AC/DC MACHINERY

CHAPTER COMPILATION

JOHN ALFRED A. CENIZA

BSME-5  
 CHAPTER 1

Magnetics

I. Introduction
An electrical machine is a device which converts electrical power (voltages and currents) into
mechanical power (torque power and rotational speed), and/or vice versa. A motor describes a machine
which converts electrical power to mechanical power; a generator (or alternator) converts mechanical
power to electrical power. Almost all practical motors and generators convert energy from one form to
another through the action of a magnetic field. Transformers are usually studied together with generators
and motors because they operate on the same principle, the difference is just in the action of a magnetic
field to accomplish the change in voltage level.

Electromagnetic Forces
Individual electric charges immersed in an electric field or moving through a magnetic field
experience electromagnetic forces. The electric force on a charged particle is proportional to, and along
the direction of, the electric field. The force generated by a magnetic field on a charged particle is in the
direction determined by the right-hand rule perpendicular to the plane defined by the particle’s velocity
and the direction of the magnetic field. These relations are quantified by the respective Lorentz force and
force density equations

F =q ⃗
⃗ E + q ⃗v × ⃗
B
F=ρ ⃗
E + ⃗J × ⃗
B
While a charge at rest in a purely magnetic field experiences no force, a moving charge is deflected by a
force perpendicular to its motion. Information about B and the charge-to-mass ratio can be determined by
measuring such deflections.
THE MAGNETIC FIELD
As previously stated, magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is
converted from one form to another in motors, generators, and transformers. Four basic principles
describe how magnetic fields are used in these devices:
1. A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.
2. A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in a coil of wire ifit passes through that coil.
(This is the basis of transformer action.)
3. A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it. (This is
the basis of motor action.)
4. A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it. (This is the basis
of generator action.)
This section describes and elaborates on the production of a magnetic field by a current-carrying
wire, while later sections of this chapter explain the remaining three principles.

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Production of a Magnetic Field
The basic law governing the production of a magnetic field by a current is Ampere’s law:

∮ H •dl =I net

where H is the magnetic field intensity produced

by the current I net, and dl is a differential element of length along the path of integration. In SI units, I is
measured in amperes and II is measured in ampere-turns per meter. To better understand the meaning of
this equation, it is helpful to apply it to the simple example in Figure 1-3. Figure 1-3 shows a rectangular
core with a winding of N turns of wire wrapped about one leg of the core. If the core is composed of iron
or certain other similar metals (collectively called ferromagnetic materials), essentially all the magnetic
field produced by the current will remain inside the core, so the path of integration in Ampere’s law is the
mean path length of the core lc. The current passing within the path of integration Inet is then Ni, since
the coil of wire cuts the path of integration N times while carrying current i. Ampere’s law thus becomes
H I c =¿
Here H is the magnitude of the magnetic field intensity vector H. Therefore, the magnitude of the
magnetic field intensity in the core due to the applied current is

H= ¿
Ic
The magnetic field intensity H is in a sense a measure of the “effort” that a current is putting into the
establishment of a magnetic field. The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also
depends on the material of the core. The relationship between the magnetic field intensity H and the
resulting magnetic flux density B produced within a material is given by

B=μH
Where
H = magnetic field intensity
μ = magnetic permeability of material
B = resulting magnetic flux density produced

2
 The actual magnetic flux density produced in a piece of material is thus given by a product of two
terms:
H, representing the effort exerted by the current to establish a magnetic field
μ, representing the relative ease of establishing a magnetic field in a given material

II. Magnetic Circuits

1. Magnetic flux(ϕ):
The magnetic lines of force produced by a magnet is called magnetic flux. It is denoted by ϕ and its
unit is Weber. 1 weber = 108 lines of force.
2. Flux density(B)
The total number of lines of force per square metre of the cross sectional area of the magnetic core is
called flux density. Its SI unit is Tesla (weber per metre square).
ϕ Wb
B= ,( ∨Tesla)
A m2
Where ϕ -total flux in webers
A - area of the core in square metres
B - flux density in weber/metre square.
Example:
1. The flux density on the top of the core is 0.5T. Find the area of the core if the current produces a
flux 0.005 Wb.
Solution:
ϕ 0.005 Wb
A= = =0.01 m 2
B 0.5 T
2. Find the flux density of a 10cm by 20cm core if the current produces a flux of 0.009 Wb.
ϕ 0.009Wb
B= = =0.45 T
A ( 0.10 m )( 0.20 m )

