and the article is
retained, as in these examples: Das verlorene Paradies,
das wiedergewonnene Paradies .
The Indefinite Article is employed in nearly the same
manner as in English. In some expressions it is made use
of where the English assume the definite article. This is
done in speaking of collective bodies, attended with certain
epithets or titles ; as, eine hohe Obrigkeit, the worshipful
magistrates ; ein hoch weiſer Rath, the most learned senate ;
eine löbliche Univerſität, the honorable University ; ein geehr
tes Publicum, the honored public. In the English language,
the indefinite article has its place after half, and such ; as,
half a year, such a man. In German , it stands before these
adjectives ; as, ein halbes Jahr, ein ſolcher Mann . Instead
of ein ſolcher, you will sometimes find , ſo ein ( or ſolch ein ) ;
for instance , ſo ein Mann (or ſolch ein Mann ), the same as
ein ſolcher Mann, such a man , which may be thought to re
semble the English construction . The English put the in
definite article before few , hundred , thousand ; as, a few , a
hundred , a thousand ( pounds) ; in German, the correspond
ing words are used without that article.
The several parts of speech, except the article, having been
treated of in Part I. , it remains to exhibit their use as parts
of sentences. The more scientific method of treatment, is
to classify sentences and clauses, and to begin with what is
simple and elementary, and then proceed to what is more
complex.
Ch. 1 . On Simple Sentences. 303
CHAPTER I.
ON SIMPLE SENTENCES .
CONTAINING
1. The Verb and its Relations.

2. The Qualifications of the Noun .
3. The Relation of the Noun in Regimen to its Verb .
SECTION I.
OF THE VERB AND ITS RELATIONS.
Under the verb we include whatever is necessary to a pre
dicate. The predicate is always a verb, except when ſein,
to be, is a mere copula, in which case the connected adjec
tive or noun is the predicate.
A. CONNECTION OF SUBJECT AND PREDICATE .

When the subject is a pronoun, it agrees in gender and
number with the noun for which it stands.
Remark. When the name of a person is expressed by a
diminutive ( which is always of the neuter gender ) , the pro
noun commonly follows the gender of the person, not of the
neuter noun ; as, Wo iſt Fritchen ? Iſt er im Garten ?
Where is Fred ? Is he in the garden ?
But the pronouns es, das , dies , was, and the adjective
Alles , when used in an indefinite manner, are invariable ;
as, Sie war es ſelber, it was she herself. Das ſind meine
Richter, these are my judges. Alles ergriff die Waffen ,
everybody took arms.
The predicate must be a word which is significant in itself,
a verb, adjective, or noun.
When a relative word, which has no independent signifi
304 Syntax . - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
cation, stands as a predicate, some other word must be under

stood ; as, Der Sturm iſt vorüber ( gegangen ) , the storm is
over. Er ſelber iſt dahin ( gegangen ) , he himself is gone.
Id muß zu Feld ( ziehen ), I must go to the camp. Vor
wärts mußt Du, you must advance. Sie iſt eine ſolche
( Frau ), she is such a lady.
1. Grammatical and Logical Subject.

The subject generally stands at the beginning of a sen
tence , and has a verb agreeing with it in number and person .
But it often happens that the nominative is not the real
subject. There is then a difference between the grammatical
and the logical subject. Es is, in such cases, the grammati
cal subject, and the logical subject follows either in the nom
inative or in one of the oblique cases ; as, Es iſt jeßt Friede,
it is now a time of peace. Es wird heute getanzt, there is
dancing to - day. Es friert mich, I am freezing. Es gibt
noch Rieſen , doch keine Nitter gibt es mehr, there are still
giants, but there are knights no longer. Geben, used im
personally as above, is always an active verb governing the
accusative, though it is to be rendered like the verb ſein, to
be, with a nominative following:
2. Omission of the Subject.

The grammatical subject is omitted in inverted sentences ;
as, Heute wird geſungen, to -day there is singing. Wenn
geſungen wird, if there is singing. Mir däucht, I think.
Mich hungert, I am hungry. In those cases where the in
verted form is not the ordinary one, the nominative is insert
ed ; as, Oft jammert es mich, I am often miserable . In the
expression es gibt, there is, the nominative is always expres
sed in inverted sentences ; as, Heute gibt es einen Schmaus ,
there is a feast to -day.
The subject is entirely omitted in the imperative , though
not in the subjunctive used for the imperative ; in elliptical
Sect. 1 . Of the Verb and its Relations. 305
expressions; in very familiar discourse, and sometimes in

solemn style ; as, Glaubt das nicht, do not believe that ;
( Seß '. Er ſich , seat yourself ) . Ganz recht, for Es iſt ganz
recht, perfectly right. Stil ! silence , for Sei ſtill, be silent.
Weiß wohl; Du haſt mich nie geliebt, I know very well , that
you never loved me. Bin auch dabei, I was also there.
Selig, wer ſich vor der Welt ohne Haß verſchließt, happy he,
who without misanthropy secludes himself from the world .
3. Predicate.
After the verb ſeyn , to be, the predicate is :
( 1 ) A simple adjective, which is never declined ; as, Seib
mir doch ſtill, pray be still , I wish you would be still .
(2) The superlative of the adjective, which always has the
definite article and the same form as if the noun were expres
sed after it ; as, Des Himmels Fügungen ſind immer die
beſten, the arrangements of Providence are always the best.
The adverbial form is not used when different subject nomi
natives are compared with each other, but merely when dif
ferent states of the same subject are compared ; as, Die Tage
ſind um Johannis am längſten , the days about the time of
St. John's, are the longest.
(3) A substantive. If it is the nominative, it agrees with
the subject in number, and in the names of persons, if the
natural gender is distinguishable by the form of the word , in
gender also ; as, Wir waren immer Freunde, Waffenbrüder,
we were always friends and brethren in arms. Du warſt die
Königin, you were the queen . Ihre vorzüglichſten Freund
innen waren gebildete und herzliche Gottesverehrerinnen ,
her principal friends were accomplished, and cordial worship
pers of God .
The genitive of an abstract noun is often used in the sense
of an adjective ; as, Das iſt bei uns Rechtens ( i. e. recht ),
that is with us right . Ich bin nicht Willens, etc., I am not
disposed, etc. The same idea may be expressed by a noun
26 *
306 Syntax. - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
with the preposition von ; as, Er iſt von Adel ( adelig ) , he

is of the nobility. Die Sache iſt von Widytigkeit (wichtig ),
the matter is important. There is a similar construction with
other prepositions ; as, Er iſt in Verlegenheit ( verlegen ),
in Angſt ( ängſtlich ), in Sorgen ( beſorgt ), im Zorne ( zor
nig ), he is perplexed, anxious, concerned , angry. The verb
ſtehen, to stand, is often used in such constructions for ſeyn ;
as, Er ſteht im Begriffe, in Anſehn , in Gefahr, in dem Ver
dachte, in der Blüte, he is on the point of, in repute, in dan
ger, suspected , in the flower.
Concrete nouns are frequently used in the same way ; as,
Er iſt bei Gelde, he is rich.
4. Affirmative and Negative Clauses.

Ja, yes, is commonly used elliptically after an interroga
tive. It is also used in a climax ; as, Ich habe mich geirrt,
ja, ich erkenne es, I have erred, yes, I acknowledge it. Jeßt,
ja , jeßt mußt Du ſterben , now, now you must die. Es iſt
ſchwer, ja, eſt iſt unmöglich, it is difficult, nay, impossible.
In the middle of a clause, it implies the opposite of what is
conceded or supposed, like our word even, and is thereby
rendered emphatic ; as, Wenn er ja läugnen ſollte ( Er wird
nicht läugnen ), Even if he were to deny. Sei ja vorſichtig ,
be cautious ( I fear you will not be so) . It often implies mere
entreaty or anxiety. In affirmative expressions, it gives em
phasis to the affirmation ; as, Ich bin ja SMrina, I am Ski
rina herself.
Negative clauses are generally formed by placing nicht * 1
before the predicate. It is provincial to employ a double
negative ; as, Es iſt kein Schnee nicht, there is no snow.
After such words as express the idea of hindrance, nicht is
Nicht, not, was in the old German used in the sense of

Nichts , nothing. Hence the expressions, zu Nichte machen
and vernichten, to annihilate ; nichtig, ( Lat. nullus), and mit
Nichten, by no means.
used in the sense of lest, agreeing with the English idiom ,

except in such expressions as hinder from ; which is verhin
dern daß nicht, in German. After such exclamations as, wie
ſehr, wie groß, wie lang, wie oft, etc. , the negative is used in
German , but omitted in English ; as, Wie oft habe ich es
nicht geſagt ? how often have I said it ! Wie ſehr liebe ich
ihn nicht ? how I love him ! Wie groß iſt nicht die Güte
Gottes ? how great is God's goodness!
5. Active, Passive and Reflective Forms.

The two last are formed only from transitive verbs. A
neuter verb is incapable of becoming either passive or reflec
tive . The active verb in German and in English very nearly
correspond. The passive, though sometimes used where the
active or neuter would stand in English, is less extensively
employed than in English. There are various modes of ex
pression which take the place of the passive ; as, man ſagt,
for, it is said ; Das läßt ſich ſagen, for, that may be said ;
Eine neue Ordnung der Dinge führt ſich ein , a new order
of things is introduced . These same examples illustrate the
extensive use of the reflective verb.
As a general rule, the verb agrees with its grammatical
subject in number and person . But if the logical subject be
different from the grammatical , and be also in the nomina
tive, the verb agrees with the logical subject ; as, Es brechen
faſt der Bühne Stübe, the pillars of the stage almost break .
Es verbergen ſich noch viele in dieſen Mauern, many are
still concealed in these walls. Es leben Viele, die das nicht
geſehn , there are many living who have not seen it.
When the grammatical subject is expressed indefinitely by
es, das and dies, the verb agrees with the predicate ; as,
Dies ſind wichtige Papiere, those are important papers. Es
ſind die Früchte Ihres Thuns, they are the fruit of your
doings.
Generally, two or more nominatives singular, connected by
308 Syntax. — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
und, require a plural verb. But if these nominatives be re

garded as making up one single idea , the verb is put in the
singular ; as, Hopfen und Malz iſt verloren, hops and malt
are lost. Verrath und Argwohn läuſcht in allen Ecken,
treachery and suspicion lurk in every corner.
Collective nouns generally take rerbs in the singular. Ein
Paar, a few ; eine Menge, a multitude ; ein Dußend, a do
zen , and a few others require the plural; as, Soll unſer gans
zer Hauf marſchiren ? shall our entire body march ? Ein
Paar Häuſer ſind abgebrannt, a few houses are burnt down.
B. USE OF VERBS IN REGARD TO TIME .
1. Present Time.
The Gothic and old German , not having the modern future,
formed by means of the auxiliary, werden , employed the pre
sent for the future ; and even since a distinct form for the fu
ture has been introduced, this usage has, to a considerable
extent , remained , so as to distinguish the German from most
other languages. The present is of all the tenses the most
indefinite . It is used,
( 1 ) For the Future, when the relation of time is either un
important, or is otherwise intimated ; as , Bald fehr ich ſelbſt
zurück, I shall soon return. Wer weiß, wer morgen über
uns befiehlt ? who knows who rules ( will rule) over us
to -morrow ? Gleich morgen verlang'ich Audienz ; ich
fordere dieſes Amt für midy, even to -morrow do ( will ) I
ask a hearing, and demand this office for myself. Morgen
ſtößt ein Heer zu uns, to -morrow an army rushes ( will
rush ) upon us.
A future act that is already regarded as certain is often
represented as present for the sake of emphasis ; as, Verlaß
Dich darauf , ich I a fe fecytend hier das Leben, oder führe
ſie aus Pilſen , rely on it, I ( will ) lay down my life here in
battle, or I (will bring them out of Pilsen. Dies Schloß
erſteigen wir in dieſer Nacht, wir ermorden die Hü

ter , reißen Didy aus Deiner Stammer, we ( will ) scale this
castle this very night ; ( will ) murder the guards, and drag
thee forth from thy chamber . Gleid, ſind ſie hier, they
will be here instantly . By a similar construction it is used,
(2 ) For the Imperative. A thing to be done is represent
ed as already in process. Examples : Hanna, Du bleibeſt,
Jane, you are to remain . Heut ' Nacht in aller Stille
bredt flyr aufmit allen leidyten Truppen, to -night you
( are to ) set out in silence with all the light-armed troops.
The young student might easily mistake this form of the pre
sent indicative for the imperative. Shr, which would be
omitted in the imperative, follows its verb, because the nomi
native does not begin the sentence, in other words, because
it is an inverted sentence. Zwölf rüſtige Dragoner ſucht
Ihr aus ; bewaffnet ſie mit Piken, you ( are to seek
out twelve hardy dragoons, and ( to ) arm them with pikes.
Ihr ſchweigt, bis man Euch anruft, you are ( to be) si
lent, till you are called .
( 3) For the Imperfect. This use of the present for the
imperfect in animated narrative is not peculiar to the Ger
man. All that needs to be remarked here, is that such li
cense is much more common in the German than in most
other languages.
2. Past Time.
There is in almost every language a difficulty in drawing
an adequate line of distinction between the perfect and im
perfect tenses. Although these tenses are similarly defined
in Latin , English and German, their use is far from being
the same in all .
In German the perfect is employed to express an action
quite passed and unconnected with any other. The English
often use the imperfect in such cases ; as, I never saw it.
In German it would be Ich habe das nie geſehen . So, I was
310 Syntax . — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
never there, ich bin nie da geweſen ; Were you never in Ber
lin ? ſind Sie nie in Berlin geweſen ? Exceptions to this
rule are found only in the old German and in poetry.
The perfect is often employed to express an opinion of
logical certainty with reference to something past, as distin
guished from a mere narrative, expressed by the imperfect.
An affirmation of what has certainly taken place must there
fore always be in the perfect ; as, Ihr habt Euch dem Ges
richt der Zweiundvierzig unterworfen , lady. Ich habe
feineswegs mich unterworfen . You have submitted yourself
to the judgment of the Forty - Two, lady. I have by no means
submitted.
In the perfect passive, when the object of the writer is more
to express the reality than the precise time of an action , the
auxiliary participle, worden , is omitted ; as, Der Schlacht
iſt gewonnen ( worden ), the battle is gained. Der Dieb iſt
entdeckt ( worden ), the thief is detected.
The Imperfect is commonly used to designate a past un
finished action , that relates to another contemporaneous ac
tion. Hence this tense is chiefly employed in narrative
where the relation of events to each other is pointed out with
more care than their exact relation to the present time ; as,
Vor dieſer Linde ſaß ich jüngſt ; da kam daher von Küß
nacht der Vogt geritten , lately I was sitting before this lime
tree ; then came the bailiff from Kussnacht on horseback.
Only when stress is to be laid on the reality of an act or
event can the perfect be used in ordinary narrative . ·
Continued or repeated past action such as represents a
state or usage is put in the imperfect ; as, Ihr pflegtet mich
zu tröſten , you were accustomed to console me . Ihr wart
mit Babington einverſtanden , you were on good terms with
Babington.
The imperfect indicative is used in conditional sentences,
to give the representation the livelier form of reality , analo
gous to the English idiom in such sentences as, ‘ Had not
mercy interposed, we had perished .' Examples : Warf er

das Schwert von fidy, er war verloren, had he thrown
( threw he ) his sword away, he would have perished ( was lost ) .
Trotz Eurer Spürkunſt war Maria Stuart noch heute frei,
wenn ich es nicht verhindert , despite your vigilance, Mary
Stuart would have been ( was) free this day, if I had not pre
vented it.
The Second Future is of very limited use. When it is
not important to specify the time of the completion of an act
precisely ( as, he will have said the perfect ( as, he has said
is commonly preferred . Examples : Sobald ich Nachricht
bekommen habe ( for, werde bekommen haben ), wollen wir
keinen Augenblick länger hier verweilen, as soon as I have
(shall have received intelligence, we will not remain a mo
ment longer here. In this respect the German and the En
glish very nearly agree.
The rule for the connection of tenses is very simple in
German ; viz. When the relations of the verb in the subsidi
ary and in the principal clause are the same, the tenses are
the same ; if the relations are different, the tenses are differ
ent. When both clauses are merely narrative, the imperfect
is used in both ; as , Ich ſtand dabei, als in Toledo's
Mauern der ſtolze Karl die Huldigung empfing,als Für
ſten ſich zu ſeinem Handfuß drängten, I was present,
when, within the walls of Toledo, the haughty Charles re
ceived the pledge of allegiance, when princes crowded for
ward to kiss his hand. If the first is a declaration of certain
ty or reality, and the second mere narration, or the designa
tion of a state or custom, the perfect will be followed by the
imperfect'; as , Du haſt gegeſſen von dem Baume, da
von ich Dir gebot, Du ſolteſt nicht eiſen , thou hast eaten
of the tree, of which I commanded thee, thou shalt not eat .
312 Syntax . — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
C. MODES.
There are three forms of representation which here require
our attention , the representation of reality , of possibility,
and of mere supposition , to which correspond the indicative,
the subjunctive, and the conditional modes. The last is by
some grammarians made an independent mode ; by others,
and in this Grammar , it is limited to two future tenses. The
only difference consists in regarding a particular form of the
verb , for example , wäre, as the present conditional, or as the
imperfect subjunctive. In regard to grammatical form , it is
the latter ; in regard to syntactical construction, it is the for
mer. In giving rules of syntax, therefore, we must class the
imperfect subjunctive, both in the principal verbs and in the
auxiliaries, with the conditional.
Another point of great importance on this subject is , that
by reality, possibility, and supposition , are not meant these
things in themselves considered , but as they are conceived
in the mind of the writer or speaker. What is real may be
conceived of as merely possible, and vice versâ . The mode
depends entirely on the manner of the speaker's conception.
In general the indicative and the conditional express a
judgment, real or supposed, of the speaker , and are therefore
more commonly used in the leading member of a sentence ;
the subjunctive, on the contrary, expresses a conception ,
which is not regarded as the expressed opinion of the speaker,
and is therefore more common in subordinate clauses.
1. Mọde of the Leading Clause.

With the use of the indicative in such clauses there is no
particular difficulty. It is generally used when the speaker
makes a declaration of his knowledge or judgment.
The conditional is employed in such sentences, only when
the opposite of the speaker's view is exhibited interrogatively,
or by a supposition with a reason or motive adverse to the
supposition ; as , W ä r's möglich , Vater ? Would it be pos

sible , father ? ( it would not be possible ) . Dit wäreſt ſo
falſdy geweſen ? Would you have been so false ? ( you would
not have been so false). Ich hätte mich ſo weit vergeßen
fönnen ? could I so far have forgotten myself ? Ich hätte
längſt erfahren können , wer der fremde Herr iſt ; aber ich
mag nicht, I might long since have ascertained who the stran
ger is , but I did not wish to do it. Wenn ich wollte, ich
konnt ihm recht viel Böſes dafür thun , if I were so disposed,
I could do him much harm for that.
The negative use of the conditional is still further observa
ble in expressions of a wish that a thing were otherwise ; as,
Hätt ' ich nimmer dieſen Tag geſehen , Othat I had never
seen this day !
An opinion is modestly expressed by the conditional of
mögen, dürfen , ſollen and fönnen ; as, Ich möchte ſchwer zu
überreden ſein , etc. , it would be difficult to persuade me, etc.
Anfang und Ende möchte es wohl ſein und bleiben ; aber
in der Mitte dürfte dem Künſter Manches fehlen , begin
ning and end there may indeed be, but in the interval there
may be something wanting to the artist.
Something strange is often expressed by the conditional as
representing exposure to something greater, as in English
we say, “ I had like to have sunken in the stream . ” Exam
ples : Faſt wäre ich in den Strom geſunken. Wie elend
hättet Ihr werden können ! how miserable might you
have been ! Der Pöbel hätte mich faſt geſteinigt, the popu
lace came near stoning me.
In leading sentences the possibility of a thing in a logical
point of view is indicated , not by the subjunctive, but by such
verbs as mögen , dürfen, etc. , and such adverbs as vielleicht,
wohl, etwa, etc.
Principal clauses, which express a wish or permission , re
quire the subjunctive ; as , Denfe Jeder nur an das Nädyſte,
27
314 Syntax. — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
let each one regard only what is nearest him , those who are
nearest to himself. laſſen wir, let us. Es fei, wie Ihr
gewünſcht, be it as you have desired. The imperative is
limited to the second person. In the third person the sub
junctive is always used , even when that person is used for the
second ; as , Set ' er ſich , seat yourself. faſſet uns , let us ,
is the imperative ; fafen wir , may we let ( literally ) , is the
subjunctive. Laſſen is thus used as a kind of auxiliary when
ever the speaker himself is included in the command or re
quest. The strongest form of authority in command is ex
pressed by the indicative for the imperative, or by follen ; as ,
Du übernimmſt die ſpaniſchen Regimenter, machſt im
mer Anſtalt und biſt niemals fertig, und treiben ſie Dich,
gegen mich zu ziehen , fo ſagſt Du Ja und bleibſt ges
Feifelt ſtehen, take charge of the Spanish regiments, always
be making preparations, never be through with them , and if
they ( the soldiers) urge you to march towards me, say , yes,
and stir not an inch. Ihr ſollt nicht weiter gehn, you shall
not go farther,
2. Mode of Subordinate Clauses.

When the subordinate clause of a sentence expresses a
judgment or opinion of the speaker that is logically connected
with the idea in the principal clause , the verb is put in the
indicative. In this are included ,
( 1 ) Clauses containing the actual reason or ground of the
action expressed in the main clause ; as, Weil der Feind
alle Päſſe beſetzt hatte, fo koſtete ihn dieſer Verſuch ſeine
Freiheit, because the enemy had taken possession of all the
passes, this attempt cost him his freedom .
(2 ) Conditional clauses, or those which contain the pos
sible ground of such action ; as, Wenn es glüt of t, ſo iſt es
auch verziehen, if it is successful, it is forgiven. In such
clauses a supposition ( a reality supposed ) may take the place
of the condition , and then the conditional is used instead of
Sect. 1 . Of the.Verb and its Relations. 315
the indicative ; as, Wär's nicht aus Lieb' für den Wallen
ſtein , der Ferdinand hätte uns nimmer bekommen, were it
not for our love to Wallenstein, Ferdinand would never have
had us. The subjunctive may be employed in conditional
clauses only when the conjunction expressing the condition
is omitted ; as, Ich laſſe Did) nicht, Du ſeg neft mich denn ,
I will not let thee go, unless thou bless me. This is an idiom
that requires particular attention. Literally these words
would be, “ I leave thee not, for thou mayest bless me. ”
Und kommt man hin, um Etwas zu erhalten , erhält man
Nichts, man bringe denn was hin, and if any one comes
here in order to get something, he will get nothing, unless
he bring something hither ; literally , " and comes one here
to get anything, he gets nothing, for he may bring something."
(3) Concessive clauses ; as , Und wenn die andern Regi
menter alle ſich von Dir wenden ; wollen wir allein Dir
treu ſein, though all the other regiments forsake you , we will
remain faithful. If, however, this clause expresses uncer
tainty, and the connected clause contain the expressed judg
ment or opinion of the speaker , the subjunctive is generally
used ; as, Sei ſie ſo hoch geſtiegen , als ſie will ; der König
iſt doch größer, let her be as high as she may , the king is ,
nevertheless, greater. Ich will Dich retten , f oft'es tau
ſend Leben , I will rescue thee, should it cost a thousand lives.
If mögen is used to express this uncertainty , its own nature
expresses it sufficiently ( in the indicative ) without the addi
tional force of the subjunctive.
When the subordinate clause contains only a conception ,*
grammatically connected with the principal clause, and has
the character of mere possibility or uncertainty, it is put in
the subjunctive; if it has the character of certainty or reality,
it is put in the indicative.
* Begriff, i. e. what is expressed by a single term, as distin

guished from Gedanke, what is expressed by a complete sen
tence.
316 Syntax . - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
The Indicative is therefore required :

( 1 ) In adjective clauses , that is, clauses which have the
nature, and take the place of adjectives ; as , Ich liebe einen
Weg, der meinem gleicht, I like a way that resembles mine ,
i. e. I prefer a way like my own . Du fragſt nach Dingen, die
Dir nicht geziemen, you ask for things which do not be
come you , i. e. are not becoming you. When , however, the
adjective clause, expresses something that is uncertain , the
subjunctive must be used . In the examples above given , the
nature of the case is such as to admit of no doubt.
(2 ) In adverbial clauses of time and space ; as, Ein zartes
Kind noch war ſie, als Sie gingen, she was but a tender
child, when you went . The last clause is adverbial , because
it simply indicates the time when . Wo er hin kömmt,
flieht man vor ihm, men flee from the place , whither he
comes , ( the place where ). In those adverbial phrases that
relate to time, if ehe or bis is used with reference to a future ,
uncertain time, the verb is put in the subjunctive ; as, Warte ,
bis er komme, wait till he shall come .
(3 ) In adverbial clauses of likeness, expressed by wie ; as ,
Du red'ſt, wie Du’s verſte h ſt, you speak of it as you un
derstand it. Adverbial clauses of resemblance expressed by
als, als wenn and als ob, take the indicative when reality
or certainty are expressed ; and the subjunctive in expres
sions of uncertainty or doubt.
The Subjunctive is required :
( 1 ) In those substantive clauses, which express the abstract
idea of a thing ; as , Ihr Licht bezeugt, daß ſie vom Lichte
ſtamme, her light ( lustre ) betrays (ber luminous origin )
that she descended from light. Here, too, if the matter be
not one of uncertainty yet to be ascertained , but known and
certain , the indicative must be used ; as, Mich verdrießt, daß
ich mich heut' ſo ohne Maß verlor, I am vexed that I was
so wretchedly lost to -day.
The subjunctive is used especially in substantive clauses
dependent on verbs or adjectives, such as, wünſchen , to wish ;

hoffen, to hope ; fürchten , to fear ; gebieten, to command ;
verbieten , to prohibit ; erlauben , to permit; verdienen, to
deserve, etc.; as , Ich bitte, daß es treu vollzogen werde,
I desire that it may be faithfully executed. Befiehl, daß man
von Neuem unterſuche, command that the examination
be made anew.
(2 ) In adverbial clauses expressive of design or end ; as,
Darum eben leiht er Keinem, damit er ſtets zu geben habe,
for this reason he lends to no one, that he may always have
something to give. When , however, a declaration is to be
emphatically made, the verb is put in the indicative, especially
1
( in substantive clauses) after the words, fürchten and hoffen ;
as, Ich hoffe, daß auch Du mich nicht verſch mäſt, I hope,
you do not despise me.
When the subordinate clause contains a sentiment or in
terrogative not of the speaker, but of another person, or a
supposition , or vague idea, it is commonly put in the subjunc
tive ; as, Wer ſpricht ihm ab, daß er die Menſchen kenne,
ſie zu gebrauchen wiſſe ? Who will deny that he understands
men , and that he knows how to use them ? Ein Eilbot iſt
angekommen , meldet, Regensburg Fei genommen, a mes
senger has come , and says, Ratisbon is taken . Er verfluchte
ſich : er habe falſd ) gezeugt, die Briefe an Babington ſeien
falſch, er habe andere Worte geſchrieben, he cursed him
self : he had testified falsely ( i. e, he acknowledged it) ; the
letters to Babington were false ; he had written differently.
So also when one reports what he himself said as well as
when he reports the language or sentiments of another, the
subjunctive is used. When , however , the sentiment of another
is represented as corresponding with reality, and accompa
nied by such words from the speaker as , wiſſen, to know ;
ſehen , to see ; erkennen , to recognize ; bekennen , to confess ;
erfahren , to experience, to ascertain ; beweiſen , to show , etc.,
the verb in the appended clause is in the indicative ; as, Ihr
27*
318 Syntax . — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
ſagtet ſelbſt, daß er von Sinnen war, you yourself said, he

was out of his senses. Weiß ſie es denn, daß ich gekommen
bin ? does she, then , know that I have come ; Ich fühle,
daß mein Haß verſchwindet, I perceive that my hatred
disappears. If the clause contain but a supposed reality, or
imagination, the conditional inust be used ; as, Berede Dich ,
ich w är ein Waiſenkind, imagine that I were an orphan.
Es hat mir jüngſt getraümt, ich läg ' auf ſteiler Höh ', I
lately dreamed , I lay on a precipice. The idea is often posi
tive where the form of expression is conditional ; in such
cases also the indicative is used ; as, Urtheilt, ob ich mein
Herz bezwingen kann, judge whether I can force my heart
(i. e. it is clear that I cannot). When the expression in the
clause is to be emphatic it is put in the indicative, though it
would otherwise be in the subjunctive ; as, Doch wir wollen
wiſſen, ob er lieben kann und Liebe fann verdienen, yet
we wish to know whether he can love and deserve love.
A second clause dependent on the first, is subject to the
same rules.
The Relation of Tenses in Subjunctive Clauses.
When the subjunctive mode is used in clauses where a sen

timent is reported (or a mere idea vaguely presented but not
affirmed ), or in substantive clauses dependent on wünſchen ,
hoffen , fürchten , gebieten , verbieten, and similar verbs, or
in adverbial clauses of design, the tense of the subjunctive
corresponds with the action of the principal clause as it was,
in point of time, with the actor ; that is, what is to us past
time was to him present ; and from his point of view the tense
is to be regulated ; it will accordingly be the present subjunc
tive ; as, Nun ſpürte ( imperf . ) Jeder zum erſtenmale, deß
er nicht wiſſe, (present subj.-- an idea presented but not af
firmed) was er zu ſagen habe, now each perceived for the
first time that he did not know what he had to say . Here the
English idiom differs from the German, by using the past
Sect. 2. Of the Qualifications of the Noun. 319
tense in the dependent clause. Und ſie entließen imperf. )

mich mit leerem Troſte, der Kaiſer habe (present subj.)
diesmal keine Zeit, and they dismissed me with the poor con
solation , that the emperor had no leisure at present . Dieſer
machte ihm Hoffnung, daß er nicht ungeneigt ſei, he en
couraged the hope , that he was not disinclined .
When the tense of the principal clause is the imperfect or
pluperfect, the conditional ( including the imperfect subjunc
tive which is in fact the only present conditional ) is used in
dependent clauses more frequently than the subjunctive ; as,
Sie glaubten ( imperfect) ſie würden ſich leicht als
Helden darſtellen, (conditional), they believed they might
easily appear as heroes.
SECTION II.
OF THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN.
The noun may be qualified in three ways,—by an adjective

or participle , by a genitive of attribute as the light of the
moon , for moon - light), or by another noun in apposition. In
stead of a genitive of attribute , a preposition with its noun is
sometimes so used as to qualify the preceding noun ; as, Ein
Ring von Gold, a ring of gold, for gold ring. Ein Menſch
ohne Ehre, a man without honor, for dishonorable man . 1
1. The Substantive qualified by an Adjective or Participle.
An adjective generally agrees in gender , number and case

with its noun expressed or understood. But when the adjec
tive follows its noun , it is not declined ; as, Sie hatte ein
Herz voll Empfindung , she had a heart full of sensibility .
Die Blicke, frei und Feriellos, the view ( views ) free and
unshackled , etc. All, when it follows its noun always be
320 Simple Sentences.
Syntar.- P. II. Ch. 1 .
comes alle. The old German required the adjective to be

declined even when it came after its noun , and the e in alle,
is a relic of ancient usage ; as , Der Wein iſt alle, the wine
is all (gone ) . Was willſt Du mit den Büchern alle ? what
are you going to do with all those books ?
In elliptical expressions, when the noun is omitted in repe
titions , the adjective must retain its proper form as if there
were no ellipsis as , Hier iſt ein Mißverſtand ! Ein hands
greiflicher, here is a misunderstanding , -an obvious one.
Wenn dieſer Geiſt der allgemeine iſt, if this spirit is the
universal one. These remarks apply to all adjective pronouns
also .
For the rules respecting the use of the two declensions of
adjectives, see pages 116–119.
2. The Genitive of Attribute.

This mode of qualifying a noun is resorted to :
( 1 ) When the noun in the genitive relates to the govern
ing word as cause to effect ; as, Der Lauf der Sonne, the
course of the sun . The sun is the cause or agent, and the
course it runs is its action . This is sometimes called geni
tive of subject. Die Gnade der Großen , die Gunſt der
Gewaltigen, die Förderung der Thätigen, die Reis
gung der Menge, die Liebe der Einzelnen , Alles
wandelt auf und nieder, the condescension of the great , the
favor of the powerful, the aid of the active, the will of the
multitude , the love of individuals, all are fluctuating.
(2 ) When the latter ( the genitive ) relates to the former as
the possessor to the possession , or the whole to a part. Ex
amples . Der Garten des Fürſten , the garden of theprince ;
Das Dach des Hauſes, the roof of the house.
( 3) When mutual personal relations are expressed ; as,
Der Bruder des Amtmanns, the brother of the magistrate ;
der Sohn des Arztes, the physician's son .
When the relation of the idea contained in the first noun
Sect. 2. of the Qualifications of the Noun . 321
to that of the second is not clear, the genitive cannot be em

ployed , but another form of expression is used , generally a pre
position , or a preposition and a participle ; as, Der Brief an
den Arzt, the letter to the physician , or der an den Arzt geſchrie
bene Brief, the letter written to the physician. Der Brief
des Arztes, the letter of the physician , would leave it doubt
ful whether a letter written by him , or received by him ,
were meant. In this respect the German has the advan
tage over many other languages. The use of the participle
in constructions like that given above, converting the whole
phrase included between it and its article into the nature of
an adjective, is very extensive.
3. The Genitive of Object.

This genitive is found only after verbal nouns, generally
those ending in ung and er ( i. e. the performing, and the per
former of an act ) retaining the active signification of the
verbs from which they are derived ; as , Die Erziehung der
Kinder, the educating of children ; der Thäter ſeiner Tha
ten, the performer of his acts.
Only in a few cases, where the derivative form in ung is
wanting, are primitive nouns employed in this way ; as, Der
Kauf des Hauſes, the purchase ( the buying) of the house.
There is no such word as Kaufung .
If the verb take a preposition before its noun , the corres
ponding verbal noun takes it also ; as, Durſt nadı Ruhm ,
thirst after fame ( like , nach Ruhm durſten ). Der Gedanke
an Gott, the thought of, respecting God ; and an Gott den :
ken , to think on God . If the verb require the genitive, the
corresponding verbal noun generally takes a preposition in
the place of the genitive. Thus the Germans say Schain ,
Reue, Spott, Freude über eine Sache, shame, regret, etc.
respecting a thing, though the verbs , ſchämen , reuen , etc.
govern the genitive without a preposition . The genitive of
a participial noun in English , as ' the joy of seeing you, ' is
322 Syntax. - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
expressed in German by substituting the infinitive with zu ;

as, Die Freude Dich zu ſehen. Der Verdruß, ihm zu
miß fa le n, the unhappiness to displease him. The En
glish may use either form ; the German , only the infinitive.
4. Prepositions instead of the Genitive.

The preposition von is the one which most frequently
takes the place of the genitive.
The genitive of subject ( agent ) , that of mutual personal
relations, that of possession, and those genitives of object,
which correspond to the accusative after the verb, rarely take
von in their place, except in names of towns and countries and
in numerals which cannot well undergo the changes of inflec
tion. Die Lage von Paris , the situation of Paris ; der Biſchof
von Konſtanz, the bishop of Constance ; die Frucht von
dreißig Kriegsjahren, the fruit of thirty years' war, are in
stances in which the nouns Paris, Constance, and the numeral
dreißig, are incapable of inflection . It is not so with the names
of persons ; for these may be inflected by means of the article ;
as , Die Schäße des Er öſus, the treasures of Cræsus. The
preposition von is often employed to avoid a disagreeable repe
tition of the genitive ; as, Die Geſchichte von der Erbauung
der Stadt, the history of the building of the city.
Genitives that may be used as the predicate of a sentence
( as, Er iſt der Meinung, he is of the opinion ), when they
are attached to a noun to qualify it, are generally exchanged
for von with the dative ; as, Ein Mann von Einfluß, a man
of influence . Instead of the partitive genitives ( as, es ſind
unſer, viel, there are many of us ),* the preposition is gen
erally to be preferred ; as , Vier von den Schülern, or vier
unter den Schülern , instead of der Schüler vier, four of the
scholars.
* See pp. 121–122 .