3. Magneto-Motive Force
The amount of flux density setup in the core is dependent upon five factors - the current, number of
turns, material of the magnetic core, length of core and the cross-sectional area of the core. More
current and the more turns of wire we use, the greater will be the magnetizing effect. This ability of a
coil to produce magnetic flux is called the magneto motive force.
mmf = NI ampere – turns
Where mmf is the magneto motive force in ampere turns N is the number of turns.

3
 4. Magnetic field Intensity(H)
The magnetic field intensity is the mmf per unit length along the path of the flux. Is also known as
magnetic flux intensity and is represented by the letter H. Its unit is ampere turns per meter
H= mmf/ Length
H = NI/l AT/m
Where H is magnetic field intensity
N is the number of turns
l is average path length of the magnetic flux
Example:
1. Find the magnetizing intensity if a 0.5A is flowing in the coil with 400-turn wrapped around
one leg and a path length of 15m.

400 ( 0.5 )
H= ¿ = =13.33 A ∙ t/m
l 15
2. Find the number of turns of a coil if a 25 A ∙ t/m intensity and a 0.1A current is flowing in the
coil with a path length of 5m.

Hl ( 25 A ∙t /m )( 5 m )
N= = =1250 turns
i 0.1 A
5. Magnetic Flux Linkage(𝝀):
The product of magnetic coupling to a conductor, or the flux thru a single turn times the number of
turns in coils.

λ=n ϕ
6. Reluctance [S]
It is the opposition of a magnetic circuit to setting up of a magnetic flux in it.

flux=Φ=BA ; F=mmf =Hl ; B=μH

Φ BA μ o μr μ μ
=
F Hl
=
l
; hence Φ= o r F
l ( )
F F F l
Φ=
l
= ; S= where S=
S Φ μo μr A( )
( )
μo μ r A

Where, S – reluctance of the magnetic circuit

l - length of the magnetic path in meters

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 μo- permeability of free space, µr - relative permeability

Example:
1. Find the reluctance of a 5cm by 15cm with a path length of 55cm.
Solution:

R= ( μ μl A )= ( 1000) 4 π × 100.55H m( 0.05 m ) ( 0.15 m) =58.36 kA •t /Wb

−7
o r
( m )
2. Find the path length of a 5cm by 15cm with a reluctance of 60kA •t /Wb .

R= ( μ μl A )= ( 1000) 4 π × 10 Hl ( 0.05 m ) ( 0.15 m) =60 kA •t /Wb

−7
o r
( m )
l=0.057 m

7. Permeability [μ]
A property of a magnetic material which indicates the ability of magnetic circuit to carry
electromagnetic flux. Ratio of flux density to the magnetizing force, μ = B / H (henry / meter)
Permeability of free space or air or non magnetic material:

μo =4 π ×10−7 H / m
Relative permeability [𝜇𝑟 ]:
μ
μr =
μo

8. Residual Magnetism
It is the magnetism which remains in a material when the effective magnetizing force has been
reduced to zero.
9. Magnetic Saturation
The limit beyond which the strength of a magnet cannot be increased is called magnetic saturation.
10. End Rule
According to this rule the current direction when looked from one end of the coil is in clock wise
direction then that end is South Pole. If the current direction is in anti clock wise direction then that
end is North Pole.

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 11. Lenz’s Law
When an emf is induced in a circuit electromagnetically the current set up always opposes the motion
or change in current which produces it.
12. Electromagnetic induction
Electromagnetic induction means the electricity induced by the magnetic field.
Faraday's Laws of Electro Magnetic Induction
There are two laws of Faraday's laws of electromagnetic induction. They are,
First Law - Whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux lines an emf is induced in the conductor.
Second Law - The magnitude of the induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages
dΦ
v=−N
dt
Where V is induced voltage
N is number of turns in coil
𝑑∅ is change of flux in coil
𝑑𝑡 is time interval
Example:
1. Find the induce voltage of 0.5T wire with a length of 0.1m that is place at 45̊ at 5m/s.
Solution:

e ind =vBlcos 4 5̊=( 5 m/s ) ( 0.5T ) ( 0.1 m) cos 45° =0.176 V

2. Find the velocity of a wire if induced voltage produces 0.25V with a length of 0.1m and has a
flux density of 0.7T.
Solution:

0.25 V =v ( 0.7 T ) ( 0.1 m ) cos 45° =5.05 m/s

III. Magnetic Materials

Ferro Magnetic Materials: these materials are strongly attracted by a magnet. example: iron, steel,
nickel, cobalt, some metallic alloys. The relative permeability of these materials is very high.

6
Para Magnetic Materials: these materials are attracted by a magnet but not very strongly. example:
aluminum, tin, platinum, magnesium, manganese etc. The relative permeability of these materials is
slightly more than one.
Dia Magnetic Materials: these materials are not at all attracted by any magnet. The relative permeability
of these materials is less than one. example: zinc, mercury, lead, sulfur, copper, silver etc.
IV. Series and Parallel Magnetic Circuits
The complete closed path followed by any group of magnetic lines of flux is referred to as
magnetic circuit.

Similarities
Differences

Electric Circuit Magnetic circuit

Emf (volt) m.m.f (AT)
Current(ampere) Flux(weber)
Resistance(ohm) Reluctance(A/Wb)
Current density(A/𝑚2 ) flux density(T or
Wb/𝑚2 )
Conductivity Permeability
Electric Circuit Magnetic circuit
Current actually flux is created, but
flows does not flow
Circuit may be open Circuit is always
The equivalent reluctance of a number of or closed closed
reluctances in series is just the sum of the
individual reluctances: The equivalent
reluctance of a number of reluctances in series
is just the sum of the individual reluctances:
Req =R1 + R2 + R3 +…
Reluctances in parallel combine according to the equation
1 1 1 1
= + + +…
R eq R1 R2 R3

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Series magnetic circuits
Magnetic circuit composed of various materials of different permeabilities. When composite
magnetic circuit parts are connected one after the other the circuit is called series magnetic circuit.
Example:
Consider a circular ring made up of different materials of lengths 𝑙1, 𝑙2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑙3 and with cross sectional
areas 𝑎1, 𝑎2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎3 with absolute permeabilities 𝜇1, 𝜇2 and 𝜇3.

l1 l2 l3
Total ST =S1 + S2 +S 3= + +
μ1 a 1 μ 2 a 2 μ 3 a 3

Total m . m. f ( S 1 +S 2 + S3 ) ф
Total ф= =¿=
Total reluctance S T ( S 1+ S 2 + S3 )

Parallel magnetic circuits

A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flux is known as a parallel magnetic
circuit.

Total m. m. f =¿=∅ SC + [ ∅1 S 1∨∅ 2 S 2 ]

l1 l2 lc
S1= , S2 = ∧S C =
μa 1 μa 2 μa c
m. m . f
flux=
reluctance
m .m . f =∅ × S

Leakage Flux and Fringing

Leakage Flux is the magnetic flux which does not follow the particularly intended path in a
magnetic circuit. When a current is passed through a solenoid, magnetic flux is produced by it. Most
of the flux is set up in the core of the solenoid and passes through the particular path that is through
the air gap and is utilised in the magnetic circuit. This flux is known as Useful flux ∅ u.

The total flux Φ produced by the solenoid in the magnetic circuit is the sum of the leakage flux
and the useful flux.

8
 Φ=Φu +Φ l
Leakage coefficient
The ratio of the total flux produced to the useful flux set up in the air gap of the magnetic
circuit is called leakage coefficient or leakage factor. It is denoted by (λ).h

Total flux (flux∈the iron p ath) Φ

λ= =
useful flux ( flux∈the air gap) Φu

Fringing
The useful flux when sets up in the air gap, it tends to bulge outward because of this bulging the
effective area of the air gap increases and the flux density of the air gap decreases. This effect is known as
Fringing and the longer the air gap the greater is the fringing.