Sect. 2. of the Qualifications of the Noun . 323
5. Noun in Apposition.
So far as this is common to all languages no remark is here
necessary.
The noun in apposition is explanatory of that to which it
is added, and as such it is often rendered emphatic by the
word, nämlich ; as, mein Bruder, nämlich der Arzt, my
brother, the physician . The word , nämlich , is often used in
German where none would be admitted in English.
The case of apposition is itself emphatic, and hence when
an adjective is to be rendered emphatic, it is put in a similar
construction ; as, Niemand als Du ſoll dieſen Krieg, den
fürchterlichen, enden, no one but you shall end ( this
war , the terrific ,) this terrific war. Den Feldherrn hatten wir
noch nicht geſehen , den allvermögenden, in ſeinem
Lager, we had not yet seen the general, the all- powerful, in
the camp: A noun may stand in apposition to an idea con
tained in a whole clause in German as in English. It agrees
in number and case with that to which it is added, except it
be a proper name ; this does not vary in case ; as, Die
Gränzen des Königreichs Preußen ( not Preußens ),
the boundaries of the kingdom of Prussia ( literally, the king
dom Prussia). ' Die Macht des Kaiſers Karl, the power
of the emperor Charles ;-Heinrich des Vogfers, of Hen
ry the Fowler ;-fudwig des Vierzehten , of Louis the
Fourteenth . The same rule applies to the names of the
months when they are appended to the word Monat ; as,
Der Anfang des Monats Mai, the beginning of the month
(of) May.
Titles and similar words prefixed to proper names are re
garded as in apposition, not the proper names in apposition
with the titles ; hence these titles, though prefixed, are with
out declension in the singular, and also without any article ;
as, Doftor Gall's Vorleſungen , Dr. Gall's lectures.
The names of measure, weight, and number, after numerals
and before other nouns designating materials, are regarded and

construed as numerals, and therefore do not affect the case
of the following noun ; as , Mit drei Paar Schuhen, with
three pair ( of ) shoes, construed like drei Schuhen , three
shoes. If, however, the latter noun have an adjective or other
qualifying word , it must be put in the genitive ; as, Zwei
Pfund friſchen Brodes, two pounds of fresh bread .
See pp. 108–110. The word Art, kind , is also construed
as if it were an adjective ; as , Eine neue Art Korn, a new
kind ( of ) corn. The word Paar is sometimes an indefinite
numeral , meaning a few . It is then always in the same
case with the following noun, and has before it the article
ein without declension ; as, In ein Paar Tagen , in a few
days ; ein Paar tüchtige Leute, a few able men.
SECTION III.
OF THE RELATION OF THE NOUN IN REGIMEN TO ITS VERB .
The object - generally a noun in the oblique case, stands

either as the complement of an objective * verb or adjective,
or as an adverbial qualification of a subjective verb. When
the verb expresses an action, tending to or from the object,
the object is the complement of the verb, i . e. is necessary to
the complete sense of the verb in that connection .
A. THE COMPLEMENTAL RELATIONS OF THE OBJECT .

These may be divided into classes either according to
their kinds, or according to the direction or tendency of the
action to or from .
According to kind we distinguish ,
* See p. 223. Adverbs perform the same office as these nouns

in regimen , but the simplicity of their construction in a sen
tence is such that they require no particular attention here.
Sect. 3. The Relation of the Object to its Verb. 325
( 1 ) That action whose object is contemplated as a person .

It is immaterial whether it be a real person or not ; if it be
not, there is a personification.
(2 ) That kind of action whose object is contemplated as
an inanimate thing. The relation of objects of this class to
their verbs may, according to the nature of the action, be
physical, moral, or intellectual. The second term relates to
affections, such as desire and aversion ; the third, to the acts
of the understanding .
In regard to the direction or tendency of an action , we
may distinguish, ( 1 ) The idea of an agency proceeding from
the object, i. e. the oblique case expressing the source or mo
tive of the action ; as, he speaks from the heart. (2) The
idea of an agency, either terminating directly on its passive
object, or pointing to an indirect object, both of which imply
motion to or direction towards a thing.
Case.
The proper case for the object of an action contemplated

as a person is the dative ; as, Ich hab' der hiſpaniſchen
Monarchie gedient, I have served the Spanish monarchy,
where “ the Spanish monarchy ” is viewed as a person.
The proper cases for the object contemplated as an inani
mate thing are, ( 1 ) The genitive for action proceeding from
an object. (2 ) The accusative for action directed towards a
passive object. Besides this, there is a causative action , or
one of destination , whose relation is pointed out by a prepo
sition ; as, Er hat mich zum Hüter beſtellt, he made, or ap
pointed me guard.
These forms are sometimes interchanged, but they include
all the complemental relations of the object.
1. The Genitive.
The genitive is the case to express direction from an inani
mate thing, and is employed to designate, ( 1 ) The physical
28
326 Syntax . — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 , 1
relations of possession and want , of obtaining and losing.

(2 ) The moral relations of desire and aversion , and all the
agency of the affections and passions. (3 ) The intellectual
relations of perception , recollection , knowledge, and all the
acts of the understanding.
The prevailing use of the genitive in German , is the geni
tive of predicate, i. e. the genitive not governed by a noun ,
rather than that of attribute, i. e. when one noun governs
another in the genitive. Like the genitive in Greek , it in
cludes both, whereas the Latin employs the genitive chiefly
for the latter , and the ablative for the former . Consequently
the genitive in German is nearly equivalent to the genitive
and ablative in Latin. This is more particularly the case in
the old German , in which the genitive had the same wide
scope as in the Greek . The modern German has introduced
the accusative, or a preposition with its case, in the place of
the genitive, to a considerable extent. This genitive rela
tion , which is expressed mostly by one preposition in English
and French (of and de), is more graphically expressed by
various prepositions in German ; as, von, for the idea of
separation , in the general sense of whence ; vor, for that of
aversion, fear, caution , etc. , and an, when the noun limits the
preceding word ; as, “ rich in faith .” When the genitive is
used in such instances, it gives an antique, or solemn air to
the expression. Where both forms are used , the genitive
generally follows a verb or adjective used figuratively, or in
an intellectual or spiritual sense, and the accusative or pre
position with its case, after verbs in their literal sense ; as,
Brod genießen, to eat bread ; des Lebens genießen, to enjoy
life ; von der Reiſe müde, fatigued with the journey ; des
Reiſens müde, satiated with traveling.
The accusative or a preposition with its case has taken
the place of the older genitive most frequently in moral and
intellectual relations, but frequently also in physical. Ac
cording to present prevailing usage the genitive is required ,
Sect. 3. The Relation of the Object to its Verb . 327
1. After the following intransitive verbs : 5

Achten , to mind, harren, to wait for,
bedürfen , to want , lachen , to laugh at ,
begehren, to desire , pflegen , to foster,
brauchen , to use , ſchonen , to spare,
entbehren, to want, ſpotten , to mock ,
entrathen , to do without, verfehlen, to miss,
ermageln, to want , vergeſſen , to forget,
erwähnen , to mention , wahren , to guard , watch ,
gedenken , to think of, wahrnehmen , to observe ,
genießen, to enjoy , walten , to manage,
gewahren , to observe, warten, to attend to.
In common conversation , the accusative is more frequently

used after achten , bedürfen , begehren, brauchen , entbehren,
erwähnen , genießen, pflegen , ſchonen , verfehlen , vergeſſen, 6
wahrnehmen , wahren , warten ( to take care of ) ; auf with
the accusative after achten, harren, and warten, is not un
common ; and über with the accusative after lachen , ſpotten
and walten.
2. After the following reflective verbs, also intransitive :

Sich anmaßen , to claim , ſich entäußern , to abstain from ,
“ annehmen, to engage in, entblöden , to have the im
bedienen , to make use of, pudence ( to do a thing),
“ befleißen , to apply one's “ entbrechen, to forbear,
self to , enthalten , to abstain ,
“ befleißigen , to apply one's “ entſchlagen , to get rid of,
self to , “ entſinnen , to recollect,
66
begeben , to give up, erbarmen, to have com
“ bemächtigen , to get pos passion ,
session of, “ erfrechen , to presume,
“ bemeiſtern , to seize , erinnern , to remember,
beſcheiden, to acquiesce in , erfühnen , to venture,
beſinnen , to think upon , erwehren, to resist,
328 P. II. Ch . 1 . 1
Syntax. - Simple Sentences.
fid freuen , to rejoice, ſich unterwinden , to undertake,

getröſten , to hope for, “ vermeſſen , to presume,
rühmen , to boast of, verſehen , to be aware of,
“ ſchämen, to be ashamed , “ wehren , to resist ,
“ überheben, to be arrogant , “ weigern , to refuse,
“ unterfangen , to undertake, “ wundern , to wonder.
After ſich erbarmen, ſich freuen, ſich ſchämen and ſich wun
dern, über with the accusative is also employed ; after ſich
enthalten , von is used sometimes ; and after fich beſinnen
and ſich erfreuen, auf with the accusative is employed , giving
the verbs a peculiar signification ; as, Es hat ſich feiner dar
über zu freuen, no one can rejoice' at that. Er wunderte
ſich nicht wenig über mein Schwadroniren , he was not a
little surprised at my prating. O enthalte voin Blute
meine Hände, O restrain my hands from blood . Ich beſinne
mich auf ihn, I remember him. Auf etwas fich freuen ,
to rejoice in prospect of a thing.
3. The impersonal verbs es gelüſtet mich, I am pleased
with ; es jammert mich , I have compassion ; es reuet mich,
I regret ; es lohnt ſich , it is worth while, govern the genitive.
The first is also construed with nach .
4. After the following active verbs the genitive of a thing
is required , with the accusative of a person :
Anklagen , to accuse, entſeßen , to displace,
belehren, to inform , entwöhnen , to wean ,
berauben, to rob , losſprechen , to absolve,
beſchuldigen , to accuse , mahnen, to remind,
entbinden, to set free, überführen, to convict,
entblößen , to strip , überheben, to exempt,
entheben , to exempt, überzeugen, to convince,
entladen , to disburden , verſichern, to assure,
entkleiden , to undress, vertröſten , to put off with hope,
entlaſſen , to liberate from , würdigen, to think worthy of,
entledigen , to free from , zeihen, to accuse.
The preposition von is also used after entbinden , entblößen,

entladen, entkleiden, entſegen, entwöhnen, losſprechen, übers
führen , überzeugen and verſichen ; auf after vertröſten ; and
an after mahnen .
5. After the following adjectives :
Bedürftig, in want of, los, free from ,
benöthigt, in need of, mächtig, in possession of,
bewußt , conscious, müde, tired of,
eingedenf, mindful, ſatt, satiated with ,
fähig, capable of, ſchuldig, guilty of,
froh, glad, theilhaft, partaking of,
gewahr, aware of, überdrüſſig, tired with,
gewärtig, expecting, verdächtig, suspicious,
gewiß, certain of, verluſtig, having lost,
gewohnt, accustomed to, vou, full of,
fundig , skilled in , werth , worth ,
ledig, empty , free, würdig, worthy.
leer, void of,
The accusative is now more common than the genitive af

ter gewahr, gewohnt , los , müde, ſatt, voll and werth . Von
is often used after gewiß, leer and voll ; zit after fähig ; and
über after froh ; as , Einen widrigen Anblick ges
wohnt, müde, fatt, los werden, to become accustomed to,
tired of, satiated with, free from a disagreeable look or view.
Einen Gulden werth, worth a gulden . Voll is con
strued with the accusative chiefly when the latter is without
an adjective ; and in such cases the form voller is not un
common ; as, Vou Eifer, full of zeal; Voller Gnade und
Wahrheit, full of grace and truth.
Certain expressions have been preserved of the old use of
the genitive after words which now require another construc
tion . Such are, Einen des Landes verweiſen, to banish one
from the country. Ich lebe der Hoffnung, I cherish the hope.
28*
330 Syntax . - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
Hungers ſterben , to die of hunger. Des Todes verbleichen ,

to be pale with death , i. e. to die. Eines Kindes geneſen ,
to be delivered of a child . Sie ſind des Handels einig, they
are agreed in the case. Er iſt ſeines Lebens nicht ſicher , his
life is not secure . In old German , the verb ſein was con
strued with the genitive instead of the dative, and traces of
this usage are still found in many expressions ; as, Die Erde
iſt des Herrn, the earth is the Lord's.
2. Prepositions in place of the Genitive.

As has been already remarked , many ideas which were
originally expressed by the genitive are now exclusively ex
pressed by certain prepositions.
The preposition von is employed to express the idea of
separation after the verbs , befreien, to liberate ; erretten , to
rescue ; erlöſen , to redeem , to deliver ; heilen , to heal; ſich
erholen , to recover ; and after the adjectives, frei, free ; and
rein , pure .
The preposition mit, with , is put after such active verbs as
take, besides the accusative, another noun as an instrument
or means of a physical action . These verbs are, füllen , to
fill; ſchmücken, to adorn ; verſehen, to furnish ; verſorgen,
to provide ; verſchonen, to spare ( mit Sorge, to spare one
the anxiety ); bekleiden, to clothe ; bekränzen , to crown ; bes
malen , to paint ; beladen, to load ; beſeßen , to occupy ; be
legen, to encumber, and other similar compounds with the
prefix be .* So also, Mitleid haben, to have compassion ;
and the reflective verbs, ſich befaſſen, to employ one's self ;
fich begnügen , to be satisfied ; fich behelfen, to be contented,
are construed with mit.
The preposition um is employed to indicate loss, or ruin
in connection with such words as , kommen and bringen .
With the auxiliary ſein, the participle of these verbs is fre
quently omitted . Examples, Er iſt um ſeinen guten Ruf
* See page 245, Rem. 2.

gekommen, he has lost his good name. Ich bin um meinen

Schlummer, I have lost my sleep. For further examples see
page 278 .
The relation of dominion is designated by über, after
such verbs as gebieten, to command ; herrſchen , to rule ;
fchalten, to control ; fiegen , to conquer, and many others ;
as, Vater Zeus, der über alle Götter herrſcht, father Jupi
ter, who rules over all the gods. So laſſet Ihr das Regi:
ment über Euch ſchalten und walten , let the government
bear entire sway over you. Schalten und walten , is one of
those common German idioms by which two similar words
are joined together to convey one idea , as, Handel und Wan
del, trade.
Those indirect cases , or remote nouns, which are added to
limit a verb and its direct case, or an adjective, are generally
governed by prepositions.
( 1 ) An is so used with the dative after the verbs hindern ,
to hinder ; leiden, to suffer ; ſterben , to die ; ſich rächen , to
revenge ; ſich verſündigen, to be in fault ; ſich ſättigen, to
satiate one's self ; gleichen, to resemble ; übertreffen , to ex
cel ; nachſtehen, to be inferior; zunehmen, to increase ; ab
nehmen, to decrease ;—and after the adjectives arm, poor ;
reich, rich ; leer, empty ; groß, large ; klein, small; gleich,
like ; ähnlic ), similar ; ſtarf, strong ; ſdwady, weak ; übers
legen , superior ; krank, ill , sick ; blind, blind ; lahı, lame ;
fruchtbar, fruitful, and many others. The phrases, Es feh
let, es mangelt, an eine Sache, there is a failure, or want of
a thing, also belong here. Examples : Doch hindern die
Schleppen am Tanze, still the trails are a hindrance to dan
cing. Herzog Bernhard ſtarb a n einer peſtartigen Krank
heit, Duke Bernard died of a pestilential disease. An les
ben reich iſt die Natur, nature is rich in life, i. e. teems with
life.
(2 ) In with the dative after wetteifern , emulate ; ſich irs
ren , to be mistaken ; ſich üben, to practice ; —and after the
332 Syntax . — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1.
adjectives geſchickt, skilful; erfahren, experienced ; bewan

dert, versed ; verſtockt, hardened ; einfach, simple ; groß,
large ; klein, small ; genau , exact ; ähnlich , similar ; gleich ,
like ; einig, united ; unterſchieden , different, and many others ;
as, Sie irrte ſich in mir, wie Maria in Euch , she was mista
ken in me, as Mary was in you .
(3) Von after the adjectives ſchön , beautiful ; häßlich , ug
ly ; bleich , pale ; roth, red, and many others ; as, Er iſt nicht
häßlich von Geſtalt, he is not ugly in form . Bunt von
Farben, variegated with colors.
(4 ) Mit after anfangen , to commence ; beginnen, to be
gin ; endigen, to end ; geißen, to covet, to be parsimonious;
prahlen, to boast ; groß thun, to make pretensions ; ſtolz
thun, to assume airs ; Spott treiben, to ridicule ;—and after
zufrieden , satisfied ; farg, penurious ; geizig , avaricious;
ſparſam , parsimonious; verſchwenderiſch, wasteful; fertig,
ready , done, ended , and many others ; as, Der farge Staat
wird dann mit ſeinen Kindern geizen , the penurious state
will be stingy with its children. Mit dem da werden Sie
nicht fertig, you are not done with that, i . e. you are not rid
of it. The idiom here lies in fertig werden, to become
ready, to be through with .
( 5 ) Um in comparisons of magnitude, and after such verbs
as ſich verrechnen , to miscalculate, where it is to be rendered
by as the measure of excess ; as , Ich ſehe um einen Freund
mich reicher, I see that I am richer by one friend, i. e. have
one more friend. Um with the infinitive also belongs here.
For examples of the use of this preposition see page 278 .
The preceding examples of the use of prepositions in the
place of the genitive relate to the class of acts termed physi
cal. Examples of those relating to the intellect are not nu
merous. They are the following ; denken, to think ; meinen,
to be of opinion ; glauben, to believe ; traïmen, to dream , to
imagine ; erfahren , to know, and others like them , all of
which take von after them . Sprechen , to speak ; erzählen ,
to relate ; and hören, to hear, are construed in the same way.

Wiffen, to know , takes both von and um , to know of or about
a thing. Zweifeln , to doubt ; verzweifeln , to despair ; and
irre werden , to get out of the way , to be perplexed, always
require an with the dative ; as, Die Freunde werden irr' an
Dir, the friends are perplexed about you , or are deceived in
you . Of the class of moral acts, or those which relate to the
desires, passions and sensibilities, the following are to be
specified.
The preposition vor is employed after words of fear ; viz.
after bewahren and verwahren , to guard against, to ward
off ; ſchützen , to defend ; hüten, to protect ; ſcheuen , to be
shy off, to shun ; fürchten, to fear ; erſchrecken , to be terri
fied ; grauen, to have a horror of ; fliehen , to flee ; bergen,
to hide ; ekeln, to loathe ;—ſicher, secure, and other similar
words ; as, Drum willſt Du Dich vor Leid bewahren, there
fore you will guard yourself against suffering. Damit ich
ſicher ſei vor Euren Pfeilen, that I may be secure against
your darts. Rein Eiſengitter ſchützt vor ihrer liſt, no iron
grate is defence against her intrigue. Er verſteckte ſie mit
Lebensgefahr vor ihren Verfolgern, he concealed her at the
peril of his life from her persecutors. Vor dem König ver
friecht ſich ſeine Leidenſchaft, his passion conceals itself
( creeps out of sight ) from the king.
Objects of dislike, of sorrow , joy and surprise, are indicated
by über with the accusative , after zürnen, to be angry ; ſchels
ten, to scold ; trauern , to mourn ; flagen, to complain ;
weinen, to lament ; ſich ärgern , to be offended ; ſich betrüs
ben , to be sorry ; ſich beſchweren , to have grievances ; ſich
entrüſten, to be in a passion ; froblocen , to exult ; erſtaunen ,
to be amazed at ; entzückt, ravished , and similar words.
After eiferſüchtig, jealous ; neidiſch, envious ; erboſt, angry ;
and argwolniſchy, suspicious, auf with the accusative is re
quired ; as, Ich erſchrecke über Eure Unverſchämtheit, I
am frightened at your shamelessness. Indeß unwillig über
334 Syntax.- Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
und ſein Geiſt die Welt verläßt, his spirit, displeased with
us , leaves the world . Die Stände aufgebracht über den
Kaiſer, etc. , the states of the empire , incensed at the empe
ror , etc. Wir haben nachher uns oft was darüber zu
Gute gethan , we afterwards often amused ourselves at that.
Sich etwas ( here was ) zu Gute thun , is an idiom , meaning,
to make it a pleasure, to be amused with. Darüber ſchei
nen Sie erſtaunt, you seem to be astonished at that. The
preposition ob is used poetically for über ; as, Entrüſtet find'
ich fie o b dem neuen Regiment, I find them enraged at the
new government. Alle Redlichen beklagen ſich ob dieſes
Landvogts Geiz, all honorable men complain of this magis
trate's avarice.
Sorrow for a loss of a thing is specially indicated by um,
after weinen , to weep ; klagen, to lament ; trauern, to
mourn ; ſich betrüben, to be sorry ; grämen, to grieve ; ſich
kümmern, to take a thing hard ; beneiden, to envy, and the
like ; as, Wein um den Bruder, weep for your brother.
Auf, with the accusative, is used after words of confidence
and assurance, such as vertrauen , to trust ; rechnen , to count,
rely ; vertröſten , to put off with ; troßen, to be insolent, to
defy ; pochen , to boast, to brag ; ſich berufen, to appeal to ;
ſich verlaſſen , to commit to ; and ſtolz, proud ; as, Web Des
nen die a uf Dich vertrauen ! alas ! for those who trust in
thee ! Auf eine Zeit, die Alles löſen wird, hat er ſie vers
tröſtet, he has put her off ( with hope) to the time, when all
shall be set free. Troßt nicht auf Euer Recit, rely not,
with defiance, upon your right . So lange die Weisheit
auf Weisheit rechnet, so long as wisdom relies on wisdom.
The object of agreeable emotions is pointed out by an
with the dative, after fich weiden, to feast one's self; fich ers
geßen, to enjoy ; Theil nehmen , to participate in ; and after
Freude, Luſt, Gefallen , Troſt haben ( an einer Sache ), to
find joy, delight , pleasure, consolation ' in a thing) . An is
used with the accusative after denken, to think ; glauben, to
believe ; ſich gewöhnen, to accustom one's self ; ſich kehren,

to care for ; as, Sie haben Ihre Luſt dran, mich zu quälen,
you take pleasure in tormenting me. Sehren Sie ſich nicht
an meine Thränen, pay no attention to my tears.
The object of desire may be viewed as that which calls
forth the affection or acts upon the individual , implying di
rection from the object of desire towards the individual, in
which case it is put in the genitive , according to ancient
usage ; or it may be regarded as that to which the mind tends,
which is the more modern conception of it, and then the
verb takes a preposition indicating motion towards an object.
The prepositions thus used , are :
( 1 ) Nach after ſtreben, to strive ; verlangen , to long for ;
tradyten , to seek after, to pursue ; ſich ſehnen , to long for ;
forſchen, to search ; fragen , to ask ; begierig, desirous, and
others; as, Geizeſt Du nach Ehre ? do you lust after
honor ?
(2 ) Um after bitten, to beg ; flehen , to entreat ; werben,
to sue for; buhlen, to woo ; ſich bemühen , to take pains;
ſpielen , to play , to hazard ; ſtreiten, to contend ; ſich befüm
mern, to care, and many others ; as, Ich bitte um eine große
Gunſt, I ask for a great favor. Ich flehe Dich um drei
Tage Zeit, I beg for three days time. Mit dem Sdiwert
um ſie werben, to woo her with the sword. Ich muß um
das Lob der Menge buhlen , I must court the praise of the
multitude. Wenn Sie um Mitgefühle wimmern , if you
whimper for compassion . Laſſen wir der Erde Fürſten um
die Erde loſen , let us leave the kings of the earth to draw
lots for the earth . Die Armee kümmert ſich mehr um den
Krug, als den Krieg, the army cares more for wine than
for war .
(3) Auf with the accusative, after hoffen , to hope ; ſinnen ,
to meditate ; halten , to hold or adhere to ; beſtehen , to per
sist in ; gefaßt, prepared . Verzichten , to renounce , the op
posite of desire , also takes auf. Examples : Ich werde auf
336 Syntar.- Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
Erfüllung dieſes Eides halten , I will hold to the fulfilment

of this path. Der Herzog ſinnt auf Verrath, the duke
meditates treason . Karlos dringt auf Antwort, Carlos in
sists on an answer. Auf ſolche Botſchaft war ich nicht ges
faßt, for such a message I was not prepared. Nur muß man
durchaus auf das Verzicht thun , was man gewöhnlich Ver
ſtehen nennt, but one must utterly renounce what is com
monly called understanding.
3. The Accusative.
The accusative has a two -fold use, the one being that in
which it is the passive object of the verb, and may always be
known by its becoming the nominative when the verb is
changed into the passive form ; the other that in which it is
a substitute for the genitive, and which stands more generally
after the verbs that have no passive form , and consequently
are not active verbs in the proper sense of the term . To this
latter class most of the radical verbs originally belonged ,
many of which have now become active as well as neuter ; to
the former class belong most derivative verbs.
The accusative as aa passive
passive object,
object, or
or as that which re
ceives the direct action of the verb, is governed,
( 1 ) By all causative verbs. Under these are included not
only those derived from nouns ; as, fällen , to fell (different
from fallen, to fall ) , and tränken, to , water (different from
trinken , to drink ) , from Fall, fall, and Tränf, drink ( hence
to cause to fall, to cause to drink ) ; but those derived from
adjectives ; as, ſtärken, to strengthen , i . e. to cause to be
strong, from ſtarf, strong ; fdwächen , to weaken, i. e. to
cause to be weak , from (dwach , weak.
(2 ) Verbs compounded with the prefix, be, except begeg
nen , behagen, beſtehen , beruhen, beharren and bewachſen .
The pronouns of reflexive verbs are in the accusative.
Sich ( eine Sache ) anmaßen, to claim ; ſich einbilden , to
imagine ; fich getrauen , to venture, to hazard ; ſich vorneh
men, to undertake ; and ſich vorſtellen , to conceive, which

are generally ranked with reflexive verbs, take the dative of
the pronoun . But they are not strictly reflexive verbs, for
reflexive verbs are, with reference to another object be
sides the pronoun , always intransitive, whereas the verbs
above mentioned take an accusative of a thing besides the
dative of the person ; as, “ I claim , or imagine to myself
something .”
In the expressions, es friert mich , I am cold ; es hungert
mich , I am hungry , and the like, the logical subject is made
grammatically the passive object of the verb. Sprechen , in
the sense, to speak with, sometimes takes the accusative ;
as, Sprach er nicht Einige insgeheim ? did he not speak
with some persons in secret ?
The accusative is used in the place of a genitive ( thus
modifying the conception ) to designate quantity after the in
transitive verbs wiegen, to weigh ; koſten , to cost ; gelten, to
go for ; and after the adjectives werth, worth ; ſchwer, heavy
( weighing ) ; reich , rich ; groß, large ; lang, long ; breit,
wide ; tief, deep ; hoch, high ; and weit, wide, distant ; as ,
Was ſoll die Wette gelten ? what is the bet ? for what
amount is it ? Es gilt die Ehre, honor is at stake, literally,
it goes for honor. Es iſt fünf Schuhe breit, vierthalb
hoch, und vierzig lang, it is five feet wide, three and a half
high, and forty long. In the old German the genitive was
actually used in such sentences, and remains of that use are
seen in the expressions, Eines Daumens dick, the thick
ness of a thumb ; einer Spanne weit, a span wide ;
Armes lang, as long asyour arm ; Mannes hoch , of the
height of a man . The verb lehren, to teach, a causative of
lernen, to learn, takes a person as the passive object, and the
thing taught as the remote object, also in the accusative,
though the genitive was formerly employed here.
There is a large class of forms expressing the relation be
tween a verb or adjective and a following noun , which con
29
338 Syntat.--- Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
vey the general idea of destination — that which a thing is

made, designed, conceived or desired to be. This class de
serves to be treated of by itself. Prepositions are most com
monly employed to express the relation here mentioned .
1. Instances of Physical Destination :
( 1 ) The preposition zu serves the purpose of pointing out
the destination of a thing after verbs and adjectives which have
the general signification of becoming , making , choosing, nam
ing, turning out to be, being adequate, useful or valuable ;
as, Zu Waſſer werden, to become water. Der Zwang der
Zeiten macht mich zu Euren Gegner, the necessity of the
times makes me ( to be) your opponent. Zum Schlachtfeld
ward die Stadt, the city became a battle - field . Zu Eurer
Warnung ſollte ſie gereichen, it should serve you as a warning.
Ob er zu unſerm König taugt ? is he fit to be our king ? Er
hat ihm zum Freund gewählt, he has chosen him for a
friend .
The same preposition is used after words expressing suf
ficiency for a thing, where for would be employed in Eng
lish ; as, Es gibt genug ( hinlänglich ) zum Leben , aber zu
wenig zum Satteſſen , there is enough ( sufficient) for life,
but too little for satisfying the appetite. Zu dywach zur
Arbeit, too weak for labor. Du biſt z u ſtolz zur Demuth ,
ich zur lüge, you are too proud for humility, I for falsehood
( to be humble, to be guilty of falsehood ).
(2 ) The preposition in with the accusative is put after the
verbs verwandeln , to change into ; theilen, to divide ; zerle:
gen, to take to pieces, and others of similar import ; as,
Schnell wirſt Du Recht in Unrecht ſich verwandeln ſehen ,
you will quickly see justice turned into injustice. Deutſch
land theilt ſich in zwei Unionen , Germany is divided into
two bodies. The nominative after bleiben, to remain , and
werden, to become, is a similar construction .
When a thing is destined morally or by moral causes, zu ,
nach , auf and um are variously employed ; as, Zum Frie:
den ermahnen, rathen, bereden, to exhort, advise, persuade to

peace . Wie ſebn' ich mich nach der Laſt ! how do I
long for the burden ! Er ſinnt auf unerhörte That,
he meditates an unheard of deed. Ich bitte noch um eine
zweite Gunſt, I ask for still another favor.
Things are by an intellectual act destined :
( 1 ) By the preposition für after halten , to hold ; erklären,
to explain ; ausgeben, to give out ; gelten , to pass for ; achs
ten, to regard , and many others of a similar character ; as,
Wir halten's bloß für lug und Trug, we hold it to be mere
deception. Einen für einen Verräther erklären, to pro
nounce one a traitor. Sich für einen Arzt ausgeben , to
give one's self out as a physician . Wir können gelten für
ein ganzes Volk, we can pass for a whole nation .
(2 ) By the accusative after, heißen, to call ; nennen, to
name ; ſdielten, to reproach with hard names . When these
verbs become passive the naminative is used.
This relation is also expressed by wie and als after verbs
of estimating, by the case in apposition , and by adjectives in
such phrases as, Man preiſ't mich glücklich, men pro
nounce me happy.
4. The Infinitive.
The infinitive has much more of the participial character
in German than in English. It is often used as a noun de
signating, in the most general way, action in the abstract . It
then always has the definite article, and ought not to be fol
lowed by the accusative . Example, Das Laufen erhißt,
running heats one. It is used in the various cases ; as, Zum
Fliegen gehören Flügel , wings are required for flying. Ich
bin des Gehens und des Beſuchens müde, I am tired
of walking and visiting. Sometimes it is used as a concrete
noun , and then it takes also the indefinite article and may
take an adjective ; as, Ein theures Andenken , a choice
memorial
But the infinitive has a participial use differing from the

above both in sense and in construction. It has more of the
character of the verb, it being qualified by adverbs, and con
strued with nouns in regimen. As a noun it is limited to
the nominative and accusative cases. All this will be best illus
trated by examples. Sterben iſt Nichts , doch leben und
nicht ſehen , das iſt ein Unglück. Dying is nothing ; but
living and yet not seeing, is a real misfortune. Ein Wunder
hoffen hieße Gott verſuchen, to expect a miracle would
be (called ) to tempt God. Heißt das in England leben ?
is that ( called ) living in England ? Das heißt großmüthig
handeln , that is called ) acting nobly. Das nennt er ar
beiten , he calls that laboring. Hier iſt gut wohnen, here
is convenient dwelling, i . e. a good place to reside. Du haſt
gut lachen, it is easy to laugh (you have easy laughing).*
The infinitive is used without zu,
( 1 ) In participial constructions, as in the examples just
presented.
(2 ) After the verbs, fönnen, mögen, laſſen , dürfen , ſollen ,
wollen and müſſen ; and werden, when it is an auxiliary to
form the future tense.
(3) After the verbs heißen, to bid ; helfen, to help ; lehren,
to teach ; lernen , to learn ; hören, to hear ; ſeben , to see ;
fühlen , to feel. For example : Ich heiß ihm gehen , I bade
him go ; Er hilft mir ſchreiben, he helps me to write ; der
Vater lehrt das Kind leſen, the father teaches his child to
read ; wir lernen tanzen, we learn to dance ; ich höre fie
ſingen , I hear them sing ; ich ſehe ihn kommen, I see him
come , or coming ; er fühlte ſein Blut gähren , he felt his blood
boil , or boiling. After some of those verbs, the English more
commonly use the participle ; the Germans constantly employ
the infinitive. Lehren and lernen sometimes admit zu be-,
fore the infinitive that follows them.
* See the larger Dictionaries for the various idiomatic uses

of the words, gut and heißen.
Some verbs are joined to an infinitive without zu , in par

ticular phrases . They are :
Bleiben, to remain, which with the infinitive, signifies coni
tinuance of locality; as, er bleibt liegen, he continues lying ;
er bleibt ſißen, he continues sitting, he keeps his seat, he does
not move from his seat ; er bleibt.ſtehen, he continues stand
ing. Thus with ſtecken , to stick fast; hangen , to hang ;
fnien , to kneel ; kleben, to adhere , to stick.
Fahren , to go in a carriage, with ſpaßieren ; as , ich fahre
ſpapieren , I drive out for exercise, for an airing.
Finden, to find, is followed by the infinitive, where the
English put the participle. Er fand ſie ſchlafen , he found
them sleeping, or asleep : ich fand das Buch auf dem Tiſche
liegen , I found the book lying upon the table. The partici
ple might here be used , even in German.
Gehen , to go ; as, ich gebe ſpatzieren , I take a walk ; er
geht ſchlafen , he goes to sleep, that is, he goes to bed ; and
with some other verbs. Haben, to have, in these, and simi
lar phrases ; er hat gut reiſen , he has good travelling, it is
easy for him to travel ; Sie haben gut ſprechen , you have
fine talking; wir haben Geld auf Zinſen ſtehen , we have
money standing out on interest.
Sich legen , to lay one's self down , with ſchlafen , to sleep ;
as, ich lege mich ſchlafen, I lay myself down to sleep.
Machen, when it signifies to cause, to occasion ; as, er
macht mich lachen , he makes me laugh ; er macht mich wei
nen, he makes me cry.
Reiten to ride on horseback , with ſpaßieren ; as , ich reite
ſpapieren , I take a ride.
Thun, to do , with nichts , and als , after it ; as , die Frau
thut nichts als zanken, the woman does nothing but quarrel ;
der Mann thut nichts als ſchelten , the man does nothing
but scold .
• The Infinitive with the preposition zu, to, before it is re
quired in cases not here specified , chiefly :
25 *
342 Syntar . - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1.
( 1 ) After nouns and adjectives when , in English, either to

with the infinitive, or of with the participle, is used ; for ex
ample, after a substantive, Luſt zu ſpielen , an inclination to
play ; das Vergnügen Sie zu ſehen , the pleasure of seeing
you ; der Wunſch gelobt zu werden, the wish ofbeing praised ;
-after an adjective, ich war froh meinen Freund wieder zu
fehen , I was happy to see my friend again ; neugierig zu wif
ſen, curious to know ; begierig zu erfahren, anxious to be
informed .
(2 ) After verbs, when purpose, design and opinion are in
timated . Ich ging zu dem Manne, ihm die Sache, vorzus
ſtellen und mit ihm darüber zu ſprechen , I went to the man ,
to represent the thing to him, and to converse with him about
it. To verbs expressing opinion or judgment are to be reck
oned glauben, to believe ; wähnen , to suppose ; meinen, to
think ; fich einbilden , to imagine ; and the following which
originate in opinion , vorgeben, to hold out ; behaupten, to
affirm ; anklagen, to accuse ; and beſchuldigen , to inculpate .
And here the participle im is frequently joined with zu , which
expresses design still more distinctly. Liebet die Tugend , um
glücklich zu ſeyn, love virtue ( for) to be happy.
(3 ) After the following, and verbs of a similar significa
tion ; anfangen, to begin ; aufhören , to cease ; befehlen , to
command ; bitten, to beg ; erwarten, to expect ; hoffen , to
hope; fürchten, to fear ; drohen, to threaten ; fich freuen , to
rejoice; ſich ſchämen, to be ashamed ; fich rühmen , to boast ;
bereuen, to regret , and other similar words expressive of emo
tion ; -pflegen , to be wont ; fortfahren , to proceed ; unterlaſ
ſen , to neglect ; vermeiden , to avoid ; zögern, to delay ; ges
wöhnen, to accustom ; dienen , to serve ; hinreichen , to suf
fice ; warnen, to warn ; weigern, to refuse ; erkennen, to ac
knowledge, with the infinitive in the preterite tense ; as, er er:
kennt ſich geirrt zu haben, he acknowledges that he has been
mistaken ; bekennen, to confess, with the infinitive preterite,
as, er bekennt das Geld erhalten zu haben, he confesses that
Sect. 3 . The Relation of the Object to its Verb. 343
he received the money ; ſcheinen , to appear, to seem ; wün