V. Magnetic Circuit with air gap

Series magnetic circuit with air gap

Consider a ring having mean length of iron part as I i

Total m. m. f =¿ at

Ii I
Total reluctance ST =Si + S g= + g
μ ai μ0 a g
m. m. f
∅= =¿
reluctance ST

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Parallel magnetic circuits with air gap
Consider a parallel circuit with air gap in the central limb. The analysis of this circuit is exactly similar to
the parallel circuit. The only change is the analysis of central limb. The central limb is series combination
of iron path and air gap. The central limb is made up of Path GD=iron path=𝑙𝑐 Path GA=air gap=𝑙g

IC Ig
SC =S i+ S g= +
μ aC μ 0 a C

( m .m . f ) AD= ( m. m. f )GD + ( m. m. f )GA

( ¿ )TOTAL =( ¿ )GD + ( ¿ )GA + ( ¿ ) ABCD ∨ ( ¿ ) AFED

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 CHAPTER 2

TRANSFORMER
I. Introduction

A transformer is a device that changes ac electric power at one frequency and voltage level to ac
electric power at the same frequency and another voltage level through the action of a magnetic field. It
consists of two or more coils of wire wrapped around a common ferromagnetic core. These coils are
(usually) not directly connected. The only connection between the coils is the common magnetic flux
present within the core.

One of the transformer windings is connected to a source of ac electric power, and the second (and
perhaps third) transformer winding supplies electric power to loads. The transformer winding connected
to the power source is called the primary winding or input winding, and the winding connected to the
loads is called the secondary winding or output winding. If there is a third winding on the transformer, it
is called the tertiary winding.

i. Importance of Transformer in modern life

The first power distribution system in the United States was a 120-V dc system invented by
Thomas A. Edison to supply power for incandescent light bulbs. Edison’s first central power station went
into operation in New York City in September 1882. Unfortunately, his power system generated and
transmitted power at such low voltages that very large currents were necessary to supply significant
amounts of power. These high currents caused huge voltage drops and power losses in the transmission
lines, severely restricting the service area of a generating station. In the 1880s, central power stations
were located every few city blocks to overcome this problem. The fact that power could not be
transmitted far with low-voltage dc power systems meant that generating stations had to be small and
localized and so were relatively inefficient.

The invention of the transformer and the concurrent development of ac power sources eliminated
forever these restrictions on the range and power level of power systems. A transformer ideally changes
one ac voltage level to another voltage level without affecting the actual power supplied. If a transformer
steps up the voltage level of a circuit, it must decrease the current to keep the power into the device equal
to the power out of it. Therefore, ac electric power can be generated at one central location, its voltage
stepped up for transmission over long distances at very low losses, and its voltage stepped down again for

11
final use. Since the transmission losses in the lines of a power system are proportional to the square ofthe
current in the lines, raising the transmission voltage and reducing the resulting transmission currents by a
factor of 10 with transformers reduces power transmission losses by a factor of 100. Without the
transformer, it would simply not be possible to use electric power in many of the ways it is used today.

In a modem power system, electric power is generated at voltages of 12 to 25 kV. Transformers

step up the voltage to between 1 10 kV and nearly 1000 kV for transmission over long distances at very
low losses. Transformers then step down the voltage to the 12- to 34.5-kV range for local distribution and
finally permit the power to be used safely in homes, offices, and factories at voltages as low as 120 V.

II. TYPES AND CONSTRUCTION OF TRANSFORMERS

The principal purpose of a transformer is to convert ac power at one voltage level to ac power of the
same frequency at another voltage level.

Power transformers are constructed on one of two types of cores. One type of construction consists of
a simple rectangular laminated piece of steel with the transformer windings wrapped around two sides of
the rectangle. This type of construction is known as core-form. The other type consists of a three-legged
laminated core with the windings wrapped around the center leg. This type of construction is known as
shell-form.

i. Core type transformer

Consists of a simple rectangular or L shaped laminated piece of steel. To reduce the leakage flux
problem half of the low voltage winding over one leg and other half over the second limb. The copper
conductor surrounds the core. It has a longer mean length of core and a shorter mean length of coil turns.
Therefore, it requires more iron core and fewer conductors for coils. Has more rooms for ventilation is
better adopt for low voltage transformers concentric coils types are used for core type transformers.

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 ii. Shell type transformer
Consists of a three-legged laminated core with the windings wrapped around the center leg. Core
surrounds a major part of the windings. It has better provision for mechanically supporting and bracing
the coil. The core is either E or F shaped and stacked to give a rectangular figure eight. To reduce the
amount of the high voltage insulation required, the low voltage coils place adjacent to the iron core.
Interleaved (or sand witched) coils types are used for shell type transformers

iii. Core-Type and Shell-Type Laminations

iv. Working Principle of a Transformer

The basic principle on which the transformer works is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic
Induction or mutual induction between the two coils. The transformer consists of two separate windings
placed over the laminated silicon steel core. It works on the alternating current only because an
alternating flux is required for mutual induction between the two windings.

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 v. Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is a lossless device with an input winding and an output winding.

The transformer shown has NP turns of wire on its primary side and Ns turns of wire on its
secondary side. The relationship between the voltage vP(t) applied to the primary side of the
transformer and the voltage vs(t) produced on the secondary side is

v p (t) N p
= =a
v s (t ) N s
vi. Power in an Ideal Transformer

The real power P¿supplied to the transformer by the primary circuit is given by the equation

P¿ =V p I p cos θ p

whereθ p is the angle between the primary voltage and the primary current. The real power Pout
supplied by the transformer secondary circuit to its loads is given by the equation

Pout =V s I s cos θ s
Example:
1. Find the input power of a transformer if the voltage source is at 2300V, a current of 30A at an
angle of 35° .
Solution:
P¿ =V 'source I s cosθ=( 2300 V ) (30 A ) cos 35 °=56.52 Kw

2. Find the output power of a transformer if the efficiency is rated at 0.91 and an input power of
60500W.
Solution:
P out
0.91= =Pout =55.05 kW
60500 W

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III. The Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The losses that occur in real transformers have to be accounted for in any accurate model of
transformer behavior. The major items to be considered in the construction of such a model are
1. Copper (PR) losses. Copper losses are the resistive heating losses in the primary and secondary
windings of the transformer. They are proportional to the square of the current in the windings.
2. Eddy current losses. Eddy current losses are resistive heating losses in the core of the transformer.
They are proportional to the square of the voltage applied to the transformer.
3. Hysteresis losses. Hysteresis losses are associated with the rearrangement of the magnetic domains
in the core during each half-cycle, as explained in Chapter 1. They are a complex, nonlinear function of
the voltage applied to the transformer.
4. Leakage flux. The fluxes ϕLP and ϕLS which escape the core and pass through only one of the
transformer windings are leakage fluxes. These escaped fluxes produce a leakage inductance in the
primary and secondary coils, and the effects of this inductance must be accounted for

i. The Exact Equivalent Circuit of a Real Transformer

It is possible to construct an equivalent circuit that takes into account all the major imperfections
in real transformers. Each major imperfection is considered in turn, and its effect is included in the
transformer model.
The easiest effect to model is the copper losses. Copper losses are resistive losses in the primary
and secondary windings of the transformer core. They are modeled by placing a resistor RP in the
primary circuit of the transformer and a resistor Rs in the secondary circuit
Leakage flux in the primary windings:
di p
e LP (t )=L p
dt
Leakage flux in the secondary windings:
di s
e LS (t )=L s
dt

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 (a) The transformer model referred to its primary voltage level. (b) The transformer model referred to
its secondary voltage level.

IV. Voltage Regulation and Losses

Since a real transformer contains series impedances, the transformer’s output voltage varies with the
load even if the input voltage is constant. To compare transformers in this respect, the quantity called a
full-load voltage regulation (VR) is defined as follows:
Vp
−V s , fl ×100 %
V s , nl−V s ,fl a
VR= ×100 %=
V s ,fl V s , fl
In a per-unit system:
V p , pu−V s , fl, pu
VR= ×100 %
V s ,fl , pu

Where V s , nland V s , fl are the secondary no load and full load voltages.