( dhen , to wish ; verlangen , to desire ; erlauben, to permit ; ges
ſtatten , to allow ; verdienen , to deserve ; wagen , to venture ;
haben, to have ; as, ich habe Ihnen etwas zu ſagen , I have
something to tell you ; ſeyn, to be ; as , es iſt zu fürchten , it
is to be feared ; wiſſen , to know how ; as, er weiß es zu
madjen , he knows how to do it ; and these verbs , helfen ,
nußen, frommen , when they signify to be of use, to answer
a purpose .
( 4 ) The preposition ohne, without, and ſtatt or anſtatt,
instead of, require zu before the infinitive. The English
construe them with the participle : as , ohne zu wiſſen , with
out knowing , Fr. sans savoir ; ſtatt zu ſchlafen , instead of
sleeping ; anſtatt zu ſchreiben , instead of writing.
In English , the infinitive, with to, is put after some verbs,
where the Germans prefer the conjunction daß, with the in
dicative or subjunctive. For example : I knew him to be
the man , ich wußte, daß er der Mann war ; they thought
me to be mistaken, ſie dachten , daß ich mich irrte ; he be
lieved it to be true, er glaubté, daß es wahr wäre. The in
finitive, with to, is also employed by the English, after words
which form indirect questions. For example : you know how
to write ; Iwill tell you what to do ; teach me what to say.
In German , the indicative, or subjunctive of some assisting
verb, such as muß, ſoll, must, ought, shall, is to be made use
of ; as, Sie wiſſen , wie Sie es ſchreiben müſſen, you know
how you must write it ; ich will Ihnen ſagen, was Sie thun
müſſen, I will tell you what you must do ; lehren Sie mich,
was ich ſagen ſoll, teach me what I am to say .
5. The Dative.
The dative is the proper case to indicate a person as the

complemental object of the verb to which it belongs. It im
plies the reciprocal action of the subject and object; as, ' I
344 Syntax . - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch. 1 .
give to the child ' ( that receives ) ; ' the servant obeys the
master' ( who commands ).
The dative is governed,
( 1 ) By the simple intransitive verbs antworten, to answer ;
danken , to thank ; dienen, to serve ; drohen, to threaten ;
fehlen , to come short ; fluchen , to curse ; folgen , to follow ;
fröhnen , to serve without reward ; gebühren , to be due, or
fitting ; gefallen , to please ; gehören, to pertain to ; gehor:
chen , to listen to ; genügen, to satisfy ; gereichen, to be suf
ficient or adequate to ; gleichen , to resemble ; helfen , to help ;
huldigen , to swear allegiance to ; mangeln , to be deficient;
nahen, to approach ; nüßen, to profit ; ſchaden , to injure ;
ſcheinen , to appear ; ſdhmeicheln, to flatter ; trauen , to trust ;
trogen , to defy ; wehren , to check, to keep off; weichen ,
to yield , ziemen , to befit, to become, and other similar verbs ;
as, Und danket dem rettende Gotte, and thank the
God that delivers. Dein Vater dient dem Könige, thy
father serves the king. Folgt dem flang, follow the
sound. Wehre Du mir nicht, daß ich hinunterſteige, hin
der me not from descending. Er ſchadet uns, und nüßt
ſich nicht, he injures us without benefitting himself.
(2 ) By the following simple transitive verbs which with
the dative of the person take the accusative of the thing ; viz.
bieten , to offer ; borgen, to lend (only in this sense ) ; bringen,
to bring ; geben, to give ; gebieten, to command ; geloben,
to promise ; geſtatten , to grant ; geſtehen , to acknowledge,
to admit ; gewähren , to assure ,to grant ; glauben , to believe ;
gönnen, not to grudge, to grant as a favor ; , laſſen , to leave ;
leihen, to lend ; leiſten , to render ; liefern, to deliver, to fur
nish ; melden, to announce ; offenbaren , to reveal ; opfern ,
to sacrifice ; rathen, to advise ; rauben, to rob ; reichen , to
extend ; ſchenken , to present , to give ; ſenden , to send ; ſteh
len , to steal; weihen, to consecrate ; widmen, to devote ;
zeigen, to point out, and others ; as, Gebiete mit, was
menſchlich iſt, command me what is human . Wer wird es
dieſem Noſenwangen glauben ? who will believe it

( upon the word ) of this cherry-cheek ? or , who will believe
him in that ? Und willſt Du mir das Einzige noch raus
ben ? and will you rob me of the only thing that remains ?
( 3 ) By very many compound verbs, especially those which
are compounded with the inseparable prefixes er, ver and
ent, and with the separable prepositions an , ab, auf, bei,
nach , vor and zu ; as, befehlen , to command ; begegnen , to
meet ; behagen , to please ; bekommen, to turn out well or ill
( only in this sense ) ; erlauben, to permit ; erliegen , to suffer
under , to sink under ; erſcheinen , to appear ; erwiedern , to
reply ; erweiſen , to demonstrate ; verbieten , to prohibit; vers
gleichen , to compare ; vermählen, to marry ; verzeihen, to
pardon ; verſagen , to refuse ; verſprechen , to promise ; vers
hehlen, to conceal ; verſichern , to assure ; entgehen , to
escape ; entfliehen , to flee from ; entſagen , to renounce ;
entwenden, to purloin ; entziehen, to withdraw ; anmeſſen,
to take the measure of anything ; anpaſſen , to fit; anſinnen ,
to require, to enjoin ; anſehen , to look upon, to judge from
the appearance of ; anſtehen , to be suitable ; antragen , to
propose, to offer ; anſagen , to say to, to intimate ; abſchlagen,
to put away , to refuse ; abtreten , to retire ; abſagen , to re
nounce ; auftragen, to lay upon , to commission ; auffündis
gen, to renounce openly ; aufbürden , to burden , to charge
with ; auflegen , to impose ; beifügen, to subjoin ; beilegen,
to add , to attribute ; beimiſchen, to admix ; beiſtehen, to
stand by, to aid ; beiſpringen , to come to one's aid ; beiſtim
men , to assent ; beiwohnen, to be present at ; einleuchten , to
be evident ; eintragen , to bring in ; nachgehen , to follow ;
nachſtellen, to lie in wait ; nachſtehen , to be inferior ; vor :
ſtehen , to preside over ; vorlegen , to offer, to propose ; vors
gehen, to precede ; vorziehen, to prefer ; vorſagen, to re
hearse ; widerſprechen, to contradict; widerſtehen, to resist ;
zuſagen, to correspond to ; zuhören, to listen to ; zurufen , to
346 Syntax . — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
call to ; zumuthen, to ask, to require ; zuſchreiben, to ascribe ;

zuſtehen, to befit ; zukommen , to belong to , to become ; zus
wenden, to turn towards, and many others. It were an al
most endless undertaking to illustrate this use of the dative
by examples. Let it be remembered, that the dative does not
in German , as in some other languages, signify motion to a
place, but a mere relation (which is mutual) to something ;
and when it is applied to things, it generally clothes them with
the attributes and actions of living beings. A clear appre
hension of the nature and import of this case will make it
comparatively easy to understand its various applications.
(4 ) By the adjectives ähnlich, similar ; abtrünnig, rebel
lious ; angeboren, innate ; angenehm , agreeable ; anſtößig ,
offensive ; bekannt, known ; beſchieden , appointed, destined ;
bewußt, known ; eigen, peculiar ; fremd, foreign ; gemäß,
according with ; gemein, common ; geneigt, inclined , kind ;
gewogen, friendly, polite ; gewachſen , competent ; gnädig,
gracious; heilſam , salutary ; hold, favorable ; abhold, unfa
vorable ; läſtig , burdensome ; lieb, agreeable ; nahe, near ;
ſchuldig, indebted ; treu, faithful ; überlegen, superior ; ver
derblich, pernicious ; verhaßt, odious ; verwandt, kindred ;
widrig, adverse, offensive ; willkommen , welcome; and nu
merous other adjectives formed from verbs which govern the
dative , as, auſtändig, respectable ; dienſtbar, serviceable ; ge
horſam , obedient ; ergeben , devoted to ; gleich, like ; nük
lid ), useful ; ſchädlich, injurious, etc.
( 5 ) By several such expressions, as , leid thun , wehe thun ,
fund thun, zu Hülfe kommen, das Wort reden, den Hof
machen , Hohn ſprechen , zu Theile werden , and Wort halten ;
as , Es thut mir leid, I am sorry . Es wird mir im Herzen
weh ' thun , it will pain me to the heart. Nicht ihm rede ich
das Wort, I do not speak in his defence, or plead for him .
Strafloſe Frechheit ſpricht den Sitten Hohn , unpunished
offences put morals to scorn ( speak contempt to morals ).
(6) By the impersonal verbs, es ahnet (mir ), I have an
inkling of it; es dünkt or es däucht, it seems ; es grauet

( mir), I shudder at ; es ekelt ( mir ), it is nauseating to me ;
es ſchwindelt ( mir), I am dizzy ; es träumet (mir ), I
dream . In the phrase es iſt ( mir ) zu Muthe, I feel, the
logical subject is put in the dative. Es dünft and es däucht,
sometimes take the accusative.
The dative is also employed to point out the mere relation
of a person (or thing viewed as a person ) to the verb. This
is sometimes expressed in English, and it is sometimes omit
ted. In the latter case the words in German often seem to
us to be mere expletives , though in reality they always ex
press the relation mentioned above. Examples : Ihnen
bedeutet dieſes Opfer nichts , to you this sacrifice has no
meaning. Dem undan f haben ſie gebaut, they have
labored for ingratitude; i. e. for those who feel no gratitude.
Du heißeſt ihnen nür eine Räuberin des Thrones, you
are to them are called by them ) nothing but a usurper. Soll
der Freund mir, der liebende, ſterben ? Shall the friend, the
loving friend die to me ; i. e. die and leave me desolate ?
Die Thränen , die Eurem Streit gefloſſen , the tears
which have flowed in regard to, or over your quarrel.
The dative is used in German in a peculiar manner, where
a possessive pronoun or a genitive of the noun would be em
ployed in English ; as , Er greift mir an die Ehre, he assails
my honor, or he assails me in regard to my honor. Man
ſieht Dir's an den Augen an ; gewiß Du haſt geweint,
you have certainly been weeping ; one sees it in your eyes,
perceives it from the appearance of your eyes. Euch wohnt
ein Engel an der Seite, an angel is at your side. Mir
tödtete ein Schuß das Pferd, a shot killed my horse. Ihm
zu Füßen legt ſich der Leu, the lion laid himself down at his
feet. Ihr habt das Herz mir bezwungen, you have forced
my heart. Nicht den Beliebten hab ' ich Dir getödtet ;
den Bruder hab' ich Dir und hab' ihn mir gemordet, I
1
i
348 Syntax . - Simple Sentences . P. II. Ch . 1 .
have not slain your lover, I have murdered your brother and
mine.
To the dative as the case for persons belong the construc
tion with von after passive verbs ; as, Von Geiſtern wird
der Weg dazu beſchüßt, the way to it is guarded by angels.
So also the dative with adjectives ending in bar and lich
which have a passive import ; as , Der Romet iſt uns nicht
ſichtbar, the comet is not visible to us. The relation and force
of the dative is represented frequently by mit, für, gegen and
auf with their respective cases ; as , Er hat ſich mit ſeinem
Bruder verbunden, he has joined with his brother (joined
himself to).
In common life the dative of the personal pronouns of the
first and second persons is often employed in an indefinite
manner to express the interest either of the person speaking,
or of theperson spoken to ; as, Ich lobe mir das Landleben,
I like or prefer a country life. Damals waren wir Dir ſehr
vergnügt, we were very happy at that time. Du biſt mir
ein ſchöner Kerl, you are a fine fellow .
The following verbs take the dative or accusative, but in
a different sense :
Helfen , to help, with the dative ; with the accusative it
means to be useful to ; as, Was hülfe es den Menſchen , ſo
er die ganze Welt gewönne ? what would it profit a man, if
he were to gain the whole world ? Das Wort der Predigt
half ſie nichts, the word preached was of no use to them.
Verſichern, to assure, to make certain in an intellectual
sense with the dative ; with the accusative it means to make
sure, to secure in a physical sense ; as, Jedesmal verſicherte
man mir, es wäre ein Glück, daß dieſes Uebel nun für im
mer vorüber ſei, every time I was assured that it was a hap
py thing that this evil had passed by. ' Haſt Du Dich des
Deodat und Tiefenbach verſichert ? have you made sure of
Diodatus and Tiefenbach ?
Nachahmen , to imitate , takes the dative of a person , but

the accusative of a thing.
Rufen, to call , to cause to approach , governs the accusa
tive ; but when it means, to cry out to, it governs the dative.
Laſſen, to leave, to let, as a principal verb, governs the da
tive ; as an auxiliary it governs the accusative.
B. THE NOUN in REGIMEN IN ITS ADVERBIAÍ. CHARACTER.
1. Those that relate to Space.

Space is considered either in its relation to the speaker,
or in its relation to others. When it relates to the speaker
adverbs of place and of direction are employed ; as, So kann
ich hier nicht länger hauſen , I cannot live longer here.
But when space and direction are considered in their re
lation to other persons or things, prepositions are used ; as,
zwiſchen den Aeckern ſchritt ſie hindurdy, she walked
through between the fields.
Only in a few particular expressions is the genitive, or the
accusative used ; as, Man ſucht ihn aller Orten, search
is made for him in all places, everywhere. Ein wirthlich
Dach für alle Wanderer, die des Weges fahren, a sim
ple shelter for all travelers who are on the way. Ich wan
dre ſchon ſeit Jahren die lande aus und ein, I have been
traveling the country for years out and in.
2. Those that relate to Time.

Time relates either to the present as it is with the speaker,
or it relates to other actions. In the former case the different
tenses of the verb and adverbs are employed ; in the latter,
nouns are generally used. Any abstract noun except the
names of qualities may be so used ; as, Gewalt iſt für den
Schwachen jeder Zeit ein Rieſe, power is always a giant
to the weak. Beim Gaſtmahl, at the time of the feast.
30
350 Syntar. — Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
Time viewed as a point , the time when .

( 1 ) Contemporaneous time , as a point at which anything
occurs, is represented by the prepositions an , in , binnen , in
nerhalb, bei, um , gegen , unter, auf and zu , and by the cases
without a preposition .
An with the dative is used only with those words which
properly designate time, and corresponds with our word
at or on ; as, a m folgenden Tage , on the following day ; a m
Abend, at evening ; an dieſem Morgen , this morning ; an
Werktagen feiern, to cease from labor on working days.
In with the dative , like our word in , properly represents
a period viewed as a point, or in one of its points ; as, J 11
den Tagen unſres Glanzes, in the days of our splendor ; in
ſchwachen Stunden, in the hours of one's weakness ; in
welchem Tag und Monat ? on what day and in what month ?
In old German an was used in this way , and is still found in
such expressions as , a m Tage , in the day , in a clear light ;
am Morgen, in the morning ; a m Abend, in the evening ;
am Ende, in the end.
Binnen and innerhalb, within , limit the time to a certain
period , which is often regarded as beginning then ; as, Bins
nen vier Tagen , within four days, or within four days from
this time.
Bei is used with those words which do not properly desig
nate time ; as , Bei jedem Abſchied, at each separation ; bei
dieſem Anblick, at this view , as soon as this was seen ; bei
unſern Spielen , during our plays, while we were at play ;
beim erſten Blicke, at the first glance. In the old German ,
bei was used with nouns which were of themselves designa
tions of time. Of this ancient usage there are still remaining
such expressions as, bei Tage, in the day-time; bei Nacyt,
at night ; bei Zeiten , in season .
Um , about, and gegen, towards, are generally used with
nouns that properly designate time. They do not from their
nature designate precise time ; and gegen is less precise and
definite than um . This distinction is particularly obvious in

such phrases as , u m vier Uhr, four o'clock , and gegen vier
Uhr, towards, or about four o'clock ; um dieſelbe Zeit, at or
near the same time ; gegen dieſelbe Zeit, towards, not very
far from the same time.
Unter, at the time of, with the dative , and während, dur
ing, designate generally periods before words which do not
of themselves signify time ; the latter expresses duration more
than the former ; as, w ä hrend der ſpaniſchen Religions
verfolgungen, during the Spanish persecutions ; Unter
Karls des Fünften Regierung, in the the reign of Charles
V.; unter dem Gebete, at the timeof prayer ; unter der
Predigt, during the sermon , in sermon time.
Aufwith the accusative points out the definite time when ; as ,
auf den Mai, in May ; aufs neue Jahr, at new year's day ;
auf die Minute, at the very minute ; auf die Stunde, pre
cisely at the hour. It also points out duration , or a limit be
yond which a thing does not extend ; as , a nf viele Jahre,
for many years ; auf ewig , forever ; auf die Woche, on the
week , during the week ; auf den zwanzigſten , by the twen
tieth , not later than the twentieth .
Bu was used in the old German where in and bei are now
used , and in connection with Zeit, mal, and a few other
words it is still found ; as, zu r rechten Zeit, just in time ;
zum letzten Mal, for the last time ; zit Anfang des Auguſts ,
at the beginning of August. In a few phrases über is em
ployed to denote contemporaneous time ; as, über der Tafel,
at or during meal time ; über Nacht, in the night, during
the night. After the noun it means throughout ; as, dieſe
Radit über, throughout this night. With the dative it
means upon , including both contemporaneous time and a
cause ; as , Unſre Kleider und Schuhe ſind alt worden über
der ſehr langen Neiſe, our garments and shoes have become
old upon our long journey , i . e. during the journey and in
consequence of it.
Both the genitive and the accusative express contempora

neous time ; as, des Morgens, in the morning ; den Augen
blick, in a moment. The genitive is more common in those
general expressions which imply repetition or custom ; as,
Tages Arbeit, Abends Gäſte, labor by day and visitors
by night. Die Räthe verſammelten ſich des Mittags,
ſo oft es der Herzog für gut fand, the council met at noon as
often as the duke thought it best. The accusative is more
common when the noun is made more definite by a qualifying
word ; as, drei Nächte nach einander, three successive
nights ; dieſen Abend, this evening. The preposition an
with the dative is used for the accusative ; as, a n eben dieſem
Abend, on this very evening.
(2 ) Antecedent time is represented by vor with the dative ;
as , vor Abend, before evening ; vor eine Stunde, an hour
ago ( not , before an hour, nor before this time by an hour ) ;
vor Kurzem, a short time ago ; vor acht Tagen, a week
ago. Ehe in composition is used in the same sense after the
manner of the old German ; as, ehedem, formerly ; ebegeſtern ,
day before yesterday.
(3) Future time is expressed by nach , auf, über and in .
Nach signifies in a general way the opposite of vor ; as,
Thu , was vor Dir kein Weib gethan, n ach Dir fein Weib
mehr thun wird, do what no woman has done before you ,
what no one after you will do.
Auf , upon , expresses succession sometimes in a reciprocal,
sometimes in a causal manner ; as, Auf blut’ge Schlachten
folgt Geſang und Tanz, upon bloody battles follow singing
and dancing. lind Welle, auf Welle zerrinnet , and wave
after wave breaks. Auf das Unrecht da folgt das Uebel,
calamity follows upon injustice.
Ueber with the accusative , and in with the dative, are em
ployed only to denote a period, and that a future period.
Ueber signifies that a thing will not take place sooner , in that
it will not take place later than the period mentioned ; as ,
Ueber kurz oder lang ſind Sie Ambaſſadeur, sooner or

later (after a longer or shorter period ) you will be ambassa
dor. Ueber ein Kleines, ſo werdet Ihr mich nicht ſehen ;
aber über ein kleines, ſo werdet Ihr mich ſehen, ( after)
a short time and you shall not see me , and again ( after ) a
short time and you shall see me. Heute über acht Tage,
this day sevennight , i. e. eight days from or after this time.
Ueber's Jahr, after a year, a year after. In einer Stunde
feb ' ich ihn hangen, within an hour (not later) I shall see
him hanging
Time viewed as a period, time how long.

This is generally expressed by the accusative ; as , Er war
beim König zwe i volle Stunden ,he was with the king
two full hours. Er denkt den ganzen Tag, he meditates the
whole day. lang is often added to give greater prominence
to the idea of protracted duration ; as , Ich habe Jahre
lang mich darauf vorbereitet, I have for years been prepar
ing myself for it .
Continued time is also expressed by the prepositions in,
ſeit and bis .
In with the dative is so used only with words properly
signifying time ; it then gives force to the word representing
the period ; as, Was Ihr in wenig Stunden mir geweſen ,
war er in einem Menſchenalter nicht, he was not to me in
a whole age what you have been in a few hours.
Seit corresponds to our word since. Bis, extending to,
denotes the termination of a period. It is generally connected
with another preposition ; it stands alone particularly before
relative adverbs ; as, bis jetzt, until now ; bis heute, until
to -day ; bis morgen , till to -morrow . It stands alone also in
a few such phrases as , bis Dſtern , till Easter ; bis Michaelis,
till Michaelmas.
30*
354 Simple Sentences.
Syntar.- P. II. Ch . 1 .
Participial and other connections with the Verb .

Two ideas or contemporaneous actions may be expressed
not only by two connected verbs or adjectives, but the latter
may be expressed by a participle or adverbial phrase joined
to the first verb or adjective ; as, Er liegt w ach end im
Bette, he lies awake in bed , instead of Or liegt im Bette
und wacht. Schüchtern , mit unterwerfung nahit
Du mir, timid and with submission ( submissively ) you ap
proach me. See on the participle , pages 255—257.
Words thus attached to the principal verb or adjective,
generally serve to amplify the ideas of the speaker. They
sometimes supply the place of an adversative or causal con
junction . Im Innern herrſchte bei allen ſo gefähr
lichen Spaltungen Friede, with all these threatening
divisions ( i. e. notwithstanding there were so many divisions)
there was internal peace.
A connected participle serves to express the condition of
the subject or of the object of the verb ; as, Jetzt ſterb' ich
beruhigt , now I die in a calm state.
The present participle must agree with its subject ; but the
preterite participle is frequently used absolutely with a noun ;
as, Das Haar verwildert, lag der Schotte da, with
dishevelled hair the Scott lay prostrate. Endlich bleibt er
gedankenvoll ſtehen ,die Augen zur Erde geſenkt,final
ly he remained standing in a thoughtful mood, with his eyes
fixed on the ground. After the participle ausgenommen the
noun agrees in case and gender with the preceding noun
denoting the class from which the exception is made ; as,
Alle Brüder ausgenommen der älteſte, all the brothers
except the oldest, der älteſtte agreeing in case and gender,
but not in number, with alle Brüder. The following exam
ple will make the principle still more clear : Es iſt allen
Brüdern angenehm , ausgenommen dem jüngſten, it is
agreeable to all the brothers except the youngest. Unbes
Sect. 3. 355
The Relation of the Object to its Verb .
ſchadet, used like the Latin salvus, governs the genitive as if

it were a preposition ; as , der Eidespflichten unbeſchadet,
not interfering with one's allegiance ; der ſtrengſten Ehre
unbeſchadet, one's honor being preserved inviolate.
The active participle is frequently omitted ; as, Da fömmt
ſie ſelbſt, den Chriſtus in der Hand, die Hoffart und die
Weltluſt in dem Herzen , there she comes ( having ) Christ in
her hand , and pride and lust in her heart.
Such connected ideas are often attached to the principal
word by means of the prepositions bei, mit, unter and ohne.
An adversative connection is often expressed by bei ; as,
Was fümmert Dich der böſe Schein bei der gerechten
Sache ? with a good cause, why should an unfavorable ap
pearance trouble you ? or why should appearances trouble
you , when your cause is good ? So viel geſunde Begriffe,
ſo viel Geiſt bei einem ſo weggeworfenen Charakter ! so
many just ideas, and such talent with such a worthless cha
racter , and yet so worthless a character ! The idea of man
ner , when thus connected , is expressed by the preposition in,
instead of which the genitive was employed in old German,
and is still found in such expressions as, froben Muthes,
with a cheerful mind ; trocknen Kleides, with dry garments ;
ruhigen Geſichtes, with unruffled countenance ; widrigen
Falles, in case it be not so ; unverrichteter Sachen , without
doing anything, the business not being accomplished.
3. Those that relate to manner.

The manner of an action is often relative , and then it is
denoted by a relative adverb ; as, ſ o zu denken, so to think ;
ander 6 handeln , to act otherwise , where the force of ſo
and anders depends on something else to which they relate.
- In other cases manner is represented by adjectives used ad
verbially , by the genitive, and by the prepositions mit, ohne,
an, auf, nach and zu .
Mit is the preposition most used to designate manner ; as,
mit Vergnügen , with pleasure. It is also the proper word

to denote an instrument ; as, mit dem Meſſer, with the knife.
In the old German bei was used in the sense of mit ; and
this is still the case in a few expressions ; as , Einem beim
Namen nennen , to call one by name ; beim Allmächtigen
ſchwören , to swear by the Almighty.
Ohne expresses manner negatively ; as, ohne Mühe ,
without trouble ; ohne Maß, without measure.
An is so used only with the superlative ; as , a m würdig
ſten, the most worthily.
Auf denotes manner with the accusative only when Weiſe
or Art is expressed or understood ; and with the dative only
when Weg, in the sense of way , manner, is expressed or un
derstood ; as, a uf ganz verſchiedenen Weiſe, in an entirely
different way ; auf Sklavenart, in the manner of slaves ;
aufs genaueſte, in the most accurate manner ; aufanderm
Weg, in another way.
Nach denotes manner by indicating agreement with the
manner of something else : nach den alten Bräuchen des
landes, according to the ancient usages of the country ;
nach dem Wort, to the letter. The same idea is still more
definitely conveyed by gemäß ; as, ſeinem Stande gemäß,
in conformity to his rank . Strict conformity or agreement
is indicated by this word .
Zu represents the manner or kind of motion in traveling,
in such expressions as , zu Fuße gehen , to go on foot ; 3 u
Pferde reiſen , to travel on horseback ; zu Wagen, in a car
riage ; zu Waſſer, by water ; zu Lande, by land .
4. Those that express a causal relation .

( 1 ) A physical ground or cause of action is intimated by
von , vor, durch, aus, vermöge and vermittelſt.
Von and vor denote a cause acting upon the subject of the
verb ; as, Sterben muß von unſerer Hand jede lebende
Seele, every living soul must die at our hand, or suffer
death from our hand. Wenn das Gebäude Ihrer Ueber

zeugung ſchon von Worten fällt, if the edifice of your
convictions falls before mere words ( falls from words, as
the cause ) . Mein Kopf glüht von durchwachyter Nacht,
my head burns from a wakeful night, from being kept
awake through the whole night. Vor adds to the above
the idea of an obstructed or of a constrained activity of the
subject of the verb ; as , Er konnte vor Müdigkeit und Hun
ger faum Etwas vorbringen , he could scarce accomplish
anything from ( hindered by ) fatigue and hunger. Sie iſt
verſtummt vor der Partheien Wuth, she or it is dumb from
party rage, is made so by party rage. Vor dem Glauben
gilt keine Stimme der Natur, faith supercedes or excludes
every voice of nature, or in consequence of faith , the voice of
nature is no longer heard. Er kennt vor lauter Gelehr
ſamkeit ſeinen Vater nicht, in consequence of sheer learning,
he is ignorant of his father. In all these examples it is easy
to perceive the proper force of vor as representing an active
influence before which something else gives way.
Durch points out the means for accomplishing a design ;
as , Durch falſches Zeugniß glaubt er ſich zu retten, he ex
pects to free himself by false testimony. The means are
viewed . as passive, and the subject of the verb as active,
generally with design but sometimes without it ; as , Er macht
ſich durch ſein Vetragen verdächtig , he renders himself sus
picious by his deportment.
Vermittelſt, by means of, is a still more definite and spe
cific word to indicate the means.
Vermöge, by virtue of, according to , properly refers to a
particular quality of a thing as the ground of action ; as,
Vermöge ſeiner Rechtlichkeit will der Deutſche Riemans
den in ſeinem wohlerworbenen Eigenthum ſtören, the Ger
man , from his sense of justice, would disturb no one in his
well-earned possessions. Vermöge meiner Liebe zu Dir ,
from , or by virtue of my love to you .
358 Syntax. - Simple Sentences. P. II. Ch . 1 .
Aus denotes the materials out of which anything is made ;

as , Mich ſduf aus gröberm Stoffe die Natur, nature
formed me from coarser materials. Von is used also in this
sense , especially if the noun which it governs serves in any
manner to qualify the principal word ; as , In Haft und Eile
bauet der Soldat von Leinwand eine leichte Stadt, the sol
dier in his haste builds his little city of canvass.
(2 ) A moral ground or cause of action is indicated by
aus , wegen , balben , um - willen and fraft.
Aus expresses an internal motive originating in the desires
of the agent; as, Sie bewilligt aus freier Gunſt, was ſie
doch nicht gebilligt, she grants from mere favor, what she
nevertheless does not approve. Aus Haß , out of hatred ;
aus Pflicht, from a sense of duty ; aus Gefühl der Menſch
lichkeit, from feelings of humanity.
Wegen, halben (or halber), and um-willen, express an
external motive or ground of action ; as, um Deinetwillen,
on your account ; wegen der Unbequemlichkeit, on account
of the inconvenience ; Ehren halber, for the sake of honor.
Wegen denotes also a physical cause, when that cause is of
the nature of a hindrance ; as, Als man dieſes Schiff in See
brachte, fand ſich’s , daß es ſeiner unbehülflichen Größe
wegen nicht zu lenken ſei, as this ship was launched , it
was found that on account of its unwieldly size it could not
be steered . Um -willen is generally used where there is a
particular design to be expressed , especially where the wishes
of a person are to be gratified ; as, Um meiner Ruhe w il
len erklären Sie ſich deutlicher, for the sake of my peace
explain yourselfmore fully. Um ſeinet- und ihretwillen
müſſen ſie Alles wagen, for his sake and hers, they must
venture everything. In old German um was used instead of
um -willen, to denote a motive or design in general ; and
iiin -willen is now sometimes so employed.
Kraft implies a necessity as growing out of the ground of
action ; as, Straft meines Amts , by virtue of my office.
Wider, zuwider, ungeachtet and trok, denote an adverse

moral reason ; as, wider meinen Willen , against my will ;
dem ausdrücklichen Verbot zuwider, against the express
prohibition ; des faiſerlichen Verbots ungeachtet, notwith
standing the emperor's prohibition ; trotz meiner Aufſicht,
in spite of my supervision . The last two are also employed
to denote an adverse physical cause.
( 3 ) An intellectual or logical ground or cause of action is
expressed by aus, an , nac , zufolge and laut.
Aus indicates the direct source of knowledge ; as, a us
dem Zeitungsblatt zu melden , to repeat from the newspaper ,
Das bewies er aus der Bibel, he proved it from the Bible.
An indicates an external sign from which we obtain our
knowledge of a thing ; as, Man fennt den Vogel an den
Federn, the bird is known by his feathers. Bader erkennt
man an der Schürze, a barber is known by his apron .
Nach implies agreement or correspondence; as , nach des
Geſetzes Wort, according to the letter of the law. After a
pattern , is the same as according to ; hence the union of both
ideas in such phrases as , Sein Sold muß dem Soldaten
werden, darnac, heißt er, pay must be given to the soldier,
for from that he has his name ( he , Soldat, is called after
that , Sold ) .
zufolge, according to, conveys the idea that one thing is
the consequence of another, or grows out of it ; as , Z ufolge
dieſer neuen Kommiſſion war ihm Macht verliehen , accord
ing to this new commission power was granted him , etc.
Laut , according to, implies conformity to what is said or
written ; as , laut des Teſtaments , according to the lan
guage of the will .
360 Syntax . — Compound Sentences . P. II. Ch. 2.
CHAPTER II.
ON COMPOUND SENTENCES .
CONTAINING
1. Coördinate Clauses.
2. Leading and Subordinate Clauses.
SECTION 1.
ON COORDINATE CLAUSES .
In a sentence of coördinate clauses, the relative importance

of each is rendered more obvious by the omission of the or
dinary conjunctions. This omission takes place :
( 1 ) In clauses that stand in a copulative relation to each
other. The omission of the copulative conjunction gives
distinctness to each member of the sentence, and particularly
to the last , which is thereby rendered emphatic. Example :
Die Kunſt iſt lang ; das Leben kurz ; das Urtheil ſchwierig ;
die Gelegenheit flüchtig, art is long, life short, the judgment
to be made up difficult, the occasion fleeting.
(2 ) In clauses that stand in a causal or an adversative re
lation to each other. Here the omission of the causal or ad
versative conjunction has the same effect. Examples : Ein
furchtbar müthend Schreckniß iſt der Krieg ; die Herde
ſchlägt er und den Hirten , war is a fearfully raging evil
( terror ) ; ( for) it destroys both herd and herdsman. Ihr
nennt Euch, fremd in Englands Reichsgeſeßen ; in Englands
Unglück ſeid Ihr ſehr bewandert , you call yourself a stranger
to the constitutional laws of England ; ( but ) you are at home
in its misfortunes.
Sect. 1 . On Coördinate Clauses. 361
(3 ) When a contrast is to be rendered striking ; as, Es

iſt nicht wahr, daß das Publicum die Kunſt herabzieht ; der
Künſtler zieht das Publicum herab, it is not true that the
public degrade art ; ( but ) the artist degrades the public.
1. Clauses connected by Copulative Conjunctions.
When the idea is amplified by the addition of a similar