Note: VR of an ideal transformer is zero.

Example:
1. The power source feeds a 100-kVA 14/2.4-kV transformer through a feeder impedance of 40.0 +
j150 Ω. The transformer’s equivalent series impedance referred to its low-voltage side is 0.12 +
j0.5 Ω. The load on the transformer is 90 kW at 0.80 PF lagging and 2300 V. What is the voltage
regulation of the transformer?
Solution:
(a) V 'p=V s + I s Z EQ

V 'p=2300∠0 ° V + ( 46.03 ∠−31.8° A ) ( 0.12+ j 0.5 Ω )=2317 ∠0.41 °V

2317−2300
VR= × 100 %=0.74 %
2300

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 i. Transformer Efficiency
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as:
P out Pout
ƞ= ×100 %= ×100 %
P¿ P out + Ploss
Note: the same equation describes the efficiency of motors and generators.

Considering the transformer equivalent circuit, we notice three types of losses:

 Copper ( I 2 R ) losses – are accounted for by the series resistance

 Hysteresis losses – are accounted for by the resistor RC .
 Eddy current losses – are accounted for by the resistor RC .

Since the output power is

Pout =V s I s cos θ s
The efficiency of the transformer can be expressed by:
V s I s cos θ s
ƞ= × 100 %
P cu + Pcore +V s I s cos θs

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 CHAPTER 3
DC MOTORS AND GENERATORS
I. Introduction to DC Motors
The earliest power systems in the United States were dc systems, but by the 1890s ac power
systems were clearly winning out over dc systems. Despite this fact, dc motors continued to be a
significant fraction of the machinery purchased each year through the 1960s (that fraction has declined in
the last 40 years). There were several reasons for the continued popularity of dc motors. One was that dc
power systems are still common in cars, trucks, and aircraft. When a vehicle has a dc power system, it
makes sense to consider using dc motors. Another application for dc motors was a situation in which wide
variations in speed are needed. Before the widespread use of power electronic rectifier-inverters, dc
motors were unexcelled in speed control applications. Even if no dc power source were available, solid-
state rectifier and chopper circuits were used to create the necessary dc power, and dc motors were used
to provide the desired speed control. (Today, induction motors with solid-state drive packages are the
preferred choice over dc motors for most speed control applications. However, there are still some
applications where dc motors are preferred.)

DC motors are often compared by their speed regulations. The speed regulation (SR) of a motor
is defined by

ω m ,nl −ωm , fl
SR= ×100 %
ω m , fl
nm , nl−n m ,fl
SR= ×100 %
nm , fl
Types of DC Motors
There are five major types of dc motors in general use
1. The separately excited dc motor
2. The shunt dc motor
3. The permanent-magnet dc motor
4. The series dc motor
5. The compounded dc motor

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THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A DC MOTOR

(a) The equivalent circuit of a dc motor

(b) A simplified equivalent circuit eliminating the brush

voltage drop and combining with the field
Radj

resistance.

The internal generated voltage in this machine is given by the equation

E A =Kφ ωm
and the induced torque developed by the machine is given by

τ ind =Kφ I A
II. Performance Characteristics of DC motors
SEPARATELY EXCITED AND SHUNT DC MOTORS
The equivalent circuit of a separately excited dc motor is shown, and the equivalent circuit of a
shunt dc motor is shown in Figure 8-5b. A separately excited dc motor is a motor whose field circuit is
supplied from a separate constant-voltage power supply, while a shunt dc motor is a motor whose field
circuit gets its power directly across the armature terminals of the motor.

19
The Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) equation for the armature circuit of these motors is

V T =E A + I A R A

Example:

1. Find the internal generated voltage if the generator has a 150 terminal voltage, resistance of 0.25
Ω and an armature current of 60A.

Solution:

E A =V T + I A R A =150 V + ( 60 A ) ( 0 .25 Ω ) =165V

2. Find the armature current if E A =143 V ,V T =90 V and R A =0.12 Ω.

V T −E A 90−143
I A= = =441 A
RA 0.12

Terminal Characteristic of a Shunt DC Motor

A terminal characteristic of a machine is a plot of the machine’s output quantities versus each
other. For a motor, the output quantities are shaft torque and speed, so the terminal characteristic of a
motor is a plot of its output torque versus speed.

VT R
ω m= − A 2 τ ind
Kφ ( Kφ )

Note: It is important to realize that, in order for the speed ofthe motor to vary linearly with torque, the
other terms in this expression must be constant as the load changes.

Nonlinear Analysis of a Shunt DC Motor

The flux Φ and hence the internal generated voltage EA of a dc machine is a nonlinear function
of its magnetomotive force. Therefore, anything that changes the magnetomotive force in a machine will
have a nonlinear effect on the internal generated voltage ofthe machine.

20
 One other effect must be considered when nonlinear analysis is used to determine the internal
generated voltage of a dc motor. The magnetization curves for a machine are drawn for a particular speed,
usually the rated speed of the machine.

The equation for the induced voltage in a dc machine when speed is expressed in revolutions per
minute is

E A =K ' φ nm
For a given effective field current, the flux in a machine is fixed, so the internal generated voltage
is related to speed by
E A nm
=
E A 0 n0

Note: E A 0 and n0 represent the reference values of voltage and speed, respectively.

Example:

1. Find the resulting speed of the 290V, 1300 turns, dc shunt motor if E A 2=255 V .
Solution:

E A2 255 V
n m 2= n = ( 1300 r /min ) =1143 rpm
E A 1 m 1 290 V

2. Find the starting voltage if the resulting speed of a motor is 1200 rpm, E A 2=285 V , 400 turns.

Solution:
E A2 285 V
n m 2= nm 1 = ( 400 r /min )=1200 rpm
E A1 EA 1
E A 1=95 V

SPEED CONTROL

Speed Control of Shunt DC Motors

How can the speed of a shunt dc motor be controlled?

1. Adjusting the field resistance R F (and thus the field flux)

2. Adjusting the terminal voltage applied to the armature. The less common method of speed
control is by

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 3. Inserting a resistor in series with the armature circuit.

Cause-and-Effect behavior summarization of speed control

1. Increasing R F causes I F ( ¿ V T /R F ↑ ) to decrease.

2. Decreasing I F decreases Φ.

3. Decreasing Φ lowers E A ( ¿ K Φ ↓ ω m ).

4. Decreasing E A increases I A ( ¿ V T − E A ↓ ) / R A

5. Increasing IA increases τ ind ( ¿ KΦ ↓ I A ↑ ), with the change in IA dominant over the change in flux).

6. Increasing makes τ ind > τ load , and the speed ω m increases.

7. Increasing ω m increases E A .¿ K Φ ω m↑ again

8. Increasing E A decreases I A

9. Decreasing I A decreases τind until τ ind = τ load at a higher speed ω m.

Speed Control of Series DC Motors

Unlike with the shunt dc motor, there is only one efficient way to change the speed of a series dc
motor. That method is to change the terminal voltage of the motor. If the terminal voltage is increased, the
first term in Equation (8-23) is increased, resulting in a higherspeedfor any given torque. The speed of
series dc motors can also be controlled by the insertion of a series resistor into the motor circuit, but this
technique is very wasteful of power and is used only for intermittent periods during the start-up of some
motors. Until the last 40 years or so, there was no convenient way to change VT, so the only method of
speed control available was the wasteful series resistance method. That has all changed today with the
introduction of solid-state control circuits.

22
 Torque-speed characteristic of the series dc motor

A WARNING ABOUT FIELD RESISTANCE SPEED CONTROL

The effect of increasing the field resistance on the output characteristic of a shunt dc motor is
shown in Figure 8-12. Notice that as the flux in the machine decreases, the no load speed of the motor
increases, while the slope of the torque-speed curve becomes steeper. This shape is a consequence of
Equation (8-7), which describes the terminal characteristic of the motor. In Equation (8-7), the no-load
speed is proportional to the reciprocal of the flux in the motor, while the slope of the curve is proportional
to the reciprocal of the flux squared. Therefore, a decrease in flux causes the slope of the torque-speed
curve to become steeper.