clause which is not emphatic, the conjunction und is em
ployed ; if there be several clauses, und generally stands on
ly before the last. But if all these are to be represented as
a whole, the conjunction is inserted before each member of
the sentence. Und, being a mere connective word , is often
coupled with other conjunctions that are illative or adversa
tive ; as, und deshalb, and therefore ; und deswegen , and
on this account ; und doch , and yet. If, however , und be
used in an illative or adversative sense, it cannot take such
additional particles . Alſo, denn , aber, allein , hingegen and
jedoch , are never connected with und. When such clauses
are to be kept distinct from each other, the ordinal and dis
tributive particles are commonly used . If a clause to be
added is relatively less important than the preceding, it is
generally introduced by zudem , außerdem and überdies , be
sides, or by desgleichen , likewise. Two clauses represented
as standing in the same relation are connected positively by
ſowohl- als, as well as, and negatively by weder- noch , neither,
nor. If the latter clause be the more important, so as to
form a climax, it is introduced by auch, even , or by nicht
nur ( nicht allein, nicht bloß ) -ſondern auch , not only but
also . Auch is much the weaker term to express a climax,
and sometimes, especially when connected with und, merely
implies addition or amplification. The adverbs ja, ſogar
and ſelbſt, are the strongest terms to express climax.
31
362 Syntar . - Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch . 2.
2. Exclusive Clauses.
Nicht, followed by ſondern , implies not only that one thing

is contrary to the other , but that it excludes the other ; as,
nicht ſtarf fondern ſchwach, not strong but weak . Nicht
followed by vielmehr, is a milder contrast, and may form a
mere climax ; as, Uebrigens war ich keineswegs ( nicht)
leichtſinnig ; vielmehr zeigte ſich der innere Ernſt auch
in meinem Aeußern , besides, I was not trifling ; rather was
my inward seriousness manifested by my external appearance.
When but one of two things is logically possible , it is in
dicated by entweder- oder, either-or . Dder alone may ex
press the same idea in a milder form ; it generally implies
that one is doubtful, which of two possible things will occur,
or will prove to be true.
When one of two things is possible, and one as cause ex
cludes the other as effect, ſonſt and denn are employed ; ſonſt
giving the excluding power to the preceding, denn to the
succeeding clause ; as, Du mußt gute Worte geben, ſonſt
ſcheidet er von Dir , you must conciliate him , otherwise he
will separate from you . Er ſdyeidet von Dir, Du gebeſt ihm
denn ( like, es ſei denn, except ) gute Worte, he will sepa
rate from you , except you conciliate him . Sonſt is especially
used to point out what the consequence will be if a certain
condition be not complied with ; as, Gehorche, fon ſt ſtrafe
ich Dich , obey ; otherwise I will punish you . Entweder and
oder , or oder alone may be employed in the same way.
3. Adversative Clauses.
( 1) Those in which two similar members of a sentence
are strongly contrasted. Aber, allein , hingegen and jedody,
are employed for this purpose. These, being of a contrary
nature to und, which implies agreement , can never be con
nected with it.
Aber expresses a contrast in the most general way ; some
Sect. 1. On Coördinate Clauses. · 363
times in a limiting , sometimes in an emphatic, and sometimes

in a distinctive sense. Examples: Ganz konnte ich das
Gedicht nicht leſen ; es waren aber Stellen , die ich aus
wendig wüßte, I could not (endure to) read the whole poem ,
but there were passages in it which I knew by heart. Here
the disgust with the poem is limited to a part of it. In this
way aber sometimes introduces an objection, as in the Eng
lish phrase, “ But what of that? " Nur is often used to in
dicate a direct limitation ; as , Meine Mutter hatte von Ju
gend auf ähnliche Geſinnungen, nur waren ſie bei ihr
nicht zur Reife gediehen, my mother had similar feelings from
her childhood , but ( only ) in her they did not come to ma
turity. Aber is an emphatic adversative in such sentences
as , Es iſt bald geſprochen , aber ſchwer gethan, it is easily
said , but not easily done. In such phrases as, Sie iſt unbes
ſtändig , aber geiſtreich , she is unsteady , but talented , it is
merely distinctive. Aber is also employed in passing ab
ruptly to a new and unexpected topic ; as, Wo aber bleibt
mein Sohn ? but where is my son ?
Allein always implies an indirect limitation. It follows a
concessive clause, which it limits by a connected remark ;
as, Das,was geſchehen iſt, kränkt mich nicht ſo tief ; allein
das kränkt mich, was es bedeutet, what has happened does
not wound me so deeply, but what it implies wounds me.
Hingegen and dagegen express a strong contrast, without ,
however, either limiting or excluding what precedes ; as,
Antonio geht frei umher, Taſſo bleibt dagegen verbannt,
Antonio goes about at will ; Tasso on the contrary remains
in banishment.
Jedoc ), still , and indeſſen , however, denote a slighter con
trast than allein and hingegen, and serve generally to limit
indirectly what has been affirmed ; as, Wüſte Leerheit um
fängt erſt Alles ; der Geiſt jedod brütet ſchon über Bes
weglichem und Gebildetem, at first a desolate void enveloped
364 Syntax. — Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch . 2.
everything ; the spirit, however, already broods over that

which has motion and form .
(2 ) Those adversative clauses in which not so much
contrast to the preceding , as a modification of it , is expressed .
The conjunctions employed for this purpose are doc ), dens
noch , gleichwohl, deſſenungeachtet, nichtsdeſtoweniger and
indefien .
Doch restricts a preceding concession by cutting off cer
tain inferences which might otherwise be drawn ; as, Ich
liebe den Herzog nicht, und hab ' dazu nicht Urſach ; doch
nicht mein Haß macht mich zu ſeinem Mörder, I do not like
the duke—I have no cause for so doing ; still it is not my
enmity to him that makes me his murderer.
Hence doch is used to correct or limit one's own ideas ; as,
Wie ſteht's um Didier ? Doch, der Getreue ſchläft wohl
ſchon lange den ew'gen Schlaf, how is it with Didier ! -- but
( why do I ask ? ) the faithful man has, I suppose, long been
sleeping the sleep of death. It is sometimes strongly adver
sative ; as , Es iſt die ſchönſte Hoffnung ; doch , es iſt nur
eine Hoffnung, it is the most cheering hope ; still it is but a
hope. It is often used in simple sentences, when reference
is had to something that has been said, or is about to be done
by another ; as, Es iſt doch wahr, it is nevertheless true ( in
reply to an objection or denial ) . Bleibe dody, but stay, I
entreat you ( when one proposes to go away ). Ihr eilet ja ,
als wenn Ihr Flügel hättet ; wartet do dy, why , you hurry
as though you went with wings ; wait a moment, I pray you.
Das iſt doch ſeltſam , but that, now, is strange. It is em
ployed when one anticipates a reply to a question ; as , Wer
iſt gefangen ? Der Sefin doch nicht ? Who has been made
prisoner ? It is not Sefin , is it ? Es ſind doch ſidh're Leute ?
they are safe people, are they not ?
Dennod ), deſſenungeachtet and nichtsdeſtoweniger never
theless, still , are strongly adversative after a concessive
clause ; gleichwohl is a weaker expression of the same kind ;
Sect. 1 . On Coördinate Clauses. 365
as , Die Druckerkunſt war ſchon über hundert Jahre erfun :

den ; deffen ungeachtet erſchien ein Buch noch als ein
Heiliges, the art of printing had been invented for more than
a century , but notwithstanding that a book still appeared as
something sacred . When a strong contrast is to be given to
such adversative clauses, the conjunction, aber, is connected
with these particles ; as , Den Deutſchen iſt nichts daran ges
legen , zuſammen zu bleiben, aber doch für ſich zu bleiben ,
the Germans attach but little importance to being united , but
on the other hand , great importance to being independent.
Und may be joined with them , as and, in English , may to
similar English words ; as, Es ſcheint ein Räthſel, und
doch iſt es keins, it appears an enigma, and yet it is notone.
A contrast is rendered more striking by zwar, freilich , or
wohl, indeed , to be sure, in a concession , followed by aber,
allein , doch, or jedoch in the succeeding adversative clause ;
as, Ich muß mir Deinen Scherz gefallen laſſen ; er trifft
mich zwar, doch trifft er mich nicht tief, I must bear your
raillery ; I feel it, to be sure, but not deeply . Of these three
concessive particles freilich is the strongest, and wohl, the
weakest.
4. Clauses that stand in a Causal relation to the preceding .
Daher, hence, therefore, relates chiefly to a physical cause

or to something that exists as a matter of fact ; as, Ein dun
kles Gerücht davon hatte ſich auch ſchon in dem ſpaniſchen
Lager verbreitet ; man war daber auf einen ernſtlichen
Angriff gefaßt, a vague rumor of it had reached the Spanish
camp ; the army was therefore prepared for a stern conflict.
Deswegen and deshalb, therefore, on this account , gener
ally relate to a moral cause, or motive ; as, Alles, was ent
ſteht, ſucht ſich Raum und will Dauer ; deswegen ver
drängt es ein Anderes vom Plaß und verfürzt ſeine Dauer ,
whatever comes into existence, seeks for room , and desires
31 *
366 Syntax . - Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch. 2.
perpetuity ; for this reason , it crowds something else from its

place , and deprives that of perpetuity. Daruin , therefore,
expresses either design or cause in a general sense.
Deswegen and darum are sometimes so connected with
an adversative conjunction as to give it a peculiar force ; as,
Es iſt wahr, Nero taugte von Haus aus nichts ; war aber das
rum doch ein ercellenter Schauſpieler, it is true, Nero was
altogether a worthless fellow ; but yet he was for that very
reason a good actor.
Denn, alſo , ſo , folglich, demnach and mithin are employed
to point out a logical ground or reason.
Denn is used when the reason is to be made prominent ;
as, Vorwärts mußt Du ; denn rückwärts kannſt Du nun
nicht mehr, you must advance, for you cannot now go back.
Not only a logical reason , but any cause , if it is to be emphat
ically expressed , may be indicated by denn . Still more em
phatic is it to omit the conjunction ; as, Dich nicht haß ' ich,
nicht Du biſt mein Feind, it is not you I hate ; ( for ) you are
not my enemy. Denn is sometimes an adverbial conjunc
tion, like our word , then , to which it then corresponds in
sense ; as , Das Verſdyweigen wird Nichts helfen , denn es iſt
Alles ſchon bekannt. - Was iſt denn bekannt ? silence will
be of no use, for everything is already known. What is it,
then, that is known ? In this sentence, denn occurs in both
senses.
Alſo , ſo, folglich and mithin , thus, consequently, serve to
give prominence to an inference. The two former, like denn ,
may refer either to what is expressed , or to what is only im
plied ; the two latter always refer to what is fully expressed in
the clause immediately preceding. Alſo , fo and denn are very
commonly used in interrogative clauses. Examples : Er hatte
keine Zunge mehr für Sie .—Die Sonnen alſo ſcheinen uns
nicht mehr ; fortan muß eignes Feuer und erleudsten , he had
no tongue for you any longer ( he wished to have nothing to say
with you ). Then the lights of heaven no longer shine for us ;
Sect. 2. On Subordinate Clauses. 367
henceforth we must be content with our own light. Meine

Rechte iſt gegen den Druck der Liebe unempfindlich ; ſie iſt
eins mit ihrem Handſchuh . — So ſeid Ihr Götz von Berlich
ingen . My right hand is not sensible to the pressure of love ;
it is like the glove that is on it. Then you are a Götz of
Berlichingen. So bleibt's dabei, Du willſt das Heer ver
laſſen ? Is it, then , settled that you will leave the army ?
Dahin alſo wär ' es gekommen ? would it, then , have
come to that ? Iſt eſt denn wahr ? is it, then, true ? No
examples are necessary for folglich and mithin ; they are
construed in the same way as the corresponding English
word, consequently, is.
Demnac ), accordingly, has a similar force with folglich) ;
but it is more indefinite, expressing mere correspondency, or
agreement.
Daher, deswegen, deshalb, darum and demnach are not
emphatically causal in their nature ; they are, therefore, often
joined with und, and in that conibination the copulative
power prevails over the causal ;—und deshalb, and therefore.
SECTION II.
ON SUBORDINATE CLAUSES.
A subordinate clause is generally a substitute for a single

expression , giving a greater relative importance to that part
of a sentence ; as, ' a man who is distinguished ' for ' a distin
guished man. '
1. Substantive Clauses.
By substantive clauses are meant those which are equiva
lent to a substantive and stand in its place in a sentence.
There are three classes of substantive clauses, those which
express an opinion reported or supposed ; those which con
368 Syntax . - Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch. 2.
vey the idea of action in the abstract ; and those which

represent something actually existing ; as, Aus dem Berichte
dieſer Leute erfuhr man, daß die Stadt leer an
Soldaten ſei, it was ascertained (or we ascertained )
from the account of these people, that the city was destitute
of soldiers. Here the last member of the sentence is equiva
lent to a noun in the accusative ( the city's destitution of sol
diers ) , and signifies something reported. Die Frage, ob
diefe oder jene Beſchäftigung auch nüßlich
ſei, wiederholt ſich oft, the question whether this or that
employment is useful, is often repeated . The substantive
clause in this sentence contains an opinion , not actually re
ported , but something supposed . Des Königs Tochter iſt
immer werth, daß wir drum ſtechen und ich las
gen, the king's daughter deserves, that we fight for it ( i . e.
deserves a contest on our part ) . Here action in the abstract
is expressed by the last clause. Wer gar zu viel bes
denkt, wird wenig leiſten, he who thinks too long, will ef
fect little. The first clause of this sentence is equivalent to
a concrete noun , der allzu Vorſichtige.
The first two classes , those which express an opinion re
ported or supposed , and those which represent an abstract
action , require the conjunction daß before them , except when
they are interrogatory in their nature. See the examples
already given. Further examples of those that are more or
less interrogative in their character : Sorge nur , wie ich
Tie ſprechen kann, only consider, how I can speak with
her. Man weiß nicht, von wannen er kömmt, no
one knows whence he comes. When the question relates to
the verb itself, ob is always used , as in the example given
above.
If the clauses of the second class, those expressing abstract
action , depend on a verb in the leading clause which takes a
preposition after it , that preposition compounded with da
( daran , dazut, etc. ) generally precedes the clause likewise ;
as, Sie drang darauf, daß auch die Bibel eben ſo fleißig
geleſen wurde, she insisted ( upon this) that the Bible should
be read as diligently. Ich bitte drum, daß ſie ihn enden,
I beg ( for this ) that you will end it.
If the verb in the leading clause governs the accusative,
the accusative es may precede the subordinate clause. Such
a construction gives special force to the verb of the first
member ; as, Die That bewährt es, daß ſie Warheit ſpricht,
the deed confirms ( it) , that she speaks the truth ; i . e. con
firms the truth of her account.
When in the substantive clause, an opinion reported is ex
pressed by a verb in the subjunctive mode, the conjunction
daß is generally omitted , and the clause drops the inverted
order of the words ; as, Sie ſagt mir ſtets, ich ſei ihr Feind,
she constantly affirms that I am her enemy , instead of daß
ich ihr Feind bin . The same construction is frequent in
substantive clauses after bitten , befehlen , wünſchen , hoffen ,
fürchten, verſprechen , etc. , ( where an opinion can , of course,
only be supposed ,) if the subjunctive of the auxiliaries , impro
perly so called, be used ; or of werden, after hoffen and
fürchten ; as, Er bat, ich möge hier bleiben, he begged that
I would remain here . Er befahl, man ſollt ihm folgen ,
he commanded that they should follow him. Er verſprach ,
er wolle kommen, he promised that he would come. Ich
hoffte, er würde mir beiſtehen , I hoped he would aid me.
Those substantive clauses which represent something that
has a concrete existence are indicated by pronouns or similar
words, referring to each other ; as, “ he, who.” So the pro
verb, Wer lügt, der ſtiehlt, he who lies, will steal. The
antecedent pronouns cannot be exchanged here for da com
pounded with prepositions, when the leading verb takes a
preposition after it, but must stand in their simple form ; as,
Er ſprach mit mir über das ( not darüber ) was er zu
thun denke, he spoke with me about what he intended to do.
Es war mir auffallend, daß er von dem (not davon )
370 Syntar. - Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch. 2.
worin der Grund aller meiner Handlungen lag, keinen Bes

griff hatte , it was surprising to me that he had no idea of
that in which lay the ground of all my actions.
As Etwas, Nichts , Alles, Eins, Manches, viel and wenig ,
cannot, like substantives, be qualified by adjectives, so in
substantive clauses they cannot take after them the adjective
relative welches, but are always followed by the substantive
relative was . * Adjective clauses are properly introduced
by welcher ; substantive clauses by der, when a person is in
the preceding clause designated by a pronoun or indefinite
numeral , and by was when things are referred to in the neu
ter. Examples : Etwas, was nicht geendigt werden
kann, something which cannot be ended . Nicht s lebt,
was Deine Hoheit nicht erkennt , nothing lives which does
not recognize your highness. Alles , was wir haben , all
that we have. Er iſt nur Eins,was uns retten kann ,
there is but one thing which can save us. Vieles, was
ſie thaten, much of what they did. Das Wenige, w as
er ſprach, the little which he said . Though all these clauses
introduced by was have the appearance of being adjective
clauses, yet for the reason already given they are regarded as
substantive, and hence take was instead of welches . The
neuter superlative used as a noun requires the same con
struction ; as, Das Beſte, was man hat, the best one
has. Examples of der relating to persons : Einer der
lügt, one who lies. Ein jeder, der lebt, every person
living.
When the pronoun in the leading clause is of the first or
second person , the antecedent is repeated in the subordinate
clause, if this clause is also to be in the first or second per
son ; as , Das wiſſen wir, die wir die Gemſen jagen, we,
who hunt the chamois, know that. In this example jagen is
in the first person . Sei ( Du ) mir willkommen , der Du
* See p. 158, 3.
mit mir gleiche Gefühle theileſt, welcome thou , who sympa

thizest in feeling. * But if the substantive clause be in the
third person , and refer to the first or second person as to some
thing general in the leading clause, the antecedent is not re
peated ; as, Du warſt es, der ihn dorthin geflüchtet hat,
it was you who rescued him in that place. Was kann ich
thun , der ſelber hülflos i ſt ? what can I do, who am my
self helpless ? In these instances the reference is to a person
or thing in general , contrary to the English idiom , as if it
were expressed, “ I, a person who is helpless . "
2. Adverbial Clauses.
Adverbial clauses are those which have the nature of ad
verbs. As there are not adverbs to express all adverbial
ideas, whole clauses must often be used as a substitute. The
same is true of substantive and adjective clauses.
Adverbial clauses are generally introduced by the relative
adverbs wo, wenn , wie, etc. , corresponding to the demonstra
tive adverbs da , dann, ſo, etc. , expressed or implied in the
leading clause. Sometimes they are introduced by preposi
tions used as conjunctions, such as, während, bis , ehe and ſeit,
in and nach , in composition ( ſeitdem , indem, nachdem , etc. ).
( 1 ) Adverbial clauses of place are very simple. They are
introduced by wo, corresponding to da, dahin , or daher ;
as, Sie wird ( da ) gerichtet, w o ſie frevelte , she is executed
( in the place ) where she committed the crime.
(2 ) Adverbial clauses of time. Contemporaneous time is
expressed by da , als , wenn , wie , indem , indeß , indeſſen,
weil and während. The German is richer in this kind of
particles than most languages.
Wenn is perfectly indefinite in regard to the past, present,
or future ; as, Zeit iſt's, die Unfälle zu beweinen , wenn ſie
wirklich erſcheinen , it is time enough to weep for misfortunes
when they actually occur.
* See the examples given page 157 .
372 Syntax . — Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch . 2.
Da and als generally refer to a definite point of past time ;

da may also be used of the present ; as, Als er ſich von Dir
ſchied, da ſtarb er Dir, when he separated from you ( then )
he died. Da Ihr die That geſchehen ließt, war’t Ihr nicht
mehr Ihr ſelbſt, when you perpetrated the deed, you were
no longer yourself.
Indeß and indeſſen, while, in the mean time, denote du
ration indefinitely. They are also used adversatively, and
then they mean, however, yet.
Weil and während relate particularly to the duration of
the action expressed by the verb ; as , Das Eiſen muß ges
ſchmiedet werden , weil es glüht, the iron must be struck,
while (so long as ) it is hot. Weil is now used almost exclu
sively in a causal sense , because. Während was formerly
construed with daß, which is now more frequently omitted ;
as, Während daß er die Sachſen aus Böhmen ſchlug,
while he was driving the Saxons out of Bohemia, etc.
Während ich ſchreibe, magſt Du die Briefe leſen , while I
am writing, you may read the letters. Ohne daß with a
negative sense, has the same construction as während daß .
Indem and wie give special prominence to the idea of
simultaneousness. Indem also expresses a reason , inasmuch
as.
For a posterior point of time nachdem is used , and ehe for
previous time . Bevor is nearly antiquated , and ehe has
taken its place.
Seit, since, means from a past time ; and bis, until , to a
certain limit.
( 3 ) Adverbial clauses of manner. Of these some refer to
the effect of an action with ſo followed by daß ; as , Sprich
ſo, daß man Dich verſteht, speak so that one can under
stand you , i . e. speak intelligibly. The verb in the adverbial
clause is in the indicative, except when it depends on a sub
junctive ; as , Er hofft, ich werde ſo bandeln, daß er dabei
gewinne, he hopes I may so act that he may gain by it.

The subjunctive often follows the imperative also .
Others express similarity with ſo expressed or understood,
followed by wie ; as, Glühend, wie ſie haſſen , ( 10 ) lieb ich
Dich, I love you as warmly as they hate you . When the
comparison is made with something possible, als ob with the
subjunctive is used ; with a supposed reality, als wenn , with
the conditional is necessary ; as, Er ſieht aus, als ob er
krank ſei, he appears as if he were sick. Er ſieht aus, als
wenn er krank wäre, he appears as if he were sick. Here
is a distinction which does not exist in English. The con
junctions ob and wenn are often omitted ; in that case the
order of the words is changed , and the verb stands at the
beginning of the clause ; as, Welches Bild des Schreckens,
als hätt ' er ein Geſpenſt geſehen, what an image of ter
ror ! —as if he had seen a ghost.
( 4 ) Adverbial clauses expressing causal relations. These
are introduced by daß preceded by davon , referring to an
active cause ; dadurch, referring to means ; and daraus and
daher, referring to the source of information . Examples :
Einer wird davon nicht ſtark, daß er viel Wein trinket,
one does not become strong from drinking much wine.
Dadurch gibt Neigung ſich ja fund, daß ſie bewilligt aus
freier Gunſt, was ſie auch nicht gebilligt, an affection mani
fests itself by granting from mere favor what it does not ap
prove. Daß er frank iſt, ſchließe ich daraus , daß er
nicht gefommen iſt, that he is ill , I infer from his not coming.
A reason or a motive is expressed by weil, which is ren
dered more emphatic by such words as darum, deshalb and
deswegen , in the principal clause ; as, Weil ich ihm ges
traut bis heut' ; will ich auch heut' ihm trauen, because I
have trusted him up to this day, I will also trust him this day.
Deswegen bleib ' ich , weil es Dich verdrießt, I remain
for this reason, because it vexes you.
32
374 Syntar. - Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch . 2 .
If the leading clause contains a logical inference, the

ground of which is given in the adverbial clause, da must be
used instead of weil ; as, Dir blüht gewiß das ſchönſte Glück
der Erde, da Du ſo fromm und heilig biſt, yours surely
must be the highest bliss of earth, since you are so good and
holy. Du biſt doch glücklich ? Ja, Du mußt es ſein , da Du
ſo groß biſt und geehrt, you are happy , are you not ? Cer
tainly you must be so, since you are so great and so honored.
Da must always be used when a logical reason is given for
what is stated interrogatively in the foregoing clause ; as,
Warum ausſchließend Eigenthum beſitzen , da die Herzen
einig find ? why hold exclusive possessions, since our hearts
are one ?
Nun is often used as a conjunction instead of da ; as , Und
nun Friede im Innern iſt, können wir Blicke richten auf
das Ausland, and since there is peace within , we may direct
our attention to foreign lands. Nun ich ſie Dir empfehle,
ſterb' ich ruhig, since I commit her to your charge, I die in
peace. This use of nun deserves particular attention .
A final cause is expressed by damit, to the end that, which
is rendered emphatic by darum in the foregoing clause .
Daß is a feebler expression of the same idea , for which auf
daß was formerly common . Examples : Darum bin ich
vorangeeilt , damit ich Euch in Faſſung ſeßen möchte, for
this reason have I hastened forward , that I might put you in
a proper state of mind. Ehre Vater und Mutter ( auf) daß
es Dir wohl gehe auf Erden, honor thy father and mother,
that it may be well with thee on the earth.
A conditional causal relation is most commonly expressed
by wenn (originally wann ), corresponding to ſo expressed or
understood in the principal clause ; as, Wenn es Dir zit
wider iſt, ( ſo ) redeſt Du ſie gar nicht an, speak not to her
at all, if it is disagreeable to you.
So, wo, wofern , fals, or in dem Falle ( daß ), if, in case
that, are often used instead ofwenn ; as, So Du Gerechtig
keit vom Himmel hoffeſt, ſo erzeig' ſie uns, if you expect

justice from heaven , then exercise it towards us. Sie wers
den mich retten , und wo ich ohne Rettung verloren bin ,
theilnehmend um mich weinen, you will deliver me, and if I
am lost beyond recovery , you will weep sympathetically over
me. Gib mir, wofern es Dir gefällt, des Lebens Ruh
und Freuden, grant me, if it please thee, a peaceful and joy
ful life.
Wenn followed by an inverted clause , is the ordinary
form of stating a logical condition ; as, Wenn Euer Ges
wiſſen rein iſt ( not iſt rein ), ſo ſeid Ihr frei, if your con
science is clear, then you are free.
This logical connection is made more striking by giving
the clause an interrogative form , and omitting the conjunc
tion ; as, Begeh ' ich eine Thorheit ; ſo iſt es Eure,
nicht die meine, should I perform a foolish act, it is yours,
not mine. This form is especially employed with the condi
tional mode when a contrast is implied ; as, Hätt' ich den
friegeriſchen Talbot in der Schlacht nicht fallen fehn ; ſo
ſagt' ich, Du wärſt Talbot, had I not seen the warlike Tal
bot fall in battle, then I should have said that you were Tal
bot.
An imperative is frequently used in the place of a condi
tional clause ; as , Sprich Ja oder Nein, ſo ſind wir ſchon
zufrieden , say yes, or no , and we shall be satisfied ; i . e. if
you say , etc.
So in the leading clause is never omitted when the condi
tional clause has the interrogative form ; it is always omitted
when the conditional clause follows the other ; and when the
conditional clause precedes , ſo is expressed in the principal
clause only when emphasis is to be given to the logical con
nection . See the preceding examples.
When an adversative reason is given which is not the
speaker's assertion , a concessive adverbial clause is formed .
Wenn or ob joined with gleich, ſchon , auch, or wohl, in such
376 Syntar . — Compound Sentences. P. II. Ch. 2.
cases, stand in the concessive clause , and ſo joined with doch

and dennoch in the principal clause, if it follow the other ;
as , wenn er gleich kein freundlich Geſicht macht; To
ſieht er's doch gern , wenn man ihn beſucht, though he
does not wear a pleasant countenance, still he is pleased
when one visits him. Ob uns der See, ob uns die Berge
ſcheiden, ſo ſind wir Eines Stammes doch und Blutes,
though sea and mountains divide us, still we are of one na
tion , of one blood . Here ob alone is used like obſchon . If
what is conceded is but barely possible , wenn auch, al
though , in the sense of even if, is used. The particles
gleich, ſchon , added to wenn or ob, intimate reality more
than the others ; wohl, probability ; and auch , possibility ;
all of which ideas are expressed by our word , although.
The concessive clause may also assume the interrogative
form , and omit the conjunctions wenn and ob . The effect
of such a change of construction is to give emphasis to the
adversative character of the sentence ; as , Iſt es gleich
Nacht ; ſo leuchtet unſer Recht, though it is night , still our
rights shine forth . Iſt gleich die Zahl nicht voll ;
das Herz iſt hier des ganzen Volfes, though the number is
not full, still the hearts of the whole nation are here. Sind
aud die alten Bücher nicht zur Hand ; ſie ſind
in unſre Herzen eingeſchrieben , if the ancient books are not
in our hands, they are inscribed on our hearts. If instead of
a concession there is a supposed reality, the same construc
tion is preserved except that the conditional is used ; as , Und
w är ſt Du ſelbſt die Niedrigſte geboren ; Du
müſteſt dennoch meine Liebe ſein , and had you been of the
lowest parentage , still you must have been my love.
The interrogative form of a concessive clause is still more
distinct, and the contrast still more striking, when an inter
rogative adverb or pronoun is introduced ; as, Wie groß
Dich auch die Königin zu machen verſpricht,-trau ihrer
Sdimeichelrede nicht, however great the queen promises to
Sect. 3. On Subordinate Clauşes. 377
make you , trust not to her flattery. Ich bin Euch ein Dorn
in den Augen, ſo klein ich bin, I will be a thorn in your eye,
little as I am ( however little I may be ). Welch tapfres
Haupt auch dieſer Helm bedeckt ; er fann fein würdigeres
zieren, however courageous a head this helmet may cover, a
worthier one it cannot adorn. Welch er er ſei, er hat
mein Herz erfreut, be he who he may , he has rejoiced my
heart. Wort muß ich halten , führ's , wohin es will, I
must keep my word, lead where it may . Was er auch
bringen mag ; er darf den Meutern nicht in die Hände
fallen , bring what he may , he must not fall into the conspira
tors' hands.
The affirmation of the principal clause is rendered emphatic
by a concessive clause expressing either of two opposite con
tingencies ; , as, Dein Bruder ſterbe oder ſieger er iſt vers
loren, whether your brother die or conquer , he is ruined.
(5 ) Adverbial clauses of intensity, or of comparison. Like
ness is generally expressed by ſo in the principal clause, and
als referring to it in the adverbial clause ; as, Noch eben ſo
friſch, als es dieſen Zuig angetreten hatte, ſtand ſein Heer
da , his army stood there as fresh as when it entered upon this
campaign.
If the subordinate clause precede the other, ſo is employed
in both clauses ; as , So hoch er ſtand, ſo tief und ſchmählich
ſei ſein Fall, as high as he stood, so deep and disgraceful be
his fall. Als is not admissible with ſo in the first clause ( ſo
hoch als er ſtand ), as the corresponding particle is in Eng
lish.
Similarity of intensity is expressed by je - deſto, or je — ie,
as has been remarked under the words on pages 291 and
292. At the present day , um is often joined to deſto, to in
crease the intensity ; as, Um deſto mehr, so much the more.
Dissimilarity is expressed by als after a comparative ; as,
größer als, greater than. Als is sometimes followed by
32 *
378 Syntax . - Compound Sentences. P. II . Ch . 3.
daß ; as, Arioſtens Lob hat mich mehr ergeßt als daß es
mich beleidigt hätte, Ariosto's praise has pleased me more
than it has offended me.
Formerly denn , dann and even wider were employed in
the place of als after comparatives ; as, Wir wollen lieber
in die Hände des Herrn fallen , weder in die Hände der
Menſchen , we would rather fall into the hands of the Lord
than into the hands of men . Wie, as an adverb of manner,*
may be employed to express similarity ( of manner ) in com
parisons, but not intensity which belongs to als, as an adverb
of degree. Sometimes similarity in manner and similarity in
intensity approach so near to each other in the conception
that they may be interchanged , but never without a shade of
difference in meaning ; as, liebevoll wie ein Vater, als
der Vater, als Vater, affectionate in the manner of a fa
ther , as much as the father, as, or in the character of a father.
It is inaccurate , therefore, to employ wie after the compara
tive ; as, größer wie ich, greater than I.
So — daß, so, or in such a degree that, needs no explana
tion .
Als is employed in a peculiar way after the adverb zu and
before daß, which will be best illustrated by examples : Er
iſt zu alt, als daß er eine ſolche Thorheit begienge, which
means the same as, Er iſt zu alt, eine ſolche Thorheit zu
begehen, he is too old to do so foolish a thing. Er iſt zu
vorſichtig, als daß er das wagen ſollte, he is too 'cautious
to venture upon that.
3. Adjective Clauses.
Adjective clauses are relative constructions in which a de
monstrative adjective pronoun expressed or understood is the
antecedent, and a relative adjective pronoun is the relative.
Welcher ( qualis ), which, what, is the proper relative adjec
* See p. 269.
1
tive pronoun. Der is a demonstrative relative pronoun,

when used as a relative , and may be used for welcher. Wer
is the substantive relative pronoun. In this construction,
the relative, as an adjective agrees with the same noun un
derstood in the subordinate clause, which is expressed in the
principal clause ; as, Er treibt eine Kunſt, von welcher
( Kunſt ) er nicht leben kann, he practises an art from which
( art ) he cannot live. Du ſprichſt von Zeiten , die (welche
Zeiten ) vergangen ſind, you speak of times which ( times )
are gone. The demonstrative is expressed in the principal
clause only when the adjective clause is to be made emphat
ic ; as, Diejenigen Glieder, welche, those members
which ; ein ſolches, da s, such as . If an adjective clause
is used substantively , or regarded as a substantive clause , it
must take the substantive relative pronoun , as has been said
under substantive clauses . Der and welcher, the former a
demonstrative, the latter an interrogative adjective pronoun,
are, therefore, used as the adjective relative pronouns. In
the old German the demonstrative der was the only pronoun
so employed, and it prevails in Luther's writings ; welcher,
originally an interrogative, what kind ? qualis ? was after
wards used as a relative .
Der, according to its demonstrative character , is generally
used when some individual thing is to be pointed out by the
adjective clause ; as, Den Späber, den Du ausgeſen
det, erblick ich wiederkehrend, the spy , whom you sent out, I
see returning. Hence der is always used in relative con
structions of the first and second persons, pointing the indi
viduals out demonstratively ; as, ich, der ich, I , that ; I,that
person who .
When the character of a thing is to be described by the ad
jective clause, der may still be used , but welcher is the ap
propriate word ; as , Nun gibt es Menſchen , die mit einer
natürlichen Anlage hierzu geboren ſind, now there are men,
who have a native aptitude for this. Ein Geſchlecht, weldes
380 Syntax . - Compound Sentences. P. II.
wandeln wird mit der Sonne, a race, which will change with
the sun. Hence welcher is especially employed in referring
to a noun that has the indefinite article ; as, ' a man , of such
a description . Although welcher properly corresponds to
ſolcher, as qualis does to talis in Latin , still when kind or
quality is to be distinctly pointed out, ſolcher is used, followed
by wie, ( such ) as. Solcher is omitted when wie is followed
by a personal pronoun in regimen , as in English , ' life as we
find it, ' may stand for such a life as we find here. ' . Exam
ples : Drauf fiel er mir um den Hals · und zeigte eine
Rührung, wie jener kleine Dienſt fie gar nicht werth war ,
therefore he fell upon my neck and manifested a tenderness
such as that little service by no means merited ( as that little
service by no means merited it ) . Da ward ein Angriff und
ein Widerſtand, wie ihn fein glücklich Auge noch geſehn ,
then there was an onset and a resistance, such as no happy
eye has ever yet seen ( as no happy eye has ever yet seen it) .
In any other cases than those mentioned above, der is the
relative pronoun commonly used in adjective sentences. So
was in such cases employed in former times ; but this word,
as a relative , is now antiquated. Example : Bittet für die,
ſo Euch beleidigen and verfolgen , pray for those who abuse
and persecute you .
When place, time or manner are indicated , the adverbs
wo, da, wann, als and wie, often take the place of the rela
tives ; as , das Land , wo, the land where ; die Zeiten, da,
the times, in which ; der Tag, wenn, the day when ; die
Zeit, als, the time when ; die Art, wie, the manner in
which (how ).
Ch. 3 . On the Arrangement of Words. 381
CHAPTER III.
ON THE ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS .
CONTAINING
1. The Verb and its Relations.

2. The Qualifications of the Noun .
3. The Relation of the Noun in Regimen to its Verb .
In German, all the members of a sentence, and all the

words of the several members , have a definite order of ar
rangement, the violation of which would be, to a German ear,
as gross as the violation of any of the grammatical laws which
regulate the agreement and government of words.
This order of arrangement secures,
( 1 ) The unity of a sentence , by which the thoughts of a
whole sentence, or the single ideas of a clause, belonging to
gether, are kept from being separated .
Die Erbin Karls , — die Helena jener Zeit, beſchäfts
igte — die Erwartung der damaligen Zeit . Here the two
first members cannot be separated, nor the words of the first,
second and fourth, as divided above, without destroying the
unity of thought.
(2 ) The due subordination of the parts of a sentence, by
placing in general that part which is most important last , and
all the others, according to their relative importance, before
it, the less important always preceding the more important.
This rule applies not to all the words singly of a whole sen
tence , but first to all the parts of a sentence with reference to
their arrangement as parts , and secondly to the single words
or phrases in those parts. With reference to the principles
382 On the Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch. 3 .
of arrangement a simple sentence may be divided into two

principal parts. ( 1 ) The subject and what pertains to it.
(2 ) The verb with its predicate or object. The latter is the
more important, inasmuch as it contains the chief assertion,
and is therefore placed last . Examples : Die Kunſt iſt
lang . Der ungehorſame Knabe verdient Strafe.
Er bringt einen Blumenſtrauß . The principal
member of this last sentence may be expanded and subdivi
ded into the action and its various limitations; as, Er bringt
jeden Morgen mit einer zarten Aufmerkſam
feit ſeiner Mutter einen Blumenſtrauß . This
subdivision cannot be separated. If the last word , which
gives the action its chief import follow the verb, then all the
other words added to the last for the sake of rendering that
import still more definite , must also follow the verb. All
these modifying words are placed according to their relative
importance. What does he bring ? The answer is, einen
Blumenſtrauß, the most important word as to the nature of
the action , bringt. The question next in importance is, To
whom does he bring it ? Seiner Mutter. The person to
whom it is brought is of more consequence than the manner
or time of bringing it. Hence ſeiner Mutter is placed next
before Blumenſtrauß . For the same reason , the delicate at
tentions being themselves more important than the time when
they were shown , mit einer zarten Aufmerkſamkeit is placed
next before ſeiner Mutter, and jeden Morgen takes the least
important place of the whole in the subdivision to which it
belongs.
The above is the natural order of arrangement which can
never be changed but for special reasons. But there may be
logical or rhetorical reasons , and then either whole sentences
or parts of sentences may be inverted . Inversions are of two
kinds ; the first in which the whole sentence or whole clause
is inverted ; the second, an imperfect one , in which a single
Sect . 1 . Of the Verb and its Relations. 383
word or subdivision is, for the sake of emphasis, placed either

at the beginning or at the end of a sentence.
SECTION I.
OF THE VERB AND ITS RELATIONS.
There are three places here to be noticed :

( 1 ) That of the subject, which comes first.
(2 ) That of the copula, which stands next in order. If a
principal verb includes the copula ( which is properly the verb
ſein ), the verb itself stands in the place of the copula when
the tense is simple, and the auxiliary when the tense is com
pound.
( 3 ) That of the predicate. Here belong not only the ad
jective and substantive after the copula ſein , but the infinitive
and participle after other verbs , and the preposition in separa
ble verbs ; as,
Subject. Copula. Predicate .

Die Kunſt iſt lang,
Os iſt unmöglich ,
Ihr ſeid ein Meiſter ,
Ich kann ( nicht ) warten,
Ich will's verſuchen ,
Der Senne muß ſcheiden ,
Er ſtößt ( ſchon ) ab,
Das Waſſerhuhn taudit unter.
If the predicate be a simple verb in a simple tense , and

consequently include both copula and predicate, it always
occupies the position of the copula, and the vacant place of
the predicate is occupied by the object of the verb ; as,
Ihr ſehet dieſen Hut,
( Ihr habet dieſen Hut geſehen ).
384 Syntax .-- Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch. 3.
If the copula ( ſein ) or an auxiliary form a part of a com

pound tense, as iſt geweſen, wird haben, hat können, the
auxiliary takes the place of the copula, and the participle is
appended immediately to the proper predicate ; as,
Subject . Copula. Predicate.
Gr iſt frank geweſen ,
Id habe ( das ) hören müſſen ,
Id ) habe ( mir ) erzählen laſſen ,
Alles hätte ( aud ) geſchehen ſein können,
Sie hätte ( nicht ſo empfangen werden ſollen .
In German , principal sentences and subordinate clauses
differ in the arrangement of words. In the former the order
is either natural or inverted ; in the latter there is no entire
inversion of the order.
1. The Arrangement of Words in Principal Sentences.

The natural order has been already stated ; the subject oc
cupying the first, the copula the second , and the predicate
the last place ; as ,
Subject Copula. Predicate ,
Das Wort iſt frei,
Wir danken
Er hat ( mich ) betrogen,
Der dritte Mann ſoll verloren ſein ,
Wir liefen fort.
Inversion of the Principal Clause.

In inverted sentences, the subject does not stand first, but
follows the copula . An inversion takes place when the sub
ject, the predicate, or the copula , is to be rendered emphatic
by its position , and when an object or oblique case is placed
at the head of a sentence.
( 1 ) When the subject is to have a particular emphasis it is
put after the copula, and the pronoun es takes its place as a
grammatical subject ; as,
Sect. 1 . of the Verb and its Relations. 385
Copula. Subject . Predicate

Es find Verbrechen begangen ,
Es kann der Frömmſte (nicht im Frieden ) leben ,
Es hebt die Freiheit (ihre Fahne ) anf .
( 2 ) When the predicate is to be made emphatic, it ex

changes places with the subject; as,
Predicate . Copula . Subject.
Er n ſt iſt das Leben,
Geſiegt hat der Muth ,
Sterben müſſen Ale .
( 3 ) When the copula is to be made emphatic, that also

exchanges places with the subject, which occurs only in in
terrogations, imperatives, ( and the subjunctive or condi
tional of mogen , expressing a wish ) , and in very emphatic
declarations ; as,
Copula . Subject. Predicate .

Kann das geſchehen ?
Gei ( Du ) willfommen !
Möchte er ( doc ) gegenwärtig ſein !
Wart Ihr ( dod ſonſt ) fo froh !
( 4 ) An oblique case is often made the most prominent

word in the whole sentence by being placed first. In this
instance also the subject and the copula exchange places,
and the predicate remains in its own place ; as,
Copula . Subject. Predicate.
Maria Stuart bat kein Glücklicher beſchützt,
Nur von Edlem kann Edles ſtammen ,
Nie werden wir ( Dich mehr ) betreten .
Remark. Nie is equivalent to the oblique case, at no time.

Thus relative adverbs *, come under the same rule as oblique
nouns.
* See p. 266 .
33
386 Syntar.- Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch. 3.
Not only relative adverbs, but most conjunctions, placed

at the head of a sentence , produce an inverted sentence in
the same way . The conjunctions und, oder, allein , ſondern
and denn , however , never produce an inversion , as they al
ways stand loosely at the beginning of a sentence, and are
never immediately connected with the predicate. The same
is true of aber and nämlich, though they may stand within
the clause. Entweder is used sometimes with, and some
times without an inversion. If an adverb, or conjunction ,
stand elliptically at the beginning of a sentence, i. e. if they
be separated by a comma, so as not to be a constituent part
of the clause, no inversion takes place ; as, Ja, das iſt wahr .
Doch, der Getrue ſchläft. Fürw a br, man wird ihn bit
ten . Ja freilich, er iſt uns ein Stein des Anſtoßes .
When a causal adverbial clause precedes the principal
clause , the latter is inverted ; as, Damit ſie andre Hände
nicht erkaufe ; bot ich die meinen an .
The subject generally stands immediately after the copula
in inverted sentences, but if the subject is to receive particu
lar stress, it is placed after the the principal object also , and
is thus made to occupy a more important place ; as , Es ſißen
neben Euch noch edle Männer, instead of, Es ſitzen
edle Männer, etc.
2. Arrangement of Words in Subordinate Clauses.

In subordinate clauses, the subject occupies the first, the
predicate the second, and the copula the third place ; as,
(Principal clause . ) Subject. Predicate . Copula.
Dies Heiligthum , das To ſtreng verwahrt wird,
Der, deſſen Herz rein iſt,
Ich weiß, daß Ihr verſtändig ſeid ,
Weil, id meinem Willen treu bin,
Wenn, es dahin kommen follte .
Only when something is represented as logically possible

Sect. 2. On the Qualifications of the Noun . 387
by the subjunctive with the omission of the conjunction , is the

arrangement the same as in a principal sentence ; as, Ihr
glaubt, der Herzog fei entſeßt. Ein Gilbot meldet,
Regensberg fei genommen . Ich laſſe Did nicht,
Du fegn eſt mich denn , ( unless thou bless me).
When an auxiliary or other verb is connected with the in
finitive so as to form a compound tense, the copula is com
monly, for the sake of rhythm , placed before the predicate ;
as, Kann ich vergeſſen , wie's hätte kommen können ? in
stead of, wie's kommen fönnen hätte .
It is on account of rhythm also that in subordinate clauses
ſein or haben, as a copula, is often omitted ; as , Ich verlor
nicht Alles, da ſolcher Freund im Unglück mir geblieben
( iſt ). Was war mein Dank dafür, daß ich, ein treuer
Fürſtenknecht, der Völker Fluch auf mich gebürdet ( hatte ),
dieſen Krieg , der nur ihn groß gemacht ( hat), die Fürſten
Zahlen laſſen ( hatte ) ?
An inversion of the order of words does not take place in
subordinate clauses. If the subject, however, is to be ren
dered emphatic , it is placed in the position of the principal
object (noun in the oblique case ) , after one or more objects
less important. See the last remark on principal clauses.
SECTION IL
ON THE QUALIFICATIONS OF THE NOUN.
The attributive word generally follows immediately after

the principal noun which it qualifies; as , Die Gnade der
Großen , Die Gunſt der Gewaltigen , die Förderung
der Thätigen, die Neigung der Menge, die Liebe
der Einzelnen , Alles wandelt auf und nieder, ohne
daß wir es feſthalten können .
The adjective only precedes its substantive ; as, Ein
388 Syntax . - Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch. 3 .
kleiner Mann, ein großes Pferd, ein kurzer Arm,

ein langes Sdywert, muß eins dem andern helfen . In
old German the adjective often followed its noun, and this
order of the words is still found in several expressions ; such
as , Mein Vater felig ; Zehn Gulden r beiniſch .
If several adjectives belong to one substantive, the one
which is to have the emphasis is placed last, if there is any
distinction between them in this respect ; as , Ein alter ver
dienter Kriegsmann .
If one adjective qualify the entire expression of a noun and
another adjective, it stands before both and has the emphasis;
as , Eine alte deutſche Bibel ( a German Bible which is old ) .
Adjective pronouns and numerals also precede such ex
pressions, but without the emphasis ; as , laßt mir mein
freies Leben . Drei edle Grafen folgen . Here belong also
fein, alle, manche, viel, wenig, mehr, weniger, mehrere and
ganz.
Allein, generally, and alle, frequently , follow their noun.
The inverted Order of Arrangement.

An inversion takes place when either the adjective or the
principal noun which governs the genitive is to be rendered
eniphatic ; as , Die Hausfrau die fluge, instead of, die
kluge sausfrau ; Der Welt Ende ; Des Kaiſer's Bart .
This inversion is scarcely allowable with the genitive of pre
dicate , or the genitive of object. In old German it was very
common in those genitives which expressed the relations of
kindred, of which several expressions are still in use ; as ,
Meines Vater's Brüder ; Ehrlicher leute Kinder ;
Kindes Ainder. It is faulty to use such expressions as,
des Lebens Bauin ; der Zeit Geiſt, where the last noun
is not emphatic.
Sect. 3. Relation of the Object to its Verb. 389
SECTION III.
ON THE RELATION OF THE NOUN IN REGIMEN TO ITS VERB.
The place of the noun in regimen , both in principal sen

tences and in subordinate clauses, is before the predicate, or
in the vacancy left when the predicate is wanting. See the
second class of examples under section first.
The Natural Order of Principal Sentences.

Du haſt des Herzens Stimme (nicht) bezwungen
Du wollteſt allen dieſen Glanz verlaſſen ?
ruft die Menſchen an,
Flehen } bringt zu keinem Retter
The Inverted Order of Principal Sentences.

Copula. Subject. Predicate .
Haſt Dit Richts verſchwiegen ?
Geben wir nach Kärnthen ( nicht) zurück ?
The Order of Words in Subordinate Clauses.

Subject. Predicate . Copula.
Db Ihr Guren Herrn verrathen wollt,
Daß Du mit einem Wort betrogen werdeſt,
Wenn Du ihn (nicht los gibt,
Wenn ein Lauſcher mich erſpähte.
The Order of several successive Nouns in Regimen .

It has already been said that these are arranged according
to their relative value, the less important always preceding
the more important.
In particular :
1. A relative word which depends on another for its sig
33 *
390 Syntax . - Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch . 3.
nification precedes the word which is significant of itself; as,

Wie ſoll man ſie durch Ueberredung ſeiten ? Id
werde Dich feinem Nach bar reichen . Hier ſaß ich
oft gedanken voll. It will mich hier zu Deinem
.Dienſt verbinden ..
2. A noun which stands in an adverbial phrase, precedes
the one which stands as the complement of the verb ; as,
Als ich zu Brandeis ( the place where) die Wache
gethan . Man ſieht den Fluß bin a b ( down the river )
die bunten Schiffe gleiten . Glücklich, wer von ſets
u em Gaben ( whence) ſolch ein Vortheil ziehen
kann. Pappenheim ſtarb gleid ) am folgenden Tage
zu leipzig an ſeinen Wunden .
3. The appropriate case for a person ( the dative ) precedes
that for a thing ;* as , Erweiſe Deinem Meiſter Deine
Gunſt. So ſeßeſt Du der ewig regen , der heil
ſam ſchaffenden Gewalt die kalte Teufels .
fauſt entgegen .
4. The accusative precedes the genitive and expressions
of destination or result ; aš, Ihr zwangt die Richter, den
Schuldigen des Mordes loszuſprechen . Ich will
in ein eigen Selbſt zu ihrem Selbſt erweitern .
Die Geringſchäßung des Lebens und des Eigenthums konnte
furchtſame Bürger in tollkühne Empörer
verwandeln .
5. Words relating to time and place generally precede
those participles and those adverbial phrases which imply
some action or feeling connected with the verb ; as, Gibt es
Geiſter in der Luft, die zwiſden Erd ' und Himmel
herridend ſchweben ? Du ſollſt in dieſen Tagen
mit Freudent ( action or feeling connected with the
verb ) meine Künſte ſehn . Als ich eine lange Nacht
in frommer Andacht (connected action ) unter dieſem
* See Chapter ļ. Sect. III. 5 .

Sect. 3. Relation of the Object to its Verb. 391
Baum geſeſſen . The adverbial phrase of place ( unter dieſem

Baum ) seems here to be an exception ; but there is a general
rule , limiting the one given above in regard to place , to
which this case belongs. When such verbs of place ( those
which directly involve the idea of place ) as, wohnen, ſtehen ,
ſitzen, liegen , ſtecken , ſtellen , ſetzen , legen, führen, ſenden,
etc. , take with them nouns of place, so as to receive from
them their full meaning , the latter always stand after all the
nouns, and nearest to the verb.
Those nouns and phrases that express cause ( instrumental,
final or efficient ), also follow those of time and place , except
when nouns of place are connected with the verbs just
named : Wie Du draußen auf dem bergigen Wege
durdy Rennen und Springe n (instrumentalcause )
ergetzt uns haſt. Er iſt zu ſeiner Erholung ( final
cause ) aufs Land gezogen ( a verb involving the idea of
place, and requiring its complemental noun of place to be
next before itself ).
6. Words of time precede those of place ; as, Das Gute
liegt uns oft ſo fern . Er war Tags vorher nach
Bamberg geritten .
7. An adverb of manner, when the verb is in a compound
tense , precedes the word or phrase which it qualifies ; as,
Hat man uns die löhnung umſonſt verſprochen ? Dann
will id ) gern zu Grunde gehen ( zu Grunde gehen is a
phrase which stands for a simple verb , to perish ) . In such
idiomatic phrases as , zu Grunde gehen , zu Hülfe kommen ,
um Rath fragen, zu Grunde richten, ins Werk ſeßen , zu
Stande bringen , bei Seite ſetzen , im Stiche laſſen, Trotz
bieten , im Zaume halten, feſt halten, ſtille ſtehen , gefangen
nehmen , etc. , the position of the other words is with reference
to the verbs, the same as the position of the separable parti
cles in compound verbs , i . t. they are placed immediately
before the verb, or if there be no auxiliary , at the end of the
392 Syntar.---Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch . 3.
clause ; as, Er hat ein großes Werf zu Stande ges

bracht, he has accomplished a great work . Königliches
Blut ge b' ich dem Raſenden nicht Preis, I will not expose
royal blood to the maniac ( Preis geben ) .
Pronouns generally precede other relative words, i. e. those
which depend on something else for their import ; as, Wir
beſprechen das zunächſt. Ich hab' ihn heute nicht
geſehen .
The personal pronoun precedes demonstrative pronouns,
and the pronoun es precedes all others except reflexive pro
nouns ; as, Er hat in ir das erzählt. Er hat es mir
erzählt.
With the personal pronouns the case for things ( accusa
tive ) precedes that for persons ( dative) ; as, Ich will Dich
ihm vorſtellen. Was ihn Eudy widrig macht, macht ihn
mir werth .
The reflexive pronouns precede all others including es ;
as, Er läßt fich's gefallen . Sie konnte ſich ihrer nicht
erwehren .
Adverbs of time generally precede others.
Inversion of the Order of Words connected with the Noun

in Regimen .
Inversions of this kind take place when either the predicate
or the subordinate noun in regimen * is to be made emphatic.
The predicate is made emphatic by being placed at the
beginning of the sentence ; as, Beiſtehen ſollen ſie mir
in meinen Planen . Gereiniget war Böheim von den
Sachſen . Weggeworfen hab ' ich Schwert und Schild.
The subordinate noun in regimen is rendered emphatic by
being placed after the other noun in regimen , and immedi
* By nouns in regimen here are meant the direct or remote

objects of a verb only. The indirect object may be with, or
without a preposition.
Sect. 3. Relation of the Object to its Verb . 393
ately before the predicate. The subordinate noun is hereby

made the principal noun , just as in English any word may
be made the principal word in a sentence by emphasis in
speaking ; as, Er drückt des Kaiſers länder mit des
Raiſers Heer . Länder and. Heer are the nouns in ques
tion , des Kaiſers being but a qualifying word equivalent to
an adjective. Wir müſſen das Werk in dieſen näch
ſten Tagen weiter fördern .
There are two ways in which either the principal , or the
subordinate noun in regimen may be rendered emphatic.
( 1 ) By placing them at the beginning of the sentence ; but
this inversion takes place only in the principal clause of a
sentence ; as , Nicht wichtig ſchien er mir . Am Abend
ſchäßt man erſt das Haus. ( 2 ) By putting them quite at
the end of a sentence ; as , Wir haben dieſen Boden uns ers
ſchaffen durch unſerer Hände Fleiß .
Nouns dependent on attributive adjectives, or on partici
ples, precede the governing word in the order of their relative
importance ; as, Die Bilder ſtellten ein von einer ruſs
fiſden Eskadre gegen die Turfen erfochtenes
Treffen vor. Such constructions are easily analyzed thus :
‘ A battle fought,' — ' A battle fought against the Turks, '—' A
battle fought against the Turks by a Russian squadron .' In
the English the words follow ' a battle fought,' just in the
order in which they precede erfochtenes Treffen in German .
Only when the adjective or participle follows its noun ,
analogous to the manner of a noun in apposition , can the
dependent word be made emphatic by following the adjective ;
as , Um die locken windet ſich ein Diadem , gefüget aus dem
köſtlichſten Geſtein . Er trat zum Grafen, rafd) zur
That und offen des verführers Rath .
Arrangement of words in Compound Sentences.

In compound sentences subordinate clauses generally stand
in the places of the nouns and adjectives which they represent .
394 Syntax .-- Arrangement of Words. P. II. Ch . 3 .
1. Those substantive clauses which stand as a nominative

in a principal sentence are generally placed at the beginning
of the whole sentence ; but it is placed at the end of the
whole sentence by an inversion , when either the substantive
clause itself, or the verb of the principal clause is to be made
emphatic ; as , Wer von Ergebung ſpricht ( nominative clause ) ,
roll rechtlos ſein. Was grau vor Alter iſt ( nominative ) ,
das iſt ihm göttlich. fann ſein ( principal clause ) , daß ſeine
Zwecke Deinem Wünſt begegnen ( nominative ) ; doch das
fann nimmermehr ſein Wille ſein (principal clause ) , daß
Du, wie ein verliebtes Mädchen Dich gebärdeſt ( nominative
clause ).
2. Those substantive clauses which form the complemen
tal object of the verb generally precede the predicate, or take
its place, if one word is both copula and predicate ; as, Kein
Kaiſer kann, was unſer iſt, verſchenken . Jego ſagt
mir, wir die Freunde find.
But as the substantive clauses are generally substituted for
the principal noun of the leading sentence, they are commonly
placed at the end ; and those which are introduced by daß,
as well as those which omit daß and have the arrangement of
a principal sentence always stand at the end ; as, Ich hab'
gethan ,was ich nicht laſſen konnte. Er ſelbſt vertraute
mir, daß er zum Schweden wolle übergehn . Ich
führte an , Sie hätten über unſer Rind beſtimmt.
If either the principal or the subordinate clause is to be
made emphatic, the substantive clause is placed first ; as,
Was ich ver mocht hab ' ich gethan . Daß ich mir
ſelbſt ge höre, weiß ich nun .
When a substantive clause depends on a noun , the clause
follows immediately after the noun ; as , Zur Gewähr, daß
ich Euch fende bringt ihm dies Schreiben . If, however,
the noun be the object of the verb in the principal clause,
and the substantive clause express the main idea of the prin
cipal clause, the substantive clause is placed at the very end ;
Sect. 3. Relation of the object to its Verb. 395
as, Habt Ihr Befehl gegeben, daß man ihn zurück

weiſe . In this example the clause does not follow imme
diately after the noun , Befehl, on which it depends.
3. An adjective clause generally follows immediately the
noun which it qualifies ; as , Da iſt der Kahn , der mich
hinübertrüge. Die Ehr' , die ihm gebührt ( due
him ) , geb ' ich ihm gern . But if the adjective clause express
the main idea of the whole sentence, it generally comes after
the predicate , as well as after the noun ; as, Als ich die Na
men nannte (predicate ) , die im Gebirg dem land
mann heilig ſind. This construction is allowable only
when the predicate ( nannte ) is very near the noun qualified
( Namen ) .
4. Adverbial clauses generally stand in the places appro
priate to adverbs ; i. e. before the predicate ; as , Alles werde,
wie es damals war, vollbracht. But if the adverbial
clause is to receive an emphasis , it is generally placed at the
beginning of the sentence , or after the predicate ; as, Wie
im laub der Vogel ſpielet, mag ſich jeder gütlich
Thun . Sie wird gerichtet ( predicate ) , wo ſie frevelte .
When adverbial clauses express a logical ground , real,
possible, or adversative , they generally form the first member
of a full period ; as , Weil nun der Feind ſo mäch
tig, und fein Schuß vom König mehr zu hof
fen ; haben ſie einmüthig den Beſchluß gefaßt, ſich dem
Burgund zu übergeben . Hätteſt Du vom Men
ſchen beſſer ſtets gedacht (possible cause, condition );
Du hätteſt beſſer auch gehandelt. An inversion of the or
der of the two members, gives emphasis to the adverbial
clause. If the ground or reason is merely grammatical and
has no great logical force, it comes under the general rules
of adverbial clauses given above ; as, Die Nationalmacht
der Niederländer, die, wenn ſie voll zählig war ( a
grammatical condition , of a subordinate character ) , aus drei
tauſend Pferden beſtehen ſollte.
396 Syntax. P. II. Ch. 4.
Adverbial clauses of time and those of comparison made

by wie, when they are long, generally constitute the first
member of a period ( i. e. two extended members conibined
into one sentence ) ; as, Als der Boden nicht mehr
Gnügen tbat der Zahl des Volfs, da zogen ſie
hinüber zum ſchwarzen Berg .
CHAPTER IV. *
CONTAINING
1. The Composition of Words.

2. Purism .
SECTION 1.
OF THE COMPOSITION OF WORDS .
By this operation , the German Language has the means of

creating new terms , out of its own substance, and of supply
ing itself with expressions, for any idea that may arise .
Though almost every tongue possesses this resource , to a cer
tain degree, yet the German enjoys the advantages , resulting
from it , more amply than others. It is rich in compounds ,
and has the faculty of exercising its formative power, to a
considerable latitude , under certain easy and useful restric
tions. The Greek language may perhaps exceed it in the
number of compound words, with which the vocabulary
abounds ; but it must yield to the German , in the conve
nience, and precision, with which the act of composition is
managed.
* This chapter and Part III. on Prosody are adopted from

Nöhden . ED.
Sect. 1 . On the Composition of Words. 397
A compound word is produced by the union of two or more

terms into one. Such expressions, therefore , as these : news
paper, tablecloth, fortune-teller, bosom-friend, winter-season ,
bookbinder, bookseller, watchmaker, belong to that class.
The rules for composition, which are tacitly acknowledged ,
in German , and ought be uniformly observed , are these two :
Rule I. A compound word should consist of two distinct
and clear ideas. The terms, which enter into the composi
tion , must furnish two ideas ; and these ideas must be so
perspicuous, that , when combined in one word , they may, at
the first perception , render it intelligible. They ought to
bring into the compound neither obscurity nor ambiguity.
Rule II . The prior term of the compound should define
and limit the other. Hence the first component may be call
ed the definite, or particular term ; and the second , the fun
damental, or general. For example : Winter - season . Two
terms, giving two distinct ideas, winter and season. The
latter is the fundamental, or general, term , which by the
former, winter, is defined and limited . Season is thereby
circumscribed , and confined , and confined to one particular
kind . Newspaper , -paper is undetermined , and liable to be
variously conceived : but a definite term , news, being joined
with it , the acceptation of the word is particularized : it spe
cifies what paper is meant. Watchmaker ,-a maker is a
person that makes any thing ; but the prior term watch , de
fines his art of making, and shows to what particular object
it is limited .
These are the two rules of composition, to which some
further observations are now to be added .
1. In substantive compounds , the second component, or
fundamental term , generally furnishes the gender.
2. When two words are joined together, without the cir
cumstance stated in the second rule , of the one's defining the
other, such words are not to be regarded as compounds. Two
terms may be in connection , without that qualification, stand
34
398 Syntar. P. II. Ch. 4.
ing merely in apposition to one another. Such are Prince

Bishop, Empress Queen . These words imply that one per
son has two attributes ; which , in other instances, would be
linked by means of a conjunction ; as , Emperor and King ,
Doctor and Professor : but the first term cannot be said to
define and circumscribe the second . It is , therefore, wrong
to write such words in one. All that may be allowed , in
compliance with custom , is to unite them by the sign of
hyphen ; as, Prince - Bishop, Queen - Empress, or Empress
Queen.
3. It may be considered as a subordinate precept, after
those two rules have been duly put into practice, that the
compound should neither be too long, nor harsh to the ear.
Respecting the length , it may be remarked , that, when it is
insisted that two terms, containing two ideas, should consti
tute the compound, this does not preclude a previous com
pound from being employed in the composition. Though
one of the terms be a compounded word , yet, in the compo
sition for which it is required , it is supposed to give only one
simple idea. For example : das Silberbergwerk, the silver
mine, consisting of Silber, silver , and Bergwerf, a mine,
has , for its second term , a compound word , Bergwerf ; for
this is to be analyzed into Berg, a mountain , and Werf, work ;
yet the idea which this word affords towards the composition
of Silberbergwerk, is simply one. Consequently, words
may be doubly, or more times, compounded, without being
disqualified from serving to a new composition according to
the second rule. But on that account the intimation is here
given , that it is not advisable to make the composition too
long. If, however, it be found necessary to admit such
words, the sign of hyphen ( - ) is resorted to in order to break
their extended appearance ; as, General- Feldzeugmeiſter,
Master General of the Ordnance ; Reichs-General- Feldmar
ſchall, Field- marshal General of the Empire.*
* The practice of forming long words by composition has
4. The sign of hyphen is, moreover , employed , when

either both components , or one of them , are foreign words ;
as, das Reichs - Collegium , the council of the Empire ; das
Criminal-Geridit, the criminal court of justice ; der Justitz
Rath, a counsellor of justice ; das Intelligenz- Vlatt, a paper
for advertisements ; das Intelligenz- Comtoir, the advertising
office ; das Justitz -Collegium , the court of justice . Not un
frequently those foreign words are written in their own type,
as is done in these examples.
5. By the process of composition are produced
( 1 ) SUBSTANTIVES, in the following manner :
( a ) Both terms being Substantives . — Examples : die
Abendſtunde, the evening hour ; from der Abend, the evening,
and die Stunde, the hour : der Apfelbaum , the apple-tree ,
der Unfci, and der Baum : das Rathbaus, the council
house ; der Nath , das faus : der Arbeitslohn , wages for
work ; die Arbeit, der fobn : der Sonntag, Sunday; die
Sonne, der Tag : der Gottesdienſt, divine service ; Gott,
God, ter Dienſt , the service : der Seldenmuth, heroic cour
age ; der seld , the Hero, der Mutly, the courage : die Hers
zensgüte, goodness of heart ; das Herz , die Güte.
( b ) The first term being an Adjective.- Die Großmuth,
magnanimity ; groß, great, der Muth , spirit : die Sdiwers
muth , heaviness of spirit, melancholy; ſuwer, heavy, der
Muth, spirit : die Cigenliebe, self-love ; eigen, proper , and
die Liebe .
( c ) A Numeral the first term.—Der Dreifuß, the tripod ;
drei, three, der Fuß, the foot : das Viereck, the square ; vier,
four, die Ece, the corner : das Achteck, the octagon ; acht,
eight.
( d ) The Pronoun Selbſt the first term. —Das Selbſtges
fühl, self- feeling ; bas Gefühl : die Selbſtprüfung, self-ex
sometimes been carried to great extremes, in such words, for

example, as, Reichsoberpoſtamtszeitungsſchreiber.
400 Syntax. P. II. Ch . 4.
amination ; die Prüfung : der Selbſtſchuß, a spring gun ;

der Schuß, an instrument for shooting.
( e ) A Verb the first term.—Der fechtboden , the fencing
school ; fechten , to fence, der Boden, the floor : die Reit
bahn, theriding -school ; reiten, to ride , die Bahn, the course ,
the ground : das Wartgeld , pay for waiting, for attendance ;
warten , to wait , das Geld , money.
( f) A Particle the first term , such as , ab, an , ein, etc.—
Die Abreiſe, the departure ; die Ankunft, the arrival ; der
Eingang, the entrance.
( 2 ) ADJECtives.
( a ) A Substantive being the first term . — Tugendreich,
rich in virtue ; die Tugend, virtue, reich, rich : kraftvoll,
full of strength , or power ; die Kraft, voll : eiskalt, cold as
ice ; das Eis , falt : goldgelb, yellow as gold ; das Gold,
gelb : pechſchwarz, black as pitch ; das Pech , ſchwarz : got
tesfurchtig, pious, fearing God ; Gott, God , and fürchtig ( an
adjective, unusual out of composition ) : hülfsbedürftig , des
titute , wanting help ; die Hülfe, bedürftig .
( b ) An Adjective the first term .-- leichtfertig, thoughtless,
flighty ; hellblau, light blue ; freiwillig, voluntary ; altflug,
wise as an old man.
( c ) A Numeral the first term . - Dreieckig, three - cornered,
triangular ; viereckig, quadrangular , square ; ſechsfüßig , six
footed ; achtſeitig, having eight sides.
( d ) A Particle the first term.—Abhängig, dependent ;
anſtändig, becoming ; übermüthig, overbearing, insolent ;
zukünftig, future ; unglaubig, unbelieving ; ungerecht, unjust.
( e ) A Verb the first term . — Denkwürdig , memorable ;
denken, to think of, and würdig, worthy : habſüchtig, avari
cious ; haben, to have, and die Sucht, eager desire , mania :
liebenswürdig, lovely , amiable ; lieben, to love, würdig,
worthy : lobenswerth , praiseworthy ; loben, to praise, werth ,
deserving.
(3) Verbs .
( a ) A Substantive being the first term . — Brandſchaßen ,
to raise contributions by the menace of fire ; der Brand,
fire, ſchapen , to raise contributions : luſtwandeln, to walk
for pleasure, to take a walk ; die Luſt, pleasure, wandeln , to
walk : wetteifern , to emulate ; die Wette, the wager, com
petition , eifern, to be eager , or zealous : wetterleudsten, to
lighten without thunder ; das Wetter, the weather, the tem
pest, leuchten , to shine : handhaben , to handle ; die Hand,
the hand , haben , to have : ehebrechen, to commit adultery ;
die Ehe, the wedlock , brechen , to break .
( b ) An Adjective the first term.- Vollbringen , to accom
plish ; vollziehen , to execute ; voul.
( c ) A Particle the first term .-- This species of composi
tion has been treated of at large, in Part I. Chap . V. Sect. 7.
( 4 ) PARTICIPLES.
A Substantive being the first term .— (a ) The present par
ticiple : Ehrliebend, loving honour, generous, noble ; die
Ehre, the honour , liebend, loving : geſetzgebend, legislative ;
das Geſetz, the law , gebend, giving : wachhabend, having the
guard , being on duty , as an officer ; die Wache, the guard,
habend, having.— (b ) The Preterite participle : Blumenbes
kränzt, crowned with flowers ; die Blume, the flower, be
kränzt, crowned : fchneebedeckt, covered with snow ; der
Schnee, snow , bedeckt, covered : ſeegeboren , born of the sea ;
die See, the sea , geboren , born. *
* This last composition in particular affords that variety of

highly picturesque compound epithets, of which the late Bar
oness de Staël Holstein says, in her work on Germany : 6 Un des
grands avantages des dialectes Germaniques en poësie, c'est la
variát et la beauté de leurs épithètes. L'Allemand, sous ce
rapport, aussi peut se comparer au Grec. L'on sent dans un
seul môt plusieurs images, comme dans la note fondamentale
d'un accord on entend les autres sons dont il est coinpos ', ou
comme de certaines couleurs réveillent en nous la sensation de
celles qui en dépendent. L'on ne dit en François que ce que
34 *
(5 ) PARTICLES.
Compounded with Particles. - Vorwärts , forward ; zus
rück, back ; hinein, into ; heraus, out of ; mithin, therefore ;
daber, thence ; nunmehr, now.
6. The components often remain unaltered ; as, Apfels
baum , Uhrmacher , tugendreich) ; but, in many instances, the
first term undergoes some change, either by letters being
added , or omitted.
( 1 ) LETTERS ADDED .
es ; as, der Gottesdienſt, divine service ; from Gott : die
Geiſteskraft, power of mind ; der Geiſt : die Todesnoth,
agony of death ; der Tod .
ſ ; as , das Himmelslicht, the light of heaven ; der Hims
mel : das Eſelsohr, an ass's ear, the corner of a leaf in a
book turned down, a dog's ear ; der Eſel : das Arbeitshaus ,
the workhouse ; die Arbeit : der Geburtstag , the birth-day ;
die Geburt : das Fülfsmittel, means of assistance, resource ;
die Hülfe.
ns , ens ; as, die Friedensfeier, the celebration of peace ;
der Friede : die Herzensgüte, goodness of heart ; das Herz .
Those additional letters mark the genitive case, in the first
component.
e ; as, das Herzeleid, affliction of heart ; das Herz : die
Miſſethat, the misdeed , the crime ; from the particle miß :
der Pferdearzt, the horse- doctor, the farrier ; der Pferdefuß,
the cloven foot, the horse's foot ; das Pferd : der Ganſebras
ten , the roasted goose ; die Gans, the goose.
l'on veut dire, et l'on ne voit point errer autour des paroles ces
nuages à mille formes, qui entourent la poësie des langues du
Nord , et réveillent une foule de souvenirs." We may say :
das ſchwerhinwandelnde Hornviely , the heavily moving along
horned cattle ; des Meers feſtiwimmelnde Fluten, the wa
ters of the sea swarming with fish ; das borſtenumſtarrete
Waldſdwein , the wild boar roughly beset all over with bris
tles ; die ſchöngebordeten Schiffe, the beautifully grappled
ships , etc.
Sect. I. On the Composition of Words. 403
In these examples, the e is inserted for the sake of eu

phony.
n, or en ; as , das Freudenfeſt, the festival of joy , the ju
bilee ; die Freude : das Drachenblut, dragon's blood ; der
Drache : der Heldenmuth, heroic courage ; der Held, the
hero : das nirtenleben, pastoral life ; der Hirt, the herds
man : der Bauernſtolz, vulgar pride ; der Bauer, the rustic,
the clown.
The additional n , or en , is the ancient genitive singular of
feminine nouns , or the ordinary genitive case ; in others it is
the plural number of nouns of the new form of declension. *
er ; as, der Eierfuchen , the omelet ; das Ei, the egg, and
der Kuchen , the cake : die Bilderſchrift, figurative writing ;
das Bild, the image , figure, and die Schrift, the writing :
die Weiberliſt, craft of women ; das Weib, the woman , and
die Liſt, the cunning.
The letters er are inserted for euphony.
i, only in two very ancient compounds : die Nachtigall,
the nightingale ; and der Bräutigam , the bridegroom .
(2 ) LETTERS OMITTED.
e, in substantives ; as , die Endſylbe, the final syllable ;
das Ende, the end : die Erbfolge, the succession ; das
Erbe, the inheritance, die Folge, the act of following , or suc
ceeding : der Sonntag, Sunday ; die Sonne : der Kirſch
baum , the cherry - tree ; die Kirſche.
en , in infinitives ; as , der Fechtboden , the fencing- school;
fechten , to fence : die Reitbahn, the riding - school ; reiten,
to ride : denkwürdig, memorable ; denken , to think of, and
würdig , worthy : habſüchtig, avaricious ; haben , to have.
These omissions arise from the radical syllable of the first
component being only employed in the composition.
7. When two words are so compounded as to preserve a
twofold idea, it is a composition by conjunction ; as Fuchs
* See p. 96 , and Third Declension, p. 101.

404 Syntax. P. II. Ch . 4 .
jäger, a hunter of foxes. When the two ideas are so united

as to form a third, simple one, it is a composition by coales
cence ; as, Hauptmann , which does not mean any principal
man , but a captain ; and Fingerbut, which does not signify
any covering of the finger , but a thimble. These two class
es of compounds are easily distinguished : the former may
always be resolved into two words without injuring the sense ;
the latter never. Most of the technical terms in modern sci
ence and art, and the names of inventions are of the latter
description ; as, Dampfboot, Eilwagen , Eiſenbahn, Saus
erstoff, Steindruck , Stahlſtich, ( steamboat, rapid post, or
stage-coach, rail-road , oxygen , lithographic print , engrav
ing ) . Many nouns that once belonged to the former class
have by usage come to belong to the latter ; as , Hochzeit,
formerly any festival ( high-time ) ; now, a wedding. Further
more in some words the first component part whether an ad
jective or a genitive of attribute has the nature of an adjective
qualifying the second ; in others , the nature of a noun gov
erned by the second or by some word understood ; as ,
Schwarz -brod, brown bread, and Königsſohn, king's (or
royal) son , in which the first component part is equivalent to
an adjective ; and Hauskauf, the sale of a house , and Waſſer
trinker, a water-drinker , in which the first component part is
a noun depending on the second for its government. The
former class includes compounds both by conjunction and by
coalescence ; as , Wcibertbränen , Räuberbande (by conjunc
tion ) ; Amtmann, Rönigreid ), Jungfrau ( by coalescence ).
The latter class is limited mostly to compounds formed by
conjunction ; as , lebensſatt, gettöhnlic ), heilbringend ( the
noun depending on the adjective or participle ) ; Hausbau ,
Armenpflege, Ehrenrettung, Muſiklehrer ( the first part of the
word depending on the infinitive, or verbal noun ) . Several
of the latter class are compounded by coalescence, especially
that in which the first part relates to place, time , manner ,
cause, design , materials ; as, Feld hubn , Haus ſchwalbe,
Nilpferd ( place ) ; Nachtwächter, Morgen roth, W ins

ter forn ( time) ; hellblau , Sdne Il laufer , rojen roth
( manner , similarity ) ; Brand mal, Roſt flecken , Winds
müble ( cause ) ; Wein glaß, Schreib feder, S dyer
meſſer design , object ); Apfelwein, Marmor bild ( ma
terials ). Compounds from words already compounded, and
from simple words ending in at, ut, heit, ung, ling, ſchaft, and
foreign words in ion , at, and tät generally take s before the
Jast component part ; as , Handwerkszeug (Werfzeug ), Brant
weinsglas ( W :inglaf ), Hieratsantrag, Weisheitszahn ,
Bildungsanſtalt, Frühlingsfur, Freundſchaftsdienſt, Revo
lutionsfrieg , Patronatspfarre, and Sanitätsſchein .
8. There are a few instances, in which a change of sig
nification is effected by the mode of composition ; as in , der
Landmann and der Landsmann, the former denoting a hus
bandman , a peasant, and the latter a compatriot : der Lands
herr, or landes Herr, the sovereign of a country , and der
Landherr, in former times a great landholder, a lord of the
manor.
9. The more ancient compounds cannot always be reduced
to that analogy by which the composition is now regulated.
10. When it happens that two or more compound words
occur in a sentence, having the second component the same,
this component is frequently omitted in the first word or
words, and only expressed in the word which is last ; as,
Pfaffen -und Weiber-liſt, craft of priests and of women ;
Kriegs-und Friedenszeiten, times of peace and war ; Bet-,
Buß -und Faſt - Tag, day of prayer , repentance , and fasting.
The hyphen is then put after the first word or words.
* See Part I. Chap. I. Sect. 2. 5. c . This peculiarity of omit

ting the second component in preceding words, and expressing
it only in the last, exists in the Spanish language, and also in
the Swedish, Danish, and Dutch,
406 Syntax. P. II. Ch . 4.
SECTION II.
ON PURISM .
From the composition of words we proceed to the consid

eration of another subject, which may be regarded as con
nected with the former, and likewise as a peculiarity of the
German language. It is that property, in virtue of which
the language abstains from all foreign terms, having the fa
culty of producing native expressions, for whatever ideas the
mind may conceive. If a new word is wanted for any object
or conception , it is only necessary to analyze such object or
conception , and to see of what elements , or simple ideas, it
is composed . For these component parts, the language will ,
generally , furnish original terms, and these may, through the
mechanism of composition , be so combined as to afford a
compound word , of genuine German ingredients, that will
comprehend all the notions with which the object or concep
tion requires to be accompanied. We will not go into much
detail , in order to illustrate this process by examples, but
content ourselves with adverting only to one or two instances.
Supposing the French word Courier were to be rendered in
to German , let it be resolved into the component ideas. A
Courier is a messenger who is to proceed with speed : now
we take speed and messenger to be the component parts of
the conception. Speed, or haste, is Eile, in German , and
Bote, a messenger. A Courier, therefore, may be rendered
by der Eilbote. In like manner, the French word Diligence,
applied to a carriage which is supposed to travel with de
spatch , may , according to the two constituent ideas , speed ( or
despatch ) and carriage, be found in the composition of der
Eilwagen .
This mode of creating words is a powerful instrument to a
language ; and such languages as possess it , may convert it
Sect. 2. On Purism . 407
into a most efficient means of enriching and perfecting them

selves. It is a prerogative of the highest value, which it is a
crime to neglect or abandon. But if it is blamable to fore
go that advantage, in a case where a genuine German word
máy be supplied , by composition, to the exclusion of a foreign
expression , how much greater must the delinquency be con
sidered to be, if a foreign sound is preferred , where the na
tive idiom is provided with a term of the same meaning and
effect. Yet such is the influence of habit and fashion , or the
prevalence of inadvertency and negligence, that instances of
that trangression are but too frequent.
The introduction of foreign words should be most careful
ly avoided, as nothing is more calculated to injure a language
than thus placing it , as it were, under foreign bondage. It
thereby loses its native energy and aptness, and is checked
in the progress of its cultivation . And not only this ; but it
may be actually stripped of what it already possessed ; for
the foreign intruders will , by degrees, displace the rightful
citizens. This misfortune had , to a great extent, befallen
the German tongue, from the time when a taste for imitating
the French, became predominant in Europe. It spread over
Germany , in particular , after the Seven Years' war, when the
country, being invaded by French armies, had been much fa
miliarized with that nation . Before that period, there exist
ed , among the learned and scientific men , the pedantry of in
termixing their native idiom with Latin phrases, which, how
ever , was never so far diffused over the community , as to be
come a popular grievance. No modern tongue , besides the
French, has, to any considerable degree, interfered with the
German .
During the last fifty years , or upwards , the nation has be
come sensible of the error into which it had been betrayed ,
and has made efforts to get rid of that spurious admixture, by
which its language has been disfigured. Naturally , the first
step , was to reinstate such German words as had been sup
planted by foreign expressions , and to exclude the latter from

all competition. It was next required to construct new Ger
man terms, in the room of such foreign words as had been
introduced , and for which the language had before no syno
nyms of its own . In the exercise of this grammatical opera
tion , it was not to be expected that the aptest forms would
be produced at once . A sort of awkwardness would , in ma
ny instances, unavoidably appear , which, combined with the
novelty of the subject, incited a strong opposition from per
sons , who clung to old habits , and deprecated everything that
resembled innovation. The question, however , rested upon
such good grounds, that resistance by degrees, diminished ,
and a limited Purism ultimately established its claims.
In endeavoring to purify the language , we have two re
sources : 1. To look for native expressions that may have
been displaced by foreign terms, or which have fallen into
disuse from some other cause. Whatever may be found of
this description in writers of earlier times, if it be unobjec
tionable in point of grammatical form , and serviceable in re
gard to signification , should be reclaimed , and given back to
the language. Even the provincial dialects may be called in
aid , if they can afford what is wanting ; for any word that is
German, wherever produced , must be deemed preferable to
one imported from a foreign territory , if it has the same
meaning. 2. The other and most fruitful source, is that of
which we have spoken at the outset , namely , the Composition
of Words. With respect to this , it is indispensable that the
rules , which the language has once acknowledged , should be
carefully observed , and the laws of analogy be kept in view .
It is not to be denied, that Purism has often , by excess of
zeal , been carried too far. There is a certain point at which
it ought to stop. There are words which though of foreign
origin , are so incorporated with the language, that they can
not be torn from it, without great violence. They are natu
ralized inhabitants of the country , that can no longer be ar.
Sect. 2. On Purism . 209
bitrarily removed. Such words should not be touched ; they

have the right of long usage and prescription in their favour.
There are others which may be considered almost in the light
of proper names, peculiarly and exclusively belonging to the
objects which they designate. Of this kind are , for instance,
Thee, tea ; Kaffee, coffee ; Chocolade, chocolate. To at
tempt to Germanize suc h term s wou ld be an absu rdity in the
extreme .
35
PART III .
CONTAINING
PROSODY .
This is the elementary science of versification. As verse

is the compass of a certain number of words, measured by their
syllables, the nature of these syllables is the principal object
of prosody. They constitute metre by their capacity of be
ing either long or short. A combination of such syllables
makes a foot, several feet produce a verse. But, to use these
constituent parts with correctness and propriety , it is neces
sary to understand their length and brevity , and the reasons
by which they possess these qualifications.
In the Greek and Roman languages, the measure of the
syllables , or their quantity, was accurately fixed . Every syl
lable had acquired its invariable character, of being long or
short, either from the nature of the letters , which composed
it, or from ancient and unalterable usage. The dimension
of its sound was ascertained , and established, and according
to that only, the poet, or versifier was at liberty to employ it.
The modern tongues of Europe have , strictly speaking, no
laws of quantity. Their metres contain a limited portion of
syllables, arranged together, more according to number, than
by any precise rules of length or shortness. The only re
straint imposed is , not to violate the accent, which controls
and governs the pronunciation . * The poet cannot be per
* It would be exceedingly faulty to accentuate any word in

a manner different from the universal custom ; to read, for in
stance, inetaphor, metáphor ; philosopher, philosopher ; diarnetri
0
Prosody.. 411
mitted to change the audible effect of the language ; but,

conforming to this restriction , he may , as far as the mechan
ical part of versification is concerned, make use of the sylla
bles according to his will and convenience. Such is the na
ture of modern prosody in general , and of the German in par
ticular , as will appear from the subsequent investigations.
The accent, therefore , is the standard by which metrical
composition must be guided. It has been amply discussed
in its place. A syllable, that has the full accent, in German ,
cannot be used otherwise than long. For, that accent con
sists in an ascension of the voice , which is followed by a
pause preceding the pronunciation of the unaccented sylla
bles ; and this pause , together with the accented syllable,
equals the time of a long syllable. In words of two or three
syllables, one syllable must inevitably be long, because one
must necessarily bear the full accent. Of those syllables,
which have not that accent , some are endowed with a demi
accent , and others are accentless. The latter are in their na
ture short ; those that are half accented , or that have the demi
accent , being between the full length and shortness, must be
regarded as ambiguous, or common , half inclining to length ,
and half to brevity , and consequently, as fit to be used in
either capacity, as occasion may demand. As to the accent
less syllables , or those that are properly short , it might per
haps be recommended , as a metrical nicety, to all who write
verse , never to employ them with the quality of length ; but
even the best poets transgress this line of correctness. They
use those syllables long without much scruple , when the ne
cessity of the verse requires it. But this limitation must be
observed : by using a short syllable as if it were long, the
full accent of the word must not be destroyed ; if that suffer,
the fault is unpardonable. Monosyllables cannot have the
full, but must have the demi-accent ; for the former consists
cally, diametrically ; again, ágain ; below, bélow ; liberty, libérty ;

library, library ; minstrelsy ,minstrélsy .
412 Prosody.
in a comparative elevation of voice, in one syllable, over the

tone of another, which comparison cannot be instituted when
there is only one syllable by itself. Nor can they possibly
be accentless ; because it is necessary to pronounce them dis
tinctly, and, in a manner, sonorously, to render them intelli
gible ; and where the vowels in any syllable are thus heard ,
that syllable is said to be half - accented, or to have the demi
accent. Now the demi- accent has, in prosody , a quantity
between long and short , or , in other terms , is common ; mon
osyllables , therefore , are common , that is to say, may be used
either as long or short. Two or three of them may be read
together, as in one word , and the stress of declamation may
assign to one the full accent, or main tone, which then be
comes long in quantity , in comparison with the others. This
is the oratorial, or declamatory accent, which is at the will,
and depends entirely upon the feeling, of the writer or speak
er. It determines the tone in syllables of ambiguous quanti
ty, bestowing length of sound wherever it falls, though it does
not necessarily follow , that this accent should be exerted ,
whenever there is occasion to make a common syllable long.
It is seldom practicable to fix the full accent, in words of four
syllables, or more. When pronounced, such words sound as
if they were divided into parts, and the accent is established
according to these divisions. In fact, it appears as if there
were no full accent ; and the absence of this leaves the syl
lables in a state of ambiguity. I am , therefore, inclined to
say, that the syllables, in words which contain four or more,
are common , that is , liable to be employed with the quantity
of length or shortness, as it may suit the purpose of the poet.
The following rules for quantity, in German prosody , are
the result of the preceding observations.
I. In words of two or three syllables, that syllable is long,
which bears the full accent. *
* Concerning the accent, Part I. Chapter I. Section 4, must

be referred to.
Prosody. 413
II. In words of four syllables, or more, the full accent can

seldom be distinctly fixed ; but there generally remains a sort
of equilibrium between the syllables, which seems to render
them common . As such they may be often regarded , and
employed at the will of the poet. Certain compound words
retain , in a great degree , the stress of tone , which one or
other of the component parts had before the composition :
and they are to be looked upon as exceptions from this rule
of common quantity . For example, Allgütiger, composed of
all and gütiger, has a prevailing accent upon the second ,
which could not possibly be equalized with the quantity of
the preceding or subsequent syllables.
III. Monosyllables are common . They are all particular
ly liable to be aff ed by the oratorial or arbitrary accent.
IV. Syllables that are half-accented, or , which is the same,
have the demi- accent, are common .
V. Accentless syllables , that is to say , those which nerer
admit an accent, ought always to preserve a short quantity.
But so far does the established freedom of the poets extend ,
that even those syllables are not unfrequently used as long.
The German language is capable of producing all the me
trical feet, and consequently all the species of versification
which were known to the ancients. It is suited to hexame
ter and pentameter ;* and avails itself of a variety of mea
sures in lyrical compositions. I speak here of verse , with
out rhyme ; though this auxiliary of modern poesy is like
wise current in German , and as much in practice as in any
other tongue of Europe .
A word of two syllables must, in German , according to
* The English language revolts at these metres. In Ger

man, some of the most excellent poeins have been composed
in them . Klopstock’s Messiah, Stolberg's and Voss's transla
tions of Homer, are written in hexameter. Herder and others
have successfully made use of the pentameter.
+ See, for instance, the Odes of Klopstock.
35 *
414 Prosody.
the accent , furnish either a trochee - v, or an iambic v- .

If the accent be on the first, it will be a trochee ; if on the
second, an iambic. But as one of the syllables must, of ne
cessity , have a paramount accent, they cannot both have the
same quantity . A dissyllabic word, therefore, cannot form
either a spondee -- ,* or a pyrrhicu However, by the as
sistance of monosyllables, these feet may be easily accom
plished. A word of three syllables may make either a dac
tyl – vv , which is 'most common , or an anapæst vur, or an
amphibrachys u - u ; but, from the constitution of the German
accent, it will not so readily yield a creticus, or amphimacer
-u- ; though, if the last syllable happen to be half -accentua
ted , it would be practicable. But it is difficult to shape it to
a bacchius U--, or an antibacchius --v ; and impossible to
turn it into a molossus --, or a tribrachys When those
feet are wanted, they must be made by a combination of dif
ferent words. The feet of four syllables are produced in the
same way ; for of words, which have that extent themselves,
there is not a great number. Among the tetrasyllabic feet,
the choriambic is most familiar to the German lan
guage ; and it is also the most pleasing. It is frequently ef
fected by a concurrence of dissyllabic words, and occasion
ally by words of four or five syllables. The dijambus u - u- ,
ditrochæus -u - u , antispast -u , may also be had , by an
association of syllables, which the language furnishes with
out much difficulty .
* The illustrious Klopstock has celebrated this peculiarity of

the German language, in bis Ode to Sponda, a nymph, whose
absence, or concealınent, the poet laments.
APPENDIX .
( A. ) AN ALPHABETICAL LIST
1
INFINITIVE . PRES . INDICATIVE . | IMP . INDIC
Backen, to buke , ich backe,du bäckst, er bäckt, ich buk
Bedingen, to bargain , ich bedinge, etc. ich bedung
Befehle n , to comn
mmand, ich befehle , du befiehlst, er ich befahl
befiehlt
Befleiſsen, to apply one's ich befleiſse, etc. ich befliſs
self,
Beginnen, to begin, ich beginne , etc. ich begann
Beiſsen , to bite, ich beiſse, du beiſsest, er beiſst ich biſs
Beklemmen, to pinch, ich beklemme, etc. lich beklemmte
Bellen , to bark, ich belle, du bellest (billst), ich bellte

er bellt (billt) (boll)
Bergen , to conceal, ich berge, du birgst, er birgt , ich barg
Bersten , to burst, ich berste , etc. ich borst, or
barst
Besinnen, to think of, ich besinne , etc. ich besann
Besitzen , to possess , ich besitze, etc. ich besaſs 1
Betrügen , to deceive, ich betrüge , etc. ich betrog
Bewegen , to induce, ich bewege , etc. ich bewog
Bieg e n , to bend, ich biege, etc. ich bog
Bieten , to offer, to bid, lich biete , etc. lich bot

Binden , to bind , ich binde, etc. lich band
Bitten , to entreat, ich bitte , etc. ich bat
Blasen , to blow, ich blase, du bläsest, er bläst ich blies
Bleiben , to remain , ich bleibe, etc. ich blieb
Bleichen, to fade, ich bleiche, etc. lich blich
Braten , to roast, ich brate, du bratest (bråtst), ich bratete
er bratet (brät) (briet)
Brechen , to break, ich breche, du brichst, er brichtlich brach ·
Brennen, to burn , ich brenne , etc. ich brannte
.
OF IRREGULAR VERBS.
IMP . SUBJ . | IMPERATIVE . | PARTICIPLE . I REMARKS.

ich büke backe gebacken. Regular when active ; as, er
backte Brod ; das Brod buk.
ich bedünge bedinge bedungen. Regular when it means, to add
a condition, to modify. Be
dinyt, conditional, is regular.
ich beföble befiehl befohlen . In the imperf. subj. befahle is
sometimes found for befühle.
beflisse befleiſs beflissen . Befleiſsigen, to apply one's self,
is regular.
ich beginne beginne begonnen . In the imperf. subj. begonne is
also used . Begonnte imperf.
ich bisse beiſs, or beiſse gebissen . indic . is antiquated .
ich beklem beklemme beklommen . Beklemmen is now irregular on
mete ly in the participle Beklemmt
IS more used in compound
tenses ; beklommen as an ad
jective .
ich bellete belle (bill) gebellt (ge- The irregular form is now obso
( bölle ) bollen ). lete except in the Upper Ger
ich bärge birg geborgen. man .
ich bärste berste geborsten . The imperative is sometimes
'birst . Er birst is also found
ich besänne besinne besonnen. for, er berstet.
ich besi se besitze besessen .
ich betröge betrüge betrogen.
ich bewöge bewege bewogen . Irregular when it means, to in
duce ; regular when it means,
to move a body or affect the
sensibilities.
ich böge biege gebogen . Biegen , to stoop, to bend down,
is regular. Beugst and beugt
belong not to biegen, but to
beugen .
ich böte biete geboten. Beutst and beut, in the present,
ich bände binde gebunden . are poetical . See p . 233.
ich bite bitte gebeten.
ich bliese blase geblasen.
ich bliebe bleibe , or bleib geblieben.
ich bliche bleiche geblichen. Bleiclien, to bleach in the sun,
active, is regular.
ich bratete brate gebraten. The active verb has the regular,
(briete) the neuter the irregular form ,
in the present and imperfect.
Sie bratete einen Hasen ; der
Huse aber briet .
ich bräche brich gebrochen . Regular only when it means, to
break flax or hemp, in prepar
ing it for the hatchel.
ich brennete brenne gebrann .t Often regular when active : Ich
brennte Holz, ucil es besser
brannte, als Torf.
418 Appendix.
INFINITIVE . PRES . INDICATIVE . | IMP . INDIC .

Bringen, to bring , ich bringe, etc. fich brachte
Denken, to think, ich denke, elc . ich dachte
Dingen, to bargain, ich dinge, etc. ich dung
Dreschen , to thresh, ich dresche, du drischest, er ich drasch, of

drischt drosch
Dringen, to press, to urge, ich dringe, etc. ich drang
Durfen , to need, ich darf, du darfst, er darf ;ſich durfte

wir dürfen, etc.
Empfangen , to receive, ich empfange, du empfängst, ich empfing
er empfingt
Empfehle n , to recommend, ſich empfehle, du empfiehlst, ich empfahl
er empfiehlt
Empfinden, to feel, ich empfinde, etc. ich empfand
Erbleichen , to turn pale, ich erbleiche, etc. ich erblich
Erfrieren, to freeze , ich erfriere , etc. ich erfror
Erlöschen, to extinguish , wird konjugirt wie
Ersau fe n, to be drowned , ich ersaufe, du ersäufest, er ich ersoff
ersäuft
Erschallen , to resound , lich erschalle, etc. ich erscholl
Erscheinen , to appear, lich erscheine, etc. lich erschied
Erschrecke n , to be fright- ich erschrecke, du erschrickst, ich erschrack
ened, er erschrickt
Ertrinken , to be drowned , lich ertrinke, etc. ich ertrank
Er w ä gen , to consider, lich erwäge, etc. ich erwog
Essen, to eat, ich esse ,du issest,er isset or iſst ich als
Fahen (obsolete) to catch, ich fahe, du få hest, er få het lich fich
Fahren, to drive a carriage, ich fahre, du fährst, er fährt ' ich fuhr
Fallen , to fall, ich falle, du fällst, er fällt lich fiel
Falten, to fold , ich falte, etc. ich faltete
Fangen, to catch, ich fange, du fangst, er fängt ich fing

Fechten , to fight, ich fechte , du fichst, er ficht ich focht
Finde n , to find , ich finde, etc. ich fand
Flechté n, to twist, ich flechte, du- flichst, er flicht ich flocht
Fliegen , to fly , lich fliege, du fliegst, er fliegt ich flog
Fliehen, to flee , lich fliehe, etc. ich floh
Flieſsen, to flow , Jich flieſse , etc. ich floſs
Fragen , to ask, ich frage, du frägst, er frägt ich frug

Fressen , to devour, ich fresse, du frissest, or friſst ich frai's
Frieren , to freeze, ich friere, etc. ich fror
Gälı ren, to ferment, lich g’ihre, etc. ich gohr
Gebären, to bring forth , ich geb'ire , du gebarst (ge - ich gebar
bierst), er gebärt ( gebiert)
Irregular Verbs. 419
IMP . SUBJ . IMPERATIVE . | PARTICIPLE . REMARKS .

ich brächte bringe gebracht.
ich dächte denke gedacht.
ich dunge dinge gedungen. Dingte is sometimes used in the
imperfect, but dung prevails in
the compounds ; as, bedung,
ich dräsche , or drisch jgedroschen. ausdung , verdung.
drösche
ich dränge dringe gedrungen. For drang, drung was formerly
in use .
ich dürfte gedurft. Bedürfen has the same irregu
larities.
ich empfinge empfange empfängen .
ich empföhle lempfiehl empfohlen.
ich empfände empfinde jempfunden.
ich erbliche erbleiche erblichen .
ich erfröre erfriere erfroren.
Ver löschen . Like verlöschen and auslöschen,
ich ersöffe ersaufe ersoffen. irregular only when intransi
tive. Löschen is always tran
ich erschölle erschalle erschollen . sitive and regular.
ich erschiene erscheine erschienen .
ich erschräcke erschrick erschrocken . Irregular alwaysas an intransi
tive verb, but regular when
ich ertränke lertrink jertrunken . transitive .
ich erwöge jerwäge erwogen . Sometimes used as a regular
ich a ( se ifs gegessen. verb .
ich fich fahe gefahen . This poetical word is rarely
used in the imperfect.
ich führe Ifahre gefahren . All the compounds of fahren
are irregular except willfahren,
ich fiele falle gefallen . for which see page 246.
ich faltete falte gefalten. Irregular only in the participle
now , for which gefaltet is often
used . The imperfect was for
merly fielt, etc.
ich finge fange gefangen. Fieng and fienge are obsolete .
ich föchte fecht Igefochten. So also empfieng and empfienge.
ich fände finde gefunden.
ich flöchte flicht geflochten .
ich flöge Aliege geflogen . Fleugst and fleugtin the present,
andfleug in the imperative are
antiquated for ms .
ich flöhe fliehe, or flieh geflohen. Fleuchst, fleuckt and flcuch, ob
solete and poetical, as in the
preceding word .
ich flösse flieſse geflossen . Fleuſsest, fleufst and fleufs, ob
. solete . See fliegen .
ich früge frage gefragt. This verb is now regular thro'.
ich frälse frifs gefressen. out except in vulgar usage.
ich fröre friere gefroren.
ich göhre gähre gegohren. Sometimes regular, gahrte. Gie
ich gebäre (ge- gebäre (ge- geboren. ren , gierst, giert, are provin
böre) bier) cial.
420 Appendir.

Geben , to give, ich gebe, du gibst, er gibt ich gab
Gebieten , to command, ich gebiete, etc. lich gebot

Gedeihen, to prosper , ich gedeihe , etc. lich gedieh
Gefallen , to please, ich gefalle , du gefallst, er ge- ich gefiel
fällt
Gehen , to go, ich gehe, etc. ich ging
Gelingen , to succeed , les gelingt es gelang
Gelten , to be worth , valid, ich gelte, du giltst, er gilt ich galt
Genesen , to recover , ich genese , etc. ich genas
Genielsen , to enjoy, ich genieſse, etc. ich genoſs
Gerathen , to hit upon , ich gerathe, du geräthst, er ge- ich gerieth
räth
Geschehen, to happen , es geschieht es geschah, or
geschahe
Gewinnen, to gain , to win, ich gewinne, etc. jich gewann
Gieſsen, to pour, lich gieſse , etc. ich goſs
Gleichen , to resemble , ich gleiche, etc. jich glich
Gleiten, to glide, ich gleite, etc. ich glitt
Glimmen, to shine, ich glimme, etc. ich glomm

Graben , to dig, ich grabe, du gräbst , er gräbt ich grub
Greifen , to seize, ich greife, etc. lich griff
Haben , to have, ich habe , du hast, er hat Jich hatte
Halten , to hold, ich halte, du hältest , er hält ich hielt
Hangen, to hang, ich hange , du hängst, er hängt ich hing
Hauen , to hero , ich haue , etc. ich hieb
Heben, to heave, ich hebe, etc. ich hob

Heiſsen , to be named, ich heiſse , du heiſsest, er heiſst ich hieſs
Helfen, to help, ich helfe, du hilfst, er hilft ich half
Keifen, to chide, jich keife, etc. ich kiff

Kennen, to know , ich kenne , etc. ich kannte
Klauben , to pick, to select, ich klaube , etc. lich klob
Klieben , to cleave, ich kliebe , etc. Jich klob
Klimmen , to climb , ich klimme, etc. ich klomm
Klingen , to sound , ich klinge, etc. ich klang
Kneifen , or ich kneife, or kneipe, etc. ich kniff, or
Kneipen, to pinch , knipp
IMP . SUBJ . | IMPERATIVE. | PARTICIPLE. | REMARKS .

ich gäbe gib gegeben . Somewriters prefer giebst,giebt,
gieb, to gibst, gibt,gib.
ich geböte gebiete geboten. Gebeutst, gebeut, antiquated
: forms. See p . 203,
ich gediehe gedeih gediehen . Gediegen is but a strengthened
. ich gefiele gefalle gefallen. adjective form of the past part .
.
ich ginge gehe, or geh gegangen. Gieng for ging is antiquated.
es gelänge gelinge gelungen.
ichgälte gilt gegolten . Formerly golt, gölte, were used
ich genase genese genesen . in the imperf. indic . and subj.
ich genösse genieſse genossen. Geneufsest, geneufst, and im
ich geriethe gerathe gerathen . perative geneufs, obsolete .
See p . 203.
es geschähe geschehe geschehen .
ich gewänne gewinne gewonnen .
(gewönne)
ichgösse gieſse gegossen . Geuseſst, geufst, and imperative
geufs. See genieſsen .
ich gliche gleiche geglichen. Regular as an active verb , to
make similar, to compare . Ver-
gleichen, although active, is ir
regular.
ich glitte gleite geglitten. Geleiten ( from leiten) and be
gleiten are regular. Gleitete is
sometimes used in the imperf..
ich glömme glimme geglommen . Now more frequently regular.
ich grübe grabe gegraben .
ich griffe greife gegriffen.
ich hätte habe gehabt. Handhaben is regular.
ich hielte halte gehalten .
ich hinge hange gehangen. Hieng, hienge, are old forms..
Some critics have endeavored
in vain to exclude hängst and
hängt ( hangst, hangt) to distin
guish hangen from hängen, a
causative verb . Ich hänge be
longs exclusively to the latter.
ich hiebe haue, or hau gehauen. Haute (regular) is used when
cutting wood, carving stone,
etc. are meant.
ich höbe hebe gehoben. Hub, hübe and gehaben are an
ich hieſse heiſse, or heiſs geheiſsen. tiquated.
ich hülfe hilf geholfen . Also hälfe, and even hölfe for:
hulfe.
ich kiffe keife, or keif gekiffen. This verb is sometimes used as :
ich kennete kenne gekannt. a regular verb.
ich klöbe klaube gekloben . This verb is more commonly
ich klöbe kliebe gekloben. regular.
ich klömme klimme geklommen . Sometimes regular, klimmte.
ich klänge klinge geklungen . Klingen is regular when active.
ich kniffe, or kneife, or gekniffen , or
knippe kneipe geknippen. Kneipen is sometimes regular,
kneipte, gekneipt.
36
422 Appendix .

Kommen , to come, ich komme , du kommst, er ich kam
kommt
Können, to be able, ich kann, du kannst, er kann ich konnte
ich krieche, etc. lich kroch
Kriechen, to creep ,
Kuhren, or
Kiesen , to choose, ich kühre, etc. ich kohr
Laden, to load, ich lade, du ladest ( ladst), erjich lud

ladet ( lädt)
Lassen, to let, ich lasse, du lässest, er låsset ich lieſs
( läſst)
ich laufe, du laufst, er läuft ich lief
Laufen, to run , ich litt
Leiden , to suffer, ich leide, etc.
Leihe n, to lend, ich leihe, etc. ich lieh
Lesen, to read, ich lese, du liesest, er lieset ich las
( liest)
Liegen, to lie doron, ich liege, etc. lich lag
jich lüge, etc. lich log
Lügen , to lie,
Mahlen, to grind , ich mahle, du mahlest (mählst), ich mahlte
er mahlt (mählt) (muhl)
Meiden, to avoid , ich meide, etc. ich mied

Melken, to milk , ich melke, du melkst or milkst,ſich molk
er melkt or milkt
Messen, to measure, ich messe, du missest, er mis -lich maſs
set or misſt
Miſsfallen, to displense, ich miſsfalle, du miſsfällst, erſich miſsfiel
miſsfällt
Mögen, to be able, ich mag , du magst, er mag , ich mochte
wir mögen, etc.
Müssen , to be obliged, ich muſs, du muſst, er muſs ; ich muſste
wir müssen , ihr müsset, or
müſst, etc.
Nehmen, to take, ich nehme, du nimmst, er ich nahm
nimmt
Nennen, to name, ich nenne , etc. ich nannte
Pfeifen, to whistle, ich pfeife, etc. jich pfiff
Pflegen, to cherish , ich pflege , etc. ich pflog
Preise n , to praise, ich preise, etc. ich pries
Quellen, to gush , ich quelle , du quillst, er quillt ich quoll

Rachen, to avenge, lich räche , etc. ich rächte
(roch)
Rathen, to advise, ich rathe, du räthst, er råth ich rieth
Reiben, to rub, ich reibe, etc. ich rieb
ich reiſse, etc. lich riſs
Reiſsen, to tear, ich ritt
Reiten, to ride, lich reite , etc.
IMP. subd. | IMPERATIVE . PARTICIPLE. REMARKS.

ich käme komm gekommen . Several writers prefer kömmst
and kömmt in the present.
ich könnte gekonnt.
ich kröche krieche, or gekrochen. Kreuchst, kreucht, kreuch, obso
kriech lete . See p. 203.
ich köhre kühre gekohren . Kiesen is now mostly regular ;
both verbs are nearly antiqua
ted, wählen having taken their
place .
ich lüde lade geladen . Lädst and ladt are used in com
mon life.
ich lieſse lasse, or laſs gelassen. Veranlassen is regular. See
p . 206 .
ich liefe laufe, or lauf gelaufen .
ich litte leide gelitten. Verleiden is regular.
ich liehe leihe geliehen .
ich läse lies gelesen.
ich läge liege gelegen
ich löge lüge gelogen.
ich mahlete mahle gemahlen. Irregular only in this sense , and
(muhle) then limited to the participle
except in obsolete or vulgar
usage. Malen, to paint, is regu
ich miede meide gemieden , lar.
ich mölke melke gemolken . Sometimes regular. Milkst,
etc., rarely used.
ich mäſse miſs gemessen .
ich miſsfiele miſsfalle miſsfallen.
3 ich möchte (vermöge) gemocht.
3
3 ich müſste gemuſst.
ich nähme nimm genommen .

ich nennete nenne genannt.
ich pfiffe pfeife, or pfeif gepfiffen .
ich pflöge pflege gepflogen. When it signifies, to wait upon ,
or to be accustomed, it is regu
lar. See p. 206 .
ich priese preise gepr iese n . Formerly used as a regular
verb. So by Luther .
ich quölle quelle igequollen . Quellen , to swell, is regular.
2 ich rächte (rö -lräche gerächt (ge. The irregular form is no longer
che) rochen . used . Where it occurs in for
ich riethe rathe gerathen . mer writers it must not be con
ich riebe reibe gerieben . founded with the same forms
ich risse reiſse gerissen. from riechen .
ich ritte reite geritten. Bereiten, to ride to , like all the
compounds of reiten, is irregu
lar; but bereiten, to make
ready, from bereit, ready, is
regular, like all derivatives.
424 Appendir.
INFINITIVE . 1 PRES . INDICATIVE . | IMP. INDIC .

Rennen, to run , ich renne , etc. ich rannte , or
rennte
Riechen, to smell, ich rieche, etc. ich roch
Ringen, to wrestle, ich ringe, etc. ich rang
Rinnen, to run (of fluids), Jich rinne, etc. lich rann
Rufen, to call, ich rufe, etc. ich rief
Salzen, to salt, ich salze , etc. ich salzte
Saufen, to drink, to tipple, ich saufe, du säufst, er säuft ich soff

lich sog
Saugen, to suck, ich sauge , etc. >
Schaffen, to create, ich schaffe, etc. ich schuf
Scheiden, to separate, ſich scheide, etc. ich schied

Scheinen , to appear , ich scheine, etc. lich schien
Scheiſsen, to roid , ich scheiſse , etc. lich schiſs
Schelten , to scold , ich schelte , du schiltst, er schiltſich schalt
Scheren, to shear, ich schere, du schierst, erich schor
schiert
Schieben, to shode, ich schiebe, etc. ich schob
Schieſsen, to shoot, ich schieſse , etc, ich schoſs
Schinden , to flay, ich schinde, etc. ich schund

Schlafen , to sleep, ich schlafe, du schlafst, er ich schlief
schläft
Schlagen, to beat, ich schlage, du schlägst, er ich schlug
schlägt
Scleichen, to sneak, ich schleiche, etc. ſich schlich
Schleifen, to sharpen, to ich schleife, etc. ich schliff
whet ,
Schleiſsen , to slit, ich schleiſse, etc. ich schliſs
( schloſs)
Schliefen , to slip, lich schliefe, etc. Jich schloff
Schlieſsen , to shut, ich sclieſse, etc. ich schloſs
Schling e'n , to sling, ich schlinge, ctc. ich schlang
Schmeiſsen , to fling, ich schmeiſse, etc. jich schmils
Schmelzen , to melt, ich schmelze, du schmelzest ich schmolz
( schmilzest), er schmelzt
(schmilzt)
Schneiden , to cut, ich schneide, etc. ich schnitt
Schnieben , or ich schniebe, etc. jich schnob
Schna u ben , to snort, ich schniebe, or schnaube Jich schnob
Schrauben , to screro, ich schraube, etc. ich schraubte
( schrob)
Schreiben, to write. lich schreibe, etc. ich schrieb
IMP . SUBJ . IMPERATIVE . PARTICIPLE . REMARKS .

ich rennete renne gerannt, or |Rennte and gerennt, used in
gerennt. Upper Germany.
ich röche rieche, or riech gerochen . Reuchst, reucht, reuch , are still
ich ränge ringe gerungen. in use in Upper Germany. For
ich ränne rinne geronnen. this obsolete form see p. 203.
( rönne)
ich riefe rufe gerufen . Regular in some writers, but
improperly so .
ich salzete salze gesalzen. Irregular only in the participle,
and in that when used adjec
tively ; as, gesalzene Fische ;
ich söffe saufe gesoffen. er hat sie gesalzt.
ich söge sauge gesogen , Saugst and säugt are not sup
ported by good usage.
ich schüfe schaffe geschaffen. Irregular only when it means,
to create. Itis regular like an
schaffen , abschaffen and ver
schaffen , in the sense ofobtain
ing , laboring.
ich schiede scheide geschieden. As an activeverb , it was former
ich schiene scheine geschienen. ly, and is now sometimes regu
ich schisse scheiſse geschissen . lar.
ich schalte schilt gescholten.
( schölte )
ich schöre schere , or geschoren . Schierst, schiert, schier, and the
schier imperfect schur, are provincial.
Regular in some parts of Ger
many in particular senses .
ich schöbe schiebe geschoben. In Upper Germany, scheubst,
etc., and schub.
ich schösse schieſse geschossen . Scheufst, etc. see p . 203 Schuſs
is provincial
ich schünde ischinde geschunden . Imperfect schand, in Upper
ich schliefe schlafe geschlafen. Germany.
ich schlüge schlage geschlagen . Rathschlagen and berathschlagen
are regular. See p. 206 , Rem .
ich schliche schleiche geschlichen.
ich schliffe schleife , or geschliffen. Regular in all other significa
schleif tions, as to demolish ,or to drag.
ich schlisse schleiſse geschlissen . Schloſs, schlosse andgeschlossen
( schlösse) (geschlossen ).) are provincial and improper
ich schlöffe schliefe geschloffen. forms.
ich schlösse schlieſse geschlossen. Schleufsest, schleut, etc. anti
ieb schlänge schlinge geschlungen. | quated.
ich schmisse schmeiſse geschmissen.
ich sehmölze schmilz, or geschmolzen. As an active verb it is regular.
schmelz
ich schnitte schneide geschnitten.
ich schnöbe schniebe geschnoben.
ich schnöbe schniebe, or geschnoben. Schnieben is poetical for schnau
schnaube ben .
ich schraubete schraube geschraubt Commonly regular, schraubte ,
( schröbe ) ( geschroben ). geschraubt.
ich schriebe schreibe geschrieben.
36 *
426 Appendix.
INFINITIVE . PRES . INDICATIVE . IMP . INDIC .
Schreien, to cry, ich schreie, etc. ich schrie
Schreiten, to stride, ich schreite, etc. ich schritt
Schroten, to bruise, to gnaw , ich schrote, etc. ich schrotete
Schwä ren, to suppurate, jich schwäre, etc. ich schwor
Schweigen, to be silent, ich schweige, etc. ich schwieg
Schwellen, to suell, jich schwelle, du schwillst, er ich schwoll

schwillt
Schwimmen, to swim , ich schwimme, etc. ich schwamm
Schwinden , to vanish, ich schwinde, etc. ich schwand

Schwingen, to swing, ich schwinge, etc. lich schwang
( schwung)
Schwören , to swear, ich schwöre, etc. ich schwor
(schwur)
Sehen , to see, ich sehe, du siehest, er sieht ſich sah
Sein, to be, ich bin, etc., see p . 169. ich war, etc.
Senden, to send, Jich sende, etc. ich sandte
Sieden, to boil, ich siede, etc. ich sott

Singen, to sing, ich singe, etc. ich sang
Sinken, to sink, ich sinke, etc. lich sank
Sinnen , to think, to muse, ich sinne, etc. lich sann
Sitzen, to sit, ich sitze, etc. ich saſs

Sollen, to be obliged, ich soll, du sollst, er soll ich sollte
Spalten, to split, ich spalte , etc. ich spaltete
Speien, to spit, ich speie, etc. ich spie
Spinnen, to spin, ich spinne, etc. ich spann
Spleiſsen, to split, ich spleiſse, etc. ich splieſs

Sprechen , to speak, ich spreche, du sprichst, er ich sprach
spricht
Sprie l'sen, to sprout, ich sprieſse, etc. ich sproſs
Springen, to spring, ich springe, etc. ich sprang

Stechen, to sting, to prick , ich steche, du stichst, er stichtich stach
Stecken, to stick , to be fast- ich stecke, etc. ſich steckte, or
ened , stak
Stehen , to stand , lich stehe, etc. ich stand
(stund )
Stehlen, to steal, ich stehle, du stiehlst, er stiehlt ich stahl
( stohl)
Steigen, to ascend, ich steige, etc. ich stieg
Sterben , to die, ich sterbe, du stirbst, er stirbt ich starb
Stieben, to fly (as dust), ich stiebe, etc. ich stob
Stinken, to stink , jich stinke, etc. ich stank
Stoſsen, to push , lich stoſse , du stöſsest, er stöſstlich stieſs
IMP . SUBJ . IMPERATIVE . PARTICIPLE . REMARKS .

ich schrie schreie geschrien .
ich schritte schreite geschritten.
ich schrotete schrote geschroten . Regular now except in the par
ticiple, and this is frequently
geschrotet .
ich schwöre schwäre geschworen. Schwierst, etc. in the present is
provincial .
ich schwiege schweige geschwiegen. As an active verb, to put to si
lence, it is regular. This use
is, poetical or provincial.
ich schwölle schwill, or geschwollen. Regular, when active.
schwelle
ich schwämme schwimme geschwom
men.
ich schwände schwinde geschwunden .
ich schwänge schwinge geschwungen . Schwungis provincial. Schwunge
in the subjunctive is now quite
ich schwöre schwöre geschworen. out of use .
(schwüre)
ich sähe siehe gesehen.
ich wäre sei gewesen .
ich sendete sende gesandt. Sometimes regular, sendete, ge
sendet.
ich sötte siede gesotten. When active, it is mostly regu
ich sänge singe gesungen . lar.
ich sänke sinke gesunken . 1
ich sånne sinne gesonnen .
(sönne)
ich säſse sitze gesessen .
ich sollte gesollt.
ich spaltete spalte gespalten . Irregular only in the participle,
ich spie speie gespien. and this is sometimes gespaltet
ich spänne spinne gesponn .en when the verb is active .
(spönne)
ich splisse spleiſse gesplissen. Spliſs is also used in the im
ich spräche sprich gesprochen. perfect.
ich sprösse sprieſse gesprossen . This must not be confounded
(in the imperfect) with the
regular verb sproſsen. The
same remark applies to schi
eſsen and its derivative schoſs
ich spränge springe gesprungen. en. Spreuſsest and spreut are
ich stäche stich gestochen . obsolete forms.
ich steckte , or stecke gesteckt. This verb is commonly regular ;
stake when active it is always so.
ich stände stehe gestanden.
( stünde)
ich stähle stiehl gestohlen.
(stöhle)
ich stiege steige gestiegen.
ich stärbe stirb gestorben.
(sturbe)
ich stöbe stiebe gestoben. So Zerstieben , to be scattered
ich stänke stinke gestunken . as dust.
ich stiefse stoſse gestoſsen.
428 Appendix,
INFINITIVE. PRES . INDICATIYE . | IMP. INDIC .

Streichen, to stroke, ich streiche, etc. ich strich
Streiten, to contend , ich streite, etc. ich stritt
Thun, to do, ich thue, du thust, er thut ich that
Tragen, to bear, ich trage, du trägst, er trägt ich trug
Treffen, to hit, ich treffe, du triffst, er trifft ich traf
Treiben, to drive, ich treibe, etc. ich trieb
Treten, to tread, ich trete, du trittst, er tritt ich trat
Triefen, to drop, to trickle,
ich triefe, etc. ich troff
Trügen , to deceive, ich trüge , du trügst, er trügt ich trog
Trinken , to drink , lich trinke, etc. lich trank
Verbergen, to conceal, ich verberge, du verbirgst, er ich verbarg
verbirgt
Verbieten, to forbid , ich verbiete , etc. ich verbot
Verbleiben, to remain, ich verbleibe, etc. Jich verblieb
Verbleichen, to grow pale, ich verbleiche, etc. ich verblich
Verderben, to perish, ich verderbe, du verdirbst, erich verdarb
verdirbt
Verdrieſsen , to offend, es verdrieſst es verdroſs
Vergessen, to forget, ich vergesse, du vergissest, er ich vergaſs
vergiſst
Verhehlen, to conceal, ich verhehle , etc. lich verhehlte
Verlieren, to loose, lich verliere , etc. ich verlor
Verlöschen, to extinguish , ich verlösche, du verlöschest,ſich verlosch
or verlischest, er verlöscht,
or verlischt
Verschallen , to die away ich verschalle , etc. lich verscholl
in sound ,
Verschwinden, to disap -jich verschwinde, etc. ich ver
pear, schwand
Verwirr en, to perplex , ich verwirre, etc. ich verwirrte
Verzeihen, to pardon , ich verzeihe, etc. ich verzieh
Wachsen, to grovo, ich wachse, du wächsest, er ich wuchs
wächst
Wägen, or ich wäge or wiege, du wägst ich wog
Wiegen, to weigh, or wiegst, er wägt or wiegt
Waschen, to wash, lich wasche, etc. ich wusch

Weben , to weare , ich webe, etc. ich wob
Weichen , to yield , ich weiche , etc. lich wich

Weisen, to show , ich weise, etc. ich wies
Wenden, to turn, ich wende, etc. ich wendete,
or wandte
Werben, to sue for , ich werbe, du wirbst, er wirbt ich warb
Werden, to become, ich werde, du wirst, er wird ich ward or
wurde, du
wurdest, er
ward or
wurde ; wir
wurden , etc.
IMP . SUBJ . | IMPERATIVE . PARTICIPLE . REMARKS .

ich striche streiche gestrichen .
ich stritte streite gestritten .
ich thäte thue gethan .
ich trüge trage getragen .
ich träfe triff getroffen .
ich triebe treibe getrieben .
ich träte tritt getreten.
ich tröffe trief, or triefe getroffen. Treufst and treuft in the present
ich tröge trüge getrogen . indicative, and treuf in the im
ich tränke trinke getrunken. perative are obsolete.
ich verbärge verbirg verborgen.
ich verböte verbiete verboten .
ich verbliebe verbleibe verblieben .
ich verbliche verbleiche verblichen .
ich verdärbe verdirb verdorben . Verderben, to destroy ( active),
( verdürbe) is regular.
es verdrösse verdrieſse verdrossen . Verdreufst, etc., obsolete .
ich vergäſse vergiſs vergessen.
ich verhehlete verhehle verhehlt , or Rarely irregular now except in
verhohlen . unverhohlen .
ich verlöre verliere verloren .
ich verlösche verlösche, or verloschen.
verlisch
ich verschölle verschalle verschollen. But little used except in the
participle .
ich ver verschwinde verschwun
schwände den.
ich virwirrete verwirre verwirrt, or Verwirren is now irregular on
verworren . ly in the participle.
ich verziehe verzeihe verziehen .
ich wüchse wachse gewachsen.
ich wöge wäge, or gewogen.
wiege Wägen is active, and has wäge
in the imperf. subj.; wiegen is
neuter, and has wiege. Wiegen ,
to rock, is a different though
kindred word, and is regular.
ich wüsche wasche gewaschen. Wäschest & wäscht are also used.
ich wöbe webe gewoben. Regular except with the poets,
or when used figuratively:
ich wiche weiche gewichen . Weichen, to soften , to molify,
ich wiese weise gewiesen . is regular.
ich wendete wende gewendet, or Regular when active .
gewandt.
ich wärbe wirb geworben.
ich würde werde geworden ; ( &
as an auxili
ary ) worden .
430 Appendic.

Werfen , to throw , ſich werfe, du wirfst, er wirft ich warf
Winden, to wind , ich winde, etc. ich wand
Wissen, to know, ich weiſs, du weiſst, er weiſs ich wuſste
Wollen, to will, ich will, du willst, er will lich wollte
Zeihen, to accuse of, ſich zeihe, etc. jich zieh
Ziehen, to draw , ich ziehe, etc. lich zog
Zwingen, to force, ſich zwinge, etc. ich zwang
Remark. If a compound verb, which is sought, can
( B. )
GRAMMATICAL TERMS IN GERMAN.
The English words are placed first, the most common Ger
man words next, and those less frequently used last.
1. The Parts of Speech , Wortarten , Redetheile, Wort

gattungen .
Article, Artikel, Geſchlechtswort, Gliedwort, Deutewort.
Substantive, Subſtantiv , Hauptwort, Nennwort, Dingwort.
Adjective, Adjectiv, Eigenſchaftswort, Beſchaffenheitswort,
Beiwort, Beilegewort, Beſtimmungswort.
Pronoun, Pronomen, Pronom, Fürwort.
Verb, Zeitwort, Verbum , Redewort, Meldewort, Thunwort,
Zuſtandswort.
Adverb, Adverbium , Umſtandswort, Nebenwort, (and some
times) Beſchaffenheitswort.
Preposition, Prepositio, Vorwort, Verhältnißwort, Vorſebwort,
Richtungswort.
Conjunction, Conjunctio, Bindewort, Verbindungswort, Füges
wort.
Interjection , Interjectio, Empfindungswort, Zwiſchenwort, Em
pfindungslaut.
IL Kinds of Single Parts of Speech.
ARTICLE.
Definite Article, der beſtimmte Artikel.
Indefinite Article, der unbeſtimmte Artikel.
SUBSTANTIVE .
Gender, Genus, das Geſchlecht. Masculine, feminine and neu

ter, männliches, weibliches and fachliches.
Grammatical Terms. 431
IMP . SUBJ . IMPERATIVE . | PARTICIPLE . REMARKS .

ich wärfe wirf geworfen .
( würfe )
ich wände winde gewunden .
ich wüſste wisse gewuſst.
ich wollte gewollt.
ich ziehe zeihe geziehen.
ich zöge ziehe gezogen. Zeuchst, etc., antiquated. See
ich zwänge | zwinge Igezwungen . p. 203 .
not be found, the simple verb is to be resorted to.
Primitive, derivative, Stamm, Sproßform ; Stammwort, ab

geleitetes Wort.
Names of persons,names of things,Perſonennamen, Sachnamen .
Proper names, Eigenamen ; Common nouns, Gemeinnamen ,
Sattungsnamen .
Collectives, Sammelnamen , Mengenamen ; names of mate
rials, Stoffnamen .
Declension, Declination , Biegungsform , Abänderung :
Case, kaſus, Biegungsfall, Beugungsfall, Berhältnißfall.
Nominative, Nominativ, erſter Fall, Nennfall, Grundform ,
Stammendniß, Selbſtſtand , Ausſagefall, Werfall.
Genitive, Genitiv , zweiter Fall, Beſikfall, Weſſenfall, Wo
herfal, Beſchränffall, Zeugfau, Nebenſtand.
Dative, Dativ, dritter Fall,Zweckfall, Gibfall, Wemfall,
Beiſtand , Bezugsfall, Perſonenfall.
Accusative, Áccuſativ , vierter Fall, Zielfall, Klagfall, Wohin
fall, Wenfall, Leidſtand, Erleidsfall, Anzeigefall.
Number, Numerus, Zahl.
Singular, Einzahl, einfache Zahl, Einheit ; Plural, Mehrzahl,
vielfache Zahl, Mehrheit.
ADJECTIVE.
Comparison, Steigerung, Comparation , Vergleichung.
Positive degree, der gewohnliche Stand, Grundſtufe .
Comparative degree, Vergleichungsſtand, Vergleichungsſtufe.
Superlative degree, der höchſte Stand.
Numerals, Zahlwörter ; Cardinals, Grundzahlen ; Ordinals,
Ordnungszahlen.
PRONOUN.
Personal pronouns, perſönliche Fürwörter.
Adjective pronouns, Adjectivpronomen , Beifürwörter.
432 Appendir.
Possessive pronouns, befißanzeigende or zueignende Fürworter,

Beſitwörter.
Demonstrative pronouns, hinweiſende, anzeigende or hindeutende
Fürworter, Unterſcheidungswörter.
Relative pronouns, bezügliche, relative Fürwörter, Bezugwörter,
beziehliche Fürwörter .
Interrogative pronouns, fragende Fürwörter, Fragewörter.
Reciprocal pronouns, reflerive or zurückführende, zurückdeutende
Fürwörter.
VERB.
Active verb, thätiges or zielendes Zeitwort. Active form ,thatige

Form, Thatform , thätiger Stand .
Neuter verb, zieloſes Zeitwort. Regular verbs, regelmäßige
Zeitwörter.
Passive verb, leidendes Zeitwort. Passive form , Leideform ,
Leidensſtand.
Reflective verb, zurückführendes , zurückzielendes, zurückwirkens
des Zeitwort.
Auxiliary verb, Hülfszeitwort.
Participle, Mittelwort, Particip ; preterite participle, Mittel
wort der Vergangenheit.
Conjugation, Abwandelung, Standung .
Mode, Art, Modus, Ausſageform , Sprechweiſe.
Indicative mode, beſtimmte, gewiſſe or anzeigende Art, Indikas
tiv , Wirklichkeitsform .
Subjunctive mode, bedingte, ungewiſſe or verbindende Art, Eon
junktiv, Möglichkeitsform , Abhängigkeitsweiſe.
Imperative mode, befehlende Art, Imperativ, Befehleform .
Infinitive, unbeſtimmte Art, Infinitiv, unbeſtimmte Form .
Present tense, Präſens, die Gegenwart, gegenwärtige Zeit.
Imperfect, Imperfekt, erſte Vergangenheit, Mitvergangenheit,
jüngſt vergangene Zeit.
Perfect, Perfeftum , Vergangenheit, zweite Vergangenheit.
Pluperfect, Plusquamperfekt , dritte Vergangenheit , Vorver:
gangenheit.
Future, Futur , Zukunft, einfache Zukunft.
Second future,Vorzukunft, zuſammengeſeşte Zukunft, Futu
rum eraftum .
Sentence, Saß . Principal clause, Hauptſaß . Subordinate clause,
Nebenſat . i
Substantive clause, Caſusſak, Subſtantivſaß , Hauptwortſaß
Grammatical Terms. 433
Adjective clause, Adjectivfaş, Attributivſaß.

Adverbial cause, Umſtandsſat, Adverbialſatz.
Punctuation, Interpunktion, Leſezeichen , Schreibzeichen .
Comma, Komma , Beiſtrich .
Semicolon, Semifolon , Strichpunkt.
Colon , Kolon , Doppelpunkt.
Period, Punft, Schlußpunkt.
Interrogation point, Fragezeichen .
Exclamation point, Ausrufzeichen .
Quotation, Anführungszeichen .
Hyphen , Trennungszeichen.
Dash, Gedankenſtrich .
Parenthesis, Parentheſe, Einſchließungszeichen.
Paragraph , Paragraph , Abſaß .
Letters, Buchſtaben .
Vowels, Vocale, Selbſtlaute, Stimmlaute, laute Buchſtaben ,
Grundlaute .
Consonants, Mitlaute.
Semivowels , Halblaute, Halbvocale. Diphthong, Doppellaut .
Liquids, Schmelzlaute.
Linguals, Zungenlaute.
Palatals, Kehllaute.
Labids, lippenlaute .
Mutes, ſtarre Ronſonanten ; smooth, harte ; middle, weiche ;
rough, aſperirte .
Syllable, Sylbe. Accent, Accent, Betonung , Ton .
Derivation, Ableitung.
Dialect, Mundart.
Orthography, Rechtſchreibung.
REMARKS. In grammars of the learned languages, the Latin

terms are very common. These terms are often Germanized ,
and are then used even in grammars of the German language.
The German grammatical terms, are sometimes literal transla
tions of the Latin, sometimes descriptive of that to which they
are applied. Gliedwort is a translation of articulus ; Ges
ſchlechtswort is descriptive of one of the offices of the article,
namely, to point out the gender of the noun. Deutewort that
which points out a thing, is applied also to demonstrative pro
nouns, which are often the same as the article. Hauptwort,
37
434 Appendix .
represents the substantive as the principal word in a sentence,

Nennwort is a translation of nomen . Dingwort “ is the name
of any thing that exists." Eigenſchaftswort describes the ad
jective as a word of quality; Beſchaffenheitswort indicates
external characteristics as denoted by adjectives. Beiwort
and Beilegewort are translations of the Latin term . Beſtim
mungswort properly indicates not only adjectives but adjec
tive pronouns , articles, and whatever qualifies a substantive.
Fürwort is a literal translation of pronomen. Zeitwort repre
sents the verb as a word which has tenses. Redewort and
Meldewort are translations of verbum . Thunwort is a word
which denotes action. Zuſtandswort properly means a neu
ter verb, as expressing condition rather than action. Umſtands
wort implies that the adverb is a word to express circum
stances. Nebenwort is a translation of adverbium . Beſchaffen
heitswort is probably applied to adverbs in consequence of the
adverbial use of all adjectives in German. . The line between
these two parts of speech are less distinctly drawn in this than in
other languages. Vorwort and Vorſeßwort are translations
of prepositio. Verhältnißwort is a word expressing the rela
tions of other words or things. Richtungswort is applied to
prepositions as words which point out the direction or tendency
of an action. The words for conjunction are translations of
conjunctio ; those for interjection either a translation (Zwiſchens
wort) or a description of the nature and use of the word. Ver :
hältnißfall implies that case as well as prepositions express
relations. The pronoun wer applied to case represents the
nominative as a reply to the question Wer ? the genitive as a
reply to Weſſen ? etc. Woher, wo and wohin denote the
genitive, dative and accusative as the whence - case, the where-case,
and the whither- case. In Selbſtſtand, Nebenſtand, Beiſtand
and Leidſtand for nominative, genitive, dative and accusative,
the last component part stands for case ( state ), and the first
characterizes each case. Beſchränkfall represents the geni
tive as the case to express timitations ; Zeugfall, as pointing
out the productive cause. Gebfall is a translation of dativus ;
Zweckfall corresponds to the " sign to or for ; " Perſonenfall,
means the noun in the dative is represented as a living being, or
person ; Bezugsfall implies that the use of the dative is to ex
press relations. Klagfall is a translation of accusativus ; Ziel
fall, that to which an action tends ; Leidſtand and Erleidefall,
that which is the passive recipient of an active. Thus it will
Abbreviations. 435
be easy to ascertain the point of view from which all this varie
ty of grammatical terms originated.
( C. )
ABBREVIATIONS .
Abbreviations are more common in German authors than in

English. The number common to all writers in the language
is not great ; but there are very many in which there is a sub
stantial agreement, while there are variations as to the number
and choice of letters used. Sometimes the initial letter only,
sometimes the first part of a word, (i. e. all the letters preceding
the vowel of the second syllable) , sometimes the most impor
tant letters of a long word (i. e. the first and last letters, and
sometimes the intervening consonants ), constitute the abbrevi
ation . When an unknown abbreviation occurs, the reader is
to notice in the first place whether it begin with a capital or
with a small letter -- for the proper use of these letters is gene
rally observed in abbreviations. While substantives and cer
tain pronouns begin with a captial, adjectives even of proper
names, most of the pronouns, the particles, verbs and adverbs
begin with a small letter. Let him next consider whether the
first part of the word, or the most prominent letters of a long
word have been selected by the writer. This is easily ascer
tained , for the latter, being generally consonants, do not consti
tute a syllable. Still further aid may be found by reflecting
upon the nature of the topic under discussion and the class of
words which belong to the subject. Perhaps it will appear that
the word itself has already occurred once or twice, and that an
abbreviation is resorted to merely to avoid frequent repetition.
In the following list such Latin abbreviations as are common in
German , but not in English, will be inserted .
A. Z. Altes Testament, Old Testament.

abgef . abgekürzt , abbreviated. ( to.
a.a . D. : amangeführten Orte; in the passage referred
abgel . . abgeleitet, derived .
ablaut. Zw . ablautendes Zeitwort, irreg. verb , a verb which
changes the vowel.
Ableit. . Ableitung, derivation .
436 Appendix.
Abſchn. Abſchnitt, section.

Abth. • Abtheilung, division.
abs . abſolut, absolute .
ausgen . ausgenommen, except.
Antw . Antwort, answer.
Auft, Auflage , edition with little or no
alteration .
Ausg . Ausgabe, .. edition, generally with
improvements.
A. C.. Apologia Confessionis; Defense of the Augs
burg Confession .
ahd.. . althochdeutſch , Old High German .
ags. or
angelfächfiſch, Anglo -Saxon .
angels.
Ap . Apoſtel, apostle .
A. S. . Articuli Schmalcaldici, the Schmalcald articles.
a . St. alten Style , Old Style.
Anm . or | Anmerkung, . remark .
Anmerf.
b. beſſer, or bei, better, or by.
bair. baieriſch , Bavarian .
Bgr. Begriff, idea.
Bauk. Baukunſt, architecture .
Bed . Bedeutung , signification.
Bow. or Bindewort, conjunction .
Bindm .
Bergb . Bergbau , . mining.
Bez. Bezirk, circle, district.
Bildh. Bildhauerei, . sculpture .
B. Band, or Buch, volume , or book .
BI. Blatt, or Blätter, sheet, or sheets.
Bibl. . Bibliothef, library.
bism . bisweilen , at times.
Buchbr . Buchdruckerei printing - press.
Buchh . Vuchhandlung, book -store.
bes .. beſonders, . especially
bildi. . bildlich , figuratively .
bölm. . böhmiſch, . Bohemian .
Bw .. Beiwort , adjective.
Centn . St. Sentner, hundred weight.
Cf. or Conf. Conferatur, compare.
C. A. Confessio Augustana, Augsburg Confession .
Abbreviations. 437
C. M. 1 Catechismus Minor, ( Luther's) Smaller Cate

chism .
C. Mj. • Catechismus Major, . Larger Catechism .
C. Trid. Concilium Tridentinum , Council of Trent."
Cap.or Rap . Capitel, chapter.
desgl. dgl. desgleichen , dergleichen , the like.
Фејї . deifen , his.
dicht. . dichteriſch , poetical.
Dichtf. Dichtkunſt , poetry. [ trines
D. G. Doginengeſchichte , history of religious doc
d. b . or d . i . das heißt, or das iſt, that means, or that is.
d . V. der Verfaſſer, the author.
d . I. dieſes Jahr, of this year.
d. M. dieſes Monats, of this month . [ itant.
E. Einheit,or Einwohner , sing. number, or inhab
ehem . ehemals , formerly.
eig . eigentlich , properly, literally.
Eigw . Eigenſchaftswort, adjective.
Empfl. Empfindungslaut, . interjection.
E. N. Eigenname, proper name.
Ends . Endſylbe, . final syllable.
engl. . . engliſch, English .
entſpr. . entſprechend,
corresponding
Erbbeſchr. Erbbeſchreibung, . geography
Ev. Evangelium, gospel
Em.. Guer, your.
f.orfl.or folg . folgend, (singular) the following .
ff. or fll. . folgende, (plural). the following.
Fr. Frau, or Franken, . lady, or Franks.
fr. fremd, foreign.
f. für, for.
Fw.or Fürw. Fürwort, pronoun .
f. L. falſche Leſart, a false reading.
frz. or franz. franzöziſch , . French.
F. C. . Formula Concordiae, Formula of Concord .
Fabell. Fabellebre, mythology.
Gattungen . Gattungsname, common noun.
geb .. geboren , horn .
gebr.. 1 gebraucht, in use .
gem . . . gemein , common, vulgar.
Gem . . Gemahl, or Gemählin , husband, or wife.
gefdyr. geſchrieben , in writing, written.
37
438 Appendix.
geſt . . . geſtorben , deceased.

gew. . gewöhnlich , commonly.
Srößenl .. Größenlehre, mathematics.
Geſchlw .. Geſchlechtswort, article .
Ger.. Gericht , . court of law .
Gr . Groſchen , a small German coin .
G.A. . Glaubensartikel, articles of faith .
GI. Glaube , faith .
Seilf . Heilkunde, the medical art.
hochd. hochdeutſch, High German .
hol. • holländiſch , Dutch.
Hülfsw. Hülfswort, auxiliary verb.
Hw .. Hauptwort, substantive.
h. S. . heilige Schrift, the Holy Scriptures.
h. Z. . heutiges Tags at the present day.
H.G. Heiliger Gheiſt, Holy Spirit.
sir, sirs.
Hr. Hrn . Herr, Herrn,
ingl.. ingleichen , likewise .
insbeſ. insbeſondere , in particular.
i. I. : im Jahre, : in the year.
J. S. Jeſus Chriſtus, Jesus Christ.
Igfr. Jungfrau , virgin .
Imd . Jemand, . some one.
Fahrt. Fahrhundert, century.
Jctus. Jurisconsultus, lawyer.
R. König,or Kunſt,or Kirche ,king, or art, or church.
KG .. Kirchengeſchichte, church history.
f . R. faroniſches Recht, canonical law .
K. V. Kirchenvater , father of the church .
Runſtw. Kunſtwort, technical term.
Kupferdr. Kupferdruck, engraving.
königl. 0 königlich, . royal.
. . imperial
kaiſerl. kaiſerlich , .
Kr. Kreuzer , a small coin in the south
of Germany.
1. lies , . . read .
landſch. landſchaftlich , provincial.
Landm . landwirthſchaft, agriculture.
L ... Lehre , or licentiat, . science, instruction , or
licentiate .
lit. . literatur, literature .
L. S. Libri Symbolici, Symbolical Books.
Abbreviations. 439
luth . . lutheriſch, . Lutheran .

M.Mh. Mehrheit, plural number.
M. Magiſter, or Majeſtät, master, or majesty.
Mal . . Malerei , . painting
Meßk. . Meßkunſt, geometry:
Mitl. . Mitlaut, consonant.
m. . männlich , masculine.
mhd . mittelhochdeutſch, . Middle High German.
Mw . or participle.
Mitterm. } Mittelwort,
MA .. Mittelalter , . Middle Ages.
N. . name, or North .
Name, or Norden ,
N. S. . Nachſchrift, postscript.
näml. nämlich), namely.
n . A. nach Andern, according to others.
Naturk. . Naturkunde , . natural science.
N. Z. .Neues Teſtament, New Testament.
Now. Nebenwort , adverb.
nd . . . Low German .
niederdeutſch ,
nhd .. neuhochdeutſch , • Modern High German.
n . St. neuen Styls, new style.
D. .Dſten , east.
od . or .
oder,
oberd . oberbeutſch, Upper German ,
0. E .. .ohne Einheit , without the singular.
D. M. .ohne Mehrheit, without the plural.
o . U. d . B.ohne Unterſcheid der in the same sense .
Bedeutung ,
öſtr. öſtreichiſch, Austrian ,
P. and PP. pater and patres, father, fathers.
PF. Pfund, or Pfennig, pound, or twelfth part
of a Groschen .
Pflanzenl. Pflanzenlehre, . botany .
poln . . polniſch, Polish.
preuß. preußiſch , Prussian .
r. richtiger, more properly.
Rec . Recenſent, reviewer, critic. [tion .
Ref. Referent , Reformation , the narrator, Reforma
ref. . reformirt, Reformed , Calvinistic.
reg . Zw. . regelmäßiges Zeitwort, regular verb.
rückz . Zw . rückzielendes Zeitwort, reflexive verb .
ruſl.. ruſſiſch, Russian .
440 Appendit .
Rthlr. . Reichsthaler, rixdollar,

ſ. fiebe , see .
f. a. ſieb auch, see also .
Seite, or Süden , page or South .
f. or ſäch. ſächlich , neuter .
f.d. W. O ſieh das Wort, see the word .
n
ſ. o. or u . ſieh obe , or unt ,en see above, or below .
ſ. v . W. ſo viel wie , the same as, as much as.
ſel. ſelig, deceased .
Selbſtl. . Selbſtlaut, . vowel.
S. and ss. . sequens and sequentes, the following
Sammelw. Sammelwort, . a collective noun .
Sprichw . Sprichwort, proverb.
S. B. Symboliſche Bücher ,. Symbolical Books.
Sprachl. Sprachlehre, grammar.
Stammm . Stammwort, primitive word .
fog. . ſogenannt, as it is called . [ of.
ſt . ſtarb, and ſtatt, deceased, and instead
St. ſanct, Stück, or Stunde, St., piece, or hour.
Th. . Theil, part.
th . theils , partly.
th. Zw. . thätiges Zeitwort, active verb .
Thlr. . Thaler, dollar.
Vonk. Zonkunſt, : music.
u. a. . und andere, and others.
u . dgl. und dergleichen , and others of the kind .
u. m . a. und mehre andere, &c. and further.
u. a . m . und andere mehr, &c. and further.
u. 1. f. . und ſo fort,
u . f. m. und ſo mehr, &c.
u . f. w. und ſo weiter,
uneig. uneigentlich , figuratively.
Um . Umſtandswort, . adverb .
überh . überhaupt, generally, universally.
v. . von , of.
Verf. or Vf. Verfaſſer, . author.
vgl. vergl. vergleiche , compare .
Versl. Verslehre, Prosody.
verw. verwandt, cognate.
vlt. . veraltet, . obsolete.
viell. . vielleicht, . perhaps. [ face.
Vorb. Vorbericht, advertisement or pre
Abbreviations. 441
vorzügl. .vorzüglich , especially

porr, Vorrede, preface.
Vorm. Vorwort, preposition.
:
hälen.sw Verhältnißwort, preposition.
vorherg. vorhergehendes, the foregoing.
m. weiblich, feminine.
wahrſch . wahrſcheinlich , . probably
wörtl. wörtlich, literally.
. Weſten , or Wurzel, West, or root.
3. B. zum Beiſpiel, for example.
3. E. zum Erempel
Zahlw. Zahlwort, numeral.
3gez. Zuſammengeſeßt, . compound.
3. or Zw. Zeitwort, verb .
Ziel. Zw . zielendes Zeitwort, active verb .
This list might be indefinitely extended ; butexamples enough

have been presented to illustrate the common method of abbre
viating words. The articles, prepositions and adjectives are of
ten abbreviated in giving titles of books, and in other similar
cases ; as,Heeren. Geſch . d . Studiums d. Werke d. Claſſ.
Litt. Gott. 1797 fl; 2te Aufl. 1822. 2. 8. unbend., Heeren's
History of the Study of the Works of Classical Literature, Göt
tingen, 1797, and following ; 2d edition , 1822. 2 vols. 8vo. un
finished .
INDEX .
A. verbs, 266. Those of place, time

and manner, 267. Adverbs of
Aber, 290. Its use , 362. intensity, reality, etc. 268. Da,
Abbreviations used in German ,435 268. Als, wie, sonst, kürzlich ,
Abstract forms, 72. jüngst and neulich, 269. Eben ,
Accent, 53. Of foreign words, 56 . erst, schon, 270. Jetzt, wohl, 271.
Accusative, 336. Case for denot- Adverbial clauses, 371.
ing inanimate things, 325. Used Adverbial phrases, 349. - See Ad
instead of the genitive after cer verb .
tain adjectives and verbs, 329 Adversative clauses, 362.
337. After helfen , versichern, Affirmative sentences, 306 .
etc. in a differentsense from that All, with the superlative, 127. Af
of the dative, 348. Governing ter its noun, 319 infra . Peculiar
the dative, 394. use of, 303 infra, 320.
Active verb, conjugated, 187. It Allein , its derivation, 56. Its use,
requires haben ( instead of sein ) 363.
as an auxiliary, 224. Those Alphabet, 18.
which govern the accusative of Als, as an adverb , compared with
a person andthe genitive of a wie, 269. Referring to time, 372.
thing, 328. Those which gov As a conjunction ,290. Als ob,
ern the accusative as the passive als wenn , 373. After compara
object, 336 . tives, 377. Als dafs, after zu ,378 .
Adjectives, primitive , 67. Deriva- Also , 290.
tive, 75. Declension of, 115. Apposition, 323 .
Rules for the same, 116–117. An, its different use with the ac
Indeclinable, 120. Comparison cusative and with the dative,279
of, 124. Those which are inca -281 . Its force in adverbial
pable of comparison, 127. Com phrases, 331. With the dative
parison by means of adverbs, indicating an object of pleasure ,
128 . Their agreement with 334. Denoting time, 350. De
nouns , 319. signating an external sign, 359.
Adjective clauses, 378 . Peculiar use of, 368 .
Adverb, 263–271. Pronominal Anstatt, 285 .
and substantive, 263, Those Apostrophe, when used, 25 .
ending in lich and lings, 264. Arrangement of Words, 381.
Compound, 264. Those of an Article, declension of, 82. Its use ,
absolute sense, 265. Adverbs of 2998. · Definite, 298. Indefinite,
place, time and manner, 265. 302.
Comparison of,265. The super- Attribute, genitive of, 320.
lative sometimes formed by am Auch, 290, 361. Joined with other
with the dative,265. By auf with particles, like the English ever,
the accusative, 266. Relative ad and the Latin cunque, 376 , 377.
444 Index .
Auf, with the dative and accusa- |

Complemental use of oblique ca
tive in different senses, 282.ses , 324 .
Expressing confidence, 334,335 .
Composition of words, 396 .
Applied to time, 351, 352. To
Compound verbs, 235. Separable,
manner, 356.Idioms formed by 235. Inseparable, 240. Those
it, 328, 334, 336, 351. - Auf in
which are sometimes separable
composition, 272. and sometimes inseparable , 241.
Auf daſs, 374. Significations of their prefixes,
Augment, ge, 73, 250. 244.
Aus, 274. Expressing ground, or
Concessive clauses and particles,
cause , 358. In composition, 272.
375 .
Ausgenommen, peculiarity in Concrete nouns, their forms, 70.
regard to the case which follows
Conditional mode or tense , 312,
it, 354. 313, 318, 375.
Auſser, 274 . Conjugation of haben , 165. Of
Auſserdem , 361. sein , 169. Of werden, 173. Of
Auſserhalb, 286 . regular verbs, 185 , 187. Of the
Auxiliary verbs, 164. Those im passive voice, 190. Of reflec
properly so called, 178–184. tive verbs, 229.
Conjunctions, 290—297 . See each
B. in its alphabetical order. Omis
sion of, 360, 366. Und , 361.
Bar, termination, 77 . Auch and other copulatives, 361.
B e, prefix, 245 . Exclusive conjunctions, nicht,
Bei, 274. Denoting time, 350. sondern , etc. 362. Adversative,
Peculiar use of, 355, 354, aber, allein, etc. 362. Causal,
Bevor, 291 , 372. daher, deswegen, etc. 365.
Binnen, 274. Consonants, pronunciation of, 38.
Bis, 353 . Classes and powers of, 60—62.
Countries, names of, declension,
C. 114. Gender, 92 .
Cardinal numbers, 130 . D.
Case, 325. For a person, 325. For
inanimate things, 325 . Da, compounded with preposi
Ch, the sound of, 50. tions, 155, 288. As an adverb,
Chen , diminutive termination,71 . 268. Of time, 372. As a con
Clauses, coördinate, 360–367. junction, 291 , 374 .
Those connected by copulative Dadurch , 373.
conjunctions, 361. Exclusive D afern , 291.
clauses, 362. Adversative clau- Dagegen, 363.
ses, 362. Causal clauses, 365. — Daher, 291. Its use, 365, 373.
Subordinate clauses, 367–380 . Damit, 374.
Substantive clauses, 367. Ad- Daran and da zu, when used,
verbial clauses, 371. Adjective 368.
clauses, 378. Mode of leading Daraus, 373.
clauses, 312. Mode in subordi- Darum , 291 .
nate clauses, 314. Tenses in Das, indeclinable pronoun, 303,
subordinate clauses, 318. 307.
Collective nouns, form of, 73. Daſs, its use , 368, 373. When
Collocation of words, 381. omitted, 369. After zu - als, 378,
Comparison of adjectives, 124 , Dative , the proper case for desig
128. Of adverbs, 265 . nating persons, 325, 343. After
Inder. 445
simple intransitive verbs, 344 . Gender of pronouns referring to

After simple transitive verbs, them , 303.
344. After compound verbs, 345. Distributive, and distinctive nu
After adjectives, 346. After cer merals, 137.
tain idiomatic phrases, 346. Doch, 292. Its use, 364 .
Merely pointing out a relation, Drei, declined, 132 ,
347. Forthe genitive, 347. After Du, form ofaddress, 146, 143. Re
passive verbs, 348. Of pronouns peated with the relative,157,370.
as expletives, 348. After helfen , Durch, 278. Signifying instru
versichern , etc. in a different mentality, 357.
sense from that of the accusa- Dürfen, conjugated, 218. Its
tive, 348. use , 182, 222.
Davon , 373.
Declension, of the article, 82. Of E.
nouns, 95–114 . Old form, 96. E , ending,74. In medial forms,
New form , 96. First declension , 67. Dropped, 73, 102.
99 . Second declension, 101. E, vowel, its origin, and its pro
Third declension , 101. Fourth nunciation, 30 , 60 .
declension, 103.- Of adjectives, Eben, 270.
115. Rules for declining adjec- Ehe, 372. Eher, 267.
tives, 116–117. - Of pronouns, Ei, termination , 74.
140-160. Personal pronouns,140 Ein, 131. Declined, 132.
Possessive pronouns, 149. De- Einander, 142.
monstrative, 151. Relative, 156. El, en, er, terminations without
Denn , 291. Peculiar use of, 362, signification, 66 , 67 . 1
315, 366. After comparatives, En, ending, 77. Without signifi
378, 269. cation, 66, 67.
Dennoch, 364. Endings, of 'derivatives, 70.
Der, die, das, article , 82. De- Ent, prefix , 247.
terminative (demonstrative )pro- Ent, ending, derivation of, 58,
noun , 152. Relative, 156 , 379, Entgegen , 275.
380, 370 Entweder, 362.
Demonstrative pronouns, 151. Enz, ending, derivation of, 58 .
Derivation, 63. [70. Er, ending, 70. Without signifi
Derivatives, 68. Verbs, 69. Nouns, cation, 66, 67 . !
Derjenige, 153. Er, prefix, 248.
Dero, 151. Er, pronoun , used for the second
1
Derselbe , 153, 154. person , 145.
Derselbige , 155. Erz, prefix, 253.
Deshalb, 365, 373. Erst, its use , 270 .
Desgleichen, 361 . Es, pronoun , 148, 369, 307.
Dessen , deren , in the sense of Etliche, 161 .
his, theirs, 143. Etwa , 268.
Dessen ung eachtet, 364. Etwaig (whatmay happen , inci
Desto, 291. With um , 377. dentally, or possibly ), 265, note.
Desweg en, 365, 373. Etwelche, 161 .
Dialects , 2 ,3, 6, 7, 8—14. Varia- Etymology, 63.
tions of,' 66. — See “ Remarks,” Euphonic changes of letters, 63,
on the Irreg . verbs, Appendix A. 97, 186 .
Dieser, 152 .
Dies, undeclined, 303, 307. F.
Dieſseit, 286. Falls, 292.
Diminutives, terminations of, 71. Fertig werden, 332.
38
446 Index.
Foreign words, genderof,91. De- German grammatical terms, 430 .

clension, 112.–See Purism. Gerundive participle , 258 .
Fractional numbers, 139. Gewicht, its derivation , 62.
Freilich, 365. Gift, its derivation, 62.
Future tense, 308. The present Glauben, with two cases, 345.
used for the future , 308. Second Gleich, its etymology, 63. Join
future, 311 . ed to other particles, 293, 375,
Future participle , 358 . 376 .
Für, 339. Gleichwohl, 364.
Gothic language, 9.
G. Grammatical terms used by Ger
man writers, 430.
G, sound of the letter, 41. Gute, zu Gute thun , 334.
Ge, prefix , 73, 250. Participial
augment, when used, 186, 241, H.
260.
Geben, used impersonally , 304 . Haben, conjugated, 165. When
Gegen, 278. Of time, 350. used as the auxiliary (instead of
Gegenüber, 275 . sein) , 224. An auxiliary to kön
Gender, 82-90 . Of foreign words, nen and similar words, 260, 313,
91 Nouns of two genders, 92. 221.
Rules according to a different Haft, ending, 78.
system , 94 , note . Nouns vary- Halben and halber, 285 .
ing in sense according to gen- Handeln und wandeln, 331 .
der, 92, 93. Heit, ending, 74.
Gelten , 337. Heiſsen, its use , 340. Infinitive
Genitive, 325 , 326. Case for inan for the participle , 260.
imate things, 325. Of attribute, Helfen, with the dative and ac
320. In the place of an adjec cusative in different senses, 348.
tive, 305, 322. Of object, 321 . Infinitive for the participle, 260 .
After intransitive verbs, 327. Hier, in composition with prepo
After reflective verbs, 327. Af sitions, 155, 288.
ter impersonal verbs, 328. Af- Hiesig, 265, note .
ter certain active verbs with the High German, 1 , 9, 11 .
accusative of a person , 328. Af- Hingegen, 363.
ter adjectives, 329. Peculiar Hinter, prefix , 252. Preposition ,
use of the genitive, 329, 355 . 283.
Its ancient use retained in some Hören , infinitive for the partici
expressions, 329. Peculiar con ple , 260.
struction of two genitives in
apposition, 323. The genitive of I.
nouns used adverbially, 349,352.
German language, its history, 1– Ich, repeated with the relative,
14. Its origin ,8. High German , 157, 370—371.
1. Upper German , 2. Low Ger- Icht, ending, 79.
man , 3. Where spoken, 3 not e Idiomatic expressions, 346. Es,
Upper Saxon dialect, 6. Low das, die, was, Alles, 303, 307.
er Saxon, 7. The Gothic, 9 and Passive verbs used impersonal.
note . Old High German, 9, 10, ly, 234 , 304. Geben used imper
note . Old Low German , 10, sonally, 304. Third person used
note. Middle High German , 11 for the second, 143, 305. Omis
and note. Modern High Ger sion of the verb in elliptical ex
man , 12. Modern dialects, 14 . pressions, 305. Omission of the
Index . 447
verb in elliptical expressions, dative, 346. Ihm das Wort re

305. Omission of the auxiliary den, 346. Es ist mir zu Muthe,
verb, worden , 310. Peculiar use 347. Dative of personal pro
of mir, Dir, etc. 348, 347. The nouns for the genitive, 347.
genitive (and other cases) for Genitive and accusative in
the adjective , 305, 322. Nächt, nouns used adverbially, 349,
after words of hindrance, and in 352. With unter, 35) . Idioms
exclamations , where no nega with über, 351, 353. With bei,
tive would be used in English , 354, 355. The case of a noun
306. Other forms of expression after the participle ausgenom
instead of the passive, 307. Pre men (except) , 354. With von,
sent for the future ( very com 357. . Omission of und, 360.
mon) , 308. The indicative for With nur, 363. Idioms with doch
the imperative, 309, 314. The 364. The omission of daſs,369.
preterite participle for the im The repetition of pronouns of
perative, 262. Use of the per the first and second person with
fect, 309. Haben as an auxilia the relative, 370, 157, 379. The
ry to können and similar words, relative differing in person from
which are defective in English , the antecedent, 371. Während
260, 313, 221. Lassen , 222,307, dufs, 372. With nun, 374. Auf
183. Denn, (es sei denn, except) , daſs, 374. So, 374, 294 , 380.
315, 362 ; and after compara Wo (if ), 375. Omission of wenn
tives , 269, 378. Use of the Sub or ob belonging to gleich, 376 .
junctive, 317,318. Alle (all gone) Welcher auch , was auch , 377. 2
320. Adjective phrases formed Als daſs, 378. Denn, dann, we
by means of the article and the der ( than), after comparatives, 4
participle with intervening 378. Wie with a pronoun in an
nouns, 321, 257, 258. The gen oblique case following, 380.0
itive in such expressions as, Es mission of the possessive pro
sind unser, viel, 121 , 122, 322. nouns (vor Augen, before my
Peculiar construction of two eyes) , 149 .
genitives in apposition , 323. Ie, ending ,pronounced in one syl
Nouns of weight, measure , etc. lable when under the accent;
329, 108, 337. Use of auf, 328 , in two when not under it, 33 .
334, 336, 351. The accusative The e omitted , when the word,
after adjectives, 329. Peculiar in declension, receives an ad
use of the genitive after certain ditional e, 32.
verbs , 329, 355. Um , 330, 278, Ig, ending, 76. 1
332, 335, 350. Handeln und Ihro, 151.
wandeln ; schalten und walten , Immassen, 292. 1
331 . Idioms with an, 359, 331 , Immer, 160. Its etymology, 264.
334 , 368. Fertig werden , 332 Imperative , 169, note, 304. Sub
With vor, 333, 352, 357. Zu junctive for the imperative, 313
Gute thun , 334. With sprechen , -314 . Indicative for the im
337, 368. Gelten, 337. With zu, perative, 309, 314. Preterite
338. Infinitives used as nouns , participle for the imperative, 262. I
etc. 339 ; after bleiben , fahren , Imperfect tense, 310. [304 .
etc. 341 ; for thepreterite parti- Impersonal verbs, 234. Passive,
ciple, 260. Heiſsen , 340 . Ex- In , preposition , 283. With the
pressions answering to the En dative, 331 .
glish , “ to know how ," " to teach In, feminine ending of nouns, 71 .
how ,” etc. 343. Glauben , with Indem , 292, 372.
two cases, 345. Idioms with the Indicative mode, 312. In subordi
448 Index .
nate clauses, 314 , 315, 316. For , Laut, preposition, 359.

the imperative, 309, 314 . Langs, preposition, 275 .
Infinitive, 339. Without the sign Lehren, form of the infinitive for
zu , 340. Requiring zu , 342. The that of the preterite participle ,
infinitive form used in certain 260.
verbs for that of the preterite Lein, diminutive ending ofnouns,
participle, 260. 71 .
Inner, 275 . Lernen, form of the infinitive for
Innerhalb, 286 . that of the preterite participle,
Inseparable compound verbs, 240. 260.
Interjections, 297. Letters, the characters in German ,
Interrogative pronouns, 156 . 15. Alphabet, 18. Capitals,
Interrogative form of clauses, 375. when used, 21. Classification of
Irregular verbs, 195. Classified , letters, 60. Their changes, 61 .
· 199. Complete list of, 416, 199. Leute, in what it differs in sense
Those which were once irregu from Männer, 111 .
lar but have ceased to be so, 64. Lich, adjective termination, 78.
Conjugation of irreg. verbs, 197. Adverbial, 264 .
Isch, ending, 76. Ling, substantive ending, 71.
Iz, ending corresponding to the Lings, adverbial ending , 264.
Latin itia, 58. Long vowel, 79.
J. M.
Ja, 306, 361.
Je, 160, 292, 263. Man , 161 .
Jeder , 160 . Mancher, 161 .
Jedermann , 162. Mann, plural Männer and Leute,
Jedoch, 363. their different use ; 111 .
Jedweder, 160. Medial form of nouns, 67.
Jeglicher, 160. Mehr, 122.
Jemand , etymology, 63, 162. Mehrere, 129.
Jener, 152. Mein, declined, 149.
Jenseit, 236 . Miſs, prefix, 252.
Jetzt, 271, 263 . Mit, 275. Signifying instrumen
Jetzig, 265, note . tality, 330,332. Denoting man
Jetzo, 264 . ner, 355 .
Jüngst, 269. Mode of verbs, 312. In principal
clauses, 312. in subordinate
K. clauses, 314.
Mögen, conjugated, 216 . Its
Keit, ending, 74. meanings and use , 178, 221.
Kommen, peculiar use of, with Muth, zu Muthe sein, 347.
certain preterite participles, 262. Mutes, 61 .
Können, conjugated, 214 . Its Müssen , conjugated, 211 . Its
use , 181 , 221. use, 183.
Kraft, 258 .
Kunde, derivation , 67. . N.
Kürzlich, 269.
Nach, 275. Denoting manner,
L. 356, 359 Objects of desire, 335 .
In composition, 272.
Lassen, 183, 222. With the da- Nachahmen, with the dative or
tive and accusative, 349. with the accusative, 349.
Index . 449
Nach st, 276 . Oder, 362.

Nämlich , 323. Ohne daſs, 372.
Nebst, 276 . Ordinal numbers, 135 .
Negative sentences, 306 . Orthography, rules of, 20–21.
Nein , its etymology, 264. Use of capitals, 21.
Neulich, 29. O es, adjective ending for the
Neuter verbs, 223. With haben or Latin osus, 58 .
sein as the auxiliary, 224. With
both , but in different senses,227 . P.
Nicht, used when the negative
would be omitted in English, Paar, 324 , 308.
306. Its use with sondern and Participle, 253–262. Present par
vielmehr, 362. For Nichts (noth ticiple, 253. Participle used as
ing) in, zu Nichte machen , etc. an adjective and compared, 254 .
306 , note . Forming a clause of a sentence,
Nicht allein, (nur, bloſs), 293, 255, 354. Governing nouns, 257.
361. Agreement with nouns, 354. Pe
Nichts, before als, 341. culiar use of with an article and
Nichtsdestoweniger, 264 . an intervening noun , 321, 257,
Nie , its etymology, 264. 258 .- .Preterite participle , 259.
Niemand, its meaning and ety Used with a noun in the abso
mology, 162, 63. lute, 354. Peculiar use of with
Nimmer, 267. Its etymology , kommen , 262. Those used only
264! as adjectives, 261. The preterite
Nirgend, its etymology, 264. participle for the imperative,
Nils, substantive ending, 73. 262. - See ge. Future, 258 .
Noch, 293. Its etymology, 264. Partitive numerals, 137.
Nominative, see subject. Passive verbs, conjugated, 190.
Noun, 83–114. Declension , 95. Use of, 194, 307. Used imper
Those used only in the singular, sonally, 304 .
106 ; only in the plural, 111. Perfect tense , 309.
Nouns of quantity , weight and Person of pronouns, the third per
measure, 108, 323, 337. Foreign son used for the second, 143,
nouns declined , 112. Proper 305. Person of the relative (pe
names declined, 114. Nouns in culiarity) , 370—371.
adverbial clauses, 349. Those Place, adverbs of, 267. Nouns of,
which relate to space and time , 349.
349. Predicate, 305.
Numeral adjectives, 130. Ordinal , Prepositions, 271–289. In compo
135 . sition, 272. With their cases,
Nun, 271. Peculiar use of, 374 . 273. Compared with each other
Nunmehro, 264. in signification, 273. Those
Nur, 363 . which govern the dative, 274.
Those which govern the accu
0. sative , 278. Those which govern
either the dative or accusative,
Ob, conjunction , 376 . Omitted 279. Those which govern the
with gleich, 376. genitive, 285. In composition
Ob, preposition, 276.For uber, 334 . with hier, da and wo, 288, 155.
lb
Oberha , 286. Abbreviated with the definite
Obgleich (obschon , obwohl), 293, article , 289. After verbs and
375, 376. nouns derived from verbs (the
Objective verbs, 223. same prepositions in both cases ),
450 Index .
321. Used with a noun instead S.

of the genitive, 322, 330. Denot
ing time, 350. Sal, substantive ending, 74.
Present tense, for the future, 308. Sam, adjective ending, 77.
Present for the imperfect, 309. Sammt, 276. See under nebst,
Present indicative for the im 276.
perative, 309. Schaft, substantive ending, 75.
Primitives , 66 . Primitive nouns, Schalten, und walten, 331.
66. Primitive adjectives, 67. Schrift, its derivation, 62.
Principal clause, mode used in, Schon , 270. Compared with be
312. Arrangement of, 384. reits, 267.
Pronoun , 140— 163. Personal and Sei'n , conjugated, 169. When
reciprocal , 140. Pronouns used used as an auxiliary , 224 .
in address , 143. Possessive, 148. Sel, substantive termination, 74 .
Demonstrative, 151. Relative Selbiger, 155 .
and interrogative, 156. Dessen Selbst, 162, 142, 163.
and deren, in the sense of his, Sentences, simple, 303–359. Com
theirs, 143. The dative of per pound, 360—380 . Affirmative
sonal pronouns for the genitive , and negative, 306 .
347. Genitives in such construc- Separable compound verbs, 235.
tions as, Es sind unser, viel , Those which are both separable
121 , 122, 322. Mir, dir, etc. as and inseparable, 241.
expletives, 348, 347. Short vowels, 80.
Pronunciation, of vowels, 28. Of Sie, pronoun used for the second
diphthongs, 35. Position of the person in address, 143, note , 145.
organs in pronouncing the vow- Signification, of roots,64. Of prim
els and diphthongs, 37, note. itives, 66. Of derivatives, 68.
Pronunciation of theconsonants , Of terminations, 70—79 . — Look
38–53. foreachin its alphabeticalorder.
Proper nouns, declined, 114 . So, 294, 374. When omitted, 375,
Prosody, 410. 377. As a relative pronoun, 158 ,
Punctuation, 23. 380 .
Purism , 406 . Sogar, 361.
Sollen, conjugated, 210. Its sig.
Q. nifications, 179, 220.
Sonder, 278.
Quantity of vowels, 79, 412—413. Sondern, 295.
Sonst, 269, 362. Its etymology,
R. 264.
Sowohl - als, 361.
Reciprocal pronouns, 147 . Space, nouns of, 349.
Reden, ihm das Wort reden , 346. Spirants, 60, note .
Reflective verbs,228. Conjugated, Sprechen, 337, 368.
229. Used reciprocally, 233 . Subject nominative, its connection
Relative pronouns, declined, 156 . with the predicate, 303. Gram
Construction of, with antece matical and logical , 304. Omis
dents of the first and second sion of, 304. Agreement with
persons, 157, 370. Welcher , 378, its verb, 307.
156–157. Der, 379, 156–157. Subjective verbs, 223.
Wer, 379, 158–159. Substantive. See noun.
Roots , 64 . Substantive pronouns, 379.
Rufen, with the dative or with Substantive clauses, 367.
the accusative, 349. Subjunctive mode, in principal
Index . 451
clauses, 316, 313, 315. Peculiar 164—184. Haben , conjugated,

use of, 317, 318 . 165 ; sein, 169 ; werden, 173 .
Superlative degree, 224, 226 , 228 . Regular verbs, conjugated, 185,
Of adverbs, 265. 187. Passive verbs , 190, 307.
Syntax, 298—409. Neuter, 223. Objective and sub
jective, 223. Those conjugated
T. with haben, and those with sein ,
224. Reflective verbs, 228 lm
Tat, ending for tas in Latin, 58. personal verbs, 234. Compound
Tense, present, 308. Past tenses, verbs, 235. Separable compound
309. Connection of tenses, 311 , verbs, 235. Inseparable comp.
318. verbs, 240. Those that are some
Terminations of words, 70–79. times separable, and sometimes
That, it derivation, 67. inseparable , 241. Signification
Thum, substantive ending, 75 . of the particles in compound
Time, with verbs. See Tense . verbs , 244. Syntax of the verb,
With nouns, 349. ,Denoted by 303–319 . Its use as a predicate ,
prepositions, 350 ; by the geni 305. Agreeing with its logical
tive and accusative cases, 352. subject, 307. Omission of the
Time, how long, 353. verb in certain elliptical expres
Towns, names of, their declension , sions, 305. Irregular verbs, 195,
114. Gender, 92. When the 416. Conjugated, 197, 207.
genitive is not easily formed, Vermog c, 286 , 357 .
von with the dative is substi- | Versichern, with the dative or
tuted , 322. the accusative, 348 .
*Trift, its derivation , 62 . Versification, 410 .
Viel, 121 .
U. Voll and roller, 329 .
Vollends, its etymology, 367.
Ueber, with the dative and the Von, 276. For the genitive, 322.
accusative , 284. Indicating do For the genitive of predicate,
minion, 331. Before objects of 322. In the sense of separation ,
pleasure or pain,333. In relation 330. Denoti manner , 332. In
to time, 352. Peculiar use of, dicating a cause, 356 , 357.
351 , 353. Vor, 285. After verbs of fear, 333.
Ueberdies, 361. Relating to time, 352. Denoting
Um , 278. Denoting loss or ruin , cause, 356 , 357.
330, 278, 332. In comparisons, Vowels, 60. Their pronunciation ,
332, 377. Before objects of re 28 . Length of, 79. Vowel
gret, 334 ; of desire , 335. In re changes, in declension , 104 ; in
ference to time, 350. In compo derivation, 66 , 69.
sition , 272.
Und, 361. Omission of, 360 . W.
Unng , substantive ending, 72. Wann, 295
Ungeachtet , 286 . Was, undeclined, 303. Its use,
Unter, 284. In reference to time, 370. With auch, 377.
351. Was für ein , 159 .
Unterhalb, 286. Während daſs, 372.
Weder - noch, 361.
V. Weder , after comparatives, 378.
Weil, 372, 373.
Ver, prefix , 250. Wegen, 287, 358.
Verb , 164—253. Auxiliary verbs, Welcher, 156, 378, 379. As an
452 Index .
: interrogative, 159, 379. With Worden for geworden , 174, note ,

auch, 377. When omitted, 310.
Wenig, 121. Wort, ihm das Wort reden , 346 .
Wenn, 295. Referring to time,
371. Conditional, 374. Joined Z.
with gleich , 375, 376 . With
auch, 376. Omitted, 376 . Zer, prefix, 251.
Wer, 156 , 158, 159, 379. Zu, preposition, 277. Denoting
Werden , conjugated , 173. destination or sufficiency, 338 .
Wider, 279, 359. Designating time , 351 ; manner,
Wie, 296. Compared with als, 269. 356. In composition , 272.
Followed by a pronoun in the Zu, sign of the infinitive, when
oblique case, 380. used, 342. When omitted, 340 .
Wo, 297. In composition with pre As an adverb (too) before als
positions, 160, 288. In the sense daſs, 378.
of if , 374. Zudem, 361.
Wofern, 374 . Zufolge, 277, 359.
Wohl, 271, 365 . Zuwider, 277.
Wollen, conjugated, 207. Signi- Zwur, 365. Its etymology, 264 .
fication of, 179, 219. Zwei, declined, 132 .
CORRIGENDA .
Page 37, line 11 from the bottom, for “ protended ” read protruded.
P. 54 , note, for z ur üch read zurück. P. 108, bottom, for Outz
end read Dutzend. P. 202, 1. 4 from the bottom, for underho
len read underhohlen . P. 223, 1. 4 from the bottom , for weines
read Weines. P. 345, 1. 1 , for diesem read diesen , and then
for the translation of the whole phrase substitute, Who will believe it
of these rosy cheeks ? P. 349, 1. 16 , erase the word between .' P.363,
1. 4, for wüſste read wuſste, P. 367,1.5 , for a Götz ’,read Götz .
P. 369, 1. 3, for sie read Sie. P. 378, 1. 4 , for wider read weder .
P. 441 , for unbend read unbeend.
The following instances of careless translation need to be corrected :
Page 270, line 9, sails directly under it,' should be, sails under it
now . ' P. 334, 1. 9 from the bottom , instead of set free,' it should
read explained .' P. 340, 1. 11 , for • Is that living ? ' substitute · Is
such the living ?' P. 345, 1. 1, see the place among the typographical
errors . P. 340, 1. 15, instead of it is easy to laugh ,' it should read,
6
you may well afford to laugh . So of Nöhden's translation , p. 341,
1. 20 , “ you have fine talking,' instead of it is easy to talk ,' i. e . for
one in your situation. P. 347,1. 14 , for the word meaning' substi
tute importance .' P. 348, 1. 4 , for ' angels ' read “ spirits.' P. 357,
1. 9, instead of accomplish anything, ' it should read speak.' P. 366,
1. 8, for that very reason , should be erased. P. 368, 1. 15, ' for it,
should be for her. ' P. 368, 1. 9 from the bottom , instead of consider
6how I can,' substitute “ provide that I may .' P. 372, 1. 5, instead of
perpetrated ,' it should be suffered .' P. 377, 1. 2, for • will be, ' read .
sam .
P. 378, 1. 2, erase pleased more than it has,' and substitute
not. ' P, 380, 1. 1 , for change ,' read endure .'
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This is a reproduction of a library book that was digitized

by Google as part of an ongoing effort to preserve the

GEORGE HENRY NOEHDEN , LL . D.

FROM THE EIGHTH LONDON EDITION,

ALTERATIONS AND LARGE ADDITIONS , CHIEFLY FROM THE

REV . BARNAS SEARS, D. D.

Gift of " T. E. 7 :111

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1842, by

EIGHTH LONDON EDITION .

This Eighth Edition, which has been carefully revised and

THE AMERICAN EDITION .

It was not till after the enterprising publishers had com

duced, and in others substituted. Numerous works have been

Schulgrammatik der deutschen Sprache. Von Dr. Karl Ferdi

article. To obviate the practical difficulties resulting from

called for, these and a few other slight blemishes, occasioned by

in no small degree, in bis philosophical analysis of the language,

and to this feature of the syntax the attention of the student is

CONCERNING THE LANGUAGE WHICH IS THE SUBJECT

The Language which this Grammar proposes to teach ,

* A people, called Slavonians, derived originally from the

mixed with a colony ofGermans from Franconia,* established

Germany, and occupied different parts of that country ; among

* A tract, in the middle, between North and South Germany,

Before we proceed further in our remarks, it will be proper

* These are, what were formerly called the circles of West

the influence of his example, it began to be raised to a com

ples, which apply to language, on philosophic and impartial

* See Shakspeare's Henry V.

to prevail among the Upper Saxons. They pronounce both

* Of this description is m substituted for w, as mir wollen for

of uttering the letter g, is that which is perceived in the

[The German language belongs to the great Indo -Ger

has existed from the earliest times of which we have any

The Gothic is known to us chiefly through the translation

After the fall of the Gothic kingdoms, the language of the

sus theins, thy kingdom . Vairthai, be, or become, from vairthan ,

can be fixed with certainty. For this reason it is impossible

* Suabian Dialect of the Thirteenth Century. — Extract from

fourteenth centuryf the language and its literature declined

* Tauler, (born 1294, died 1361 ,) wrote about this time.

Saxon court , which is the language of all the kings and

legislation. Besides, the language of the learned is subject

THE ELEMENTS OF THE LANGUAGE .

ON ORTHOGRAPHY AND PRONUNCIATION ,

The Germans employ three sorts of characters, for writing

* Guttenberg and his associates called them Lettres Bour

There exists, besides, a particular alphabet for engrossing,

increasing, has considerably diminished ; and now by far the

Characters. Signification . Names.

1. In the printed alphabet, some letters are apt to be mis

6 (b) and h ( h).

2. The copperplate exhibits three varieties of German

* It may be thought, that in laying down this rule, I am pro

Secondly, a regard must, at the same time, be had to deri

ceeding in a circle ; for I have elsewhere said, that you should

don, 1817, 4to. p. 127, 128) greatly commends it ; and pointedly

of the participle. Das Leſen , the act , or employment, of

(a) The English frequently confine adverbs, conjunctions,

4. The sign of Apostrophe ( ' ) is to be used

for lobet, he praises ; er lobte, for lobete ; gelobt, for ge

belongs. In other compounds it is often used, though there

ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF LETTERS.