23
 Some small dc motors used for control purposes actually operate at speeds close to stall
conditions. For these motors, an increase in field resistance might have no effect, or it might even
decrease the speed of the motor. Since the results are not predictable, field resistance speed control should
not be used in these types of dc motors. Instead, the armature voltage method of speed control should be
employed.

CHANGING THE ARMATURE VOLTAGE

The second form of speed control involves changing the voltage applied to the armature of the
motor without changing the voltage applied to the field. A connection similar to that in Figure 8-13 is
necessary for this type of control. In effect, the motor must be separately excited to use armature voltage
control.

INSERTING A RESISTOR IN SERIES WITH THE ARMATURE CIRCUIT

If a resistor is inserted in series with the armature circuit, the effect is to drastically increase the
slope of the motor’s torque-speed characteristic, making it operate more slowly if loaded (Figure 8-15).
This fact can easily be seen from Equation (8-7). The insertion of a resistor is a very wasteful method of
speed control, since the losses in the inserted resistor are very large. For this reason, it is rarely used. It
will be found only in applications in which the motor spends almost all its time operating at full speed or
in applications too inexpensive to justify a better form of speed control.

For armature voltage control, the flux in the motor is constant, so the maximum torque in the
motor is τ max=K Φ I A , max

24
 This maximum torque is constant, regardless ofthe speed of the rotation of the motor. Since the
power out of the motor is given by P = τω, the maximum power of the motor at any speed under armature
voltage control is

Pmax =τ max ωm

Example:

1. A motor is supplying 50 N ⋅ m of torque to its load. If the motor’s shaft is turning at 1120 r/min,
what is the mechanical power supplied to the load in watts?
Solution:

1 min 2 πrad
P=τω=( 50 N ∙ m ) ( 1120 r /min ) × × =5864.2 W
60 s 1r
2. Find the torque load if the mechanical power of the motor is given by 20,000 W and a rated speed
of 2400 rpm.
Solution:
P 20,000 W
τ= = =79.58 N ∙ m
ω 1 min 2 πrad
( 2400 r /min ) × ×
60 s 1r

25
 CHAPTER 4

THREE PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS

I. Introduction

Induction motors are used worldwide in many residential, commercial, industrial, and utility
applications. Induction Motors transform electrical energy into mechanical energy. It can be part of a
pump or fan, or connected to some other form of mechanical equipment such as a winder, conveyor, or
mixer.

Three-phase induction motors are the most common and frequently encountered machines in industry.

 Simple design, rugged, low-price, easy maintenance

 Wide range of power ratings: fractional horsepower to 10 MW
 Run essentially as constant speed from no-load to full load
 Its speed depends on the frequency of the power source
- Not easy to have variable speed control
- Requires a variable-frequency power-electronic drive for optimal speed control

Advantages

 3-phase induction motors are simple & rugged.

 Its cost is low & it is reliable
 It has high efficiency.

26
  Its maintenance cost is low
 It is self-starting motor
 Suitable for all environments like coal mines & chemical factories

Construction of Three Phase Induction Motors

A 3-phase induction motor has two main parts: Stator and Rotor.

1. Stator - It is stationary part of induction motor. The stator of an induction motor consists of Stator
Frame, Stator core, 3 phase winding, two end covers, bearings etc. The stator and the rotor are electrical
circuits that perform as electromagnets.

 Stator core is a stack of cylindrical steel laminations.

 Slots are provided on the inner periphery.
 Three windings are space displaced by 120° electrical.
 Large size motors use open slots.
 Small size motors use semi closed slots.
 The air gap length should be as small as possible
 Stator frame provides only mechanical support to the stator core.
 The stator winding for a definite number of poles.
 Greater the poles, lesser the speed and vice versa
 The stator core of a National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) motor is made up of
several hundred thin laminations.
 Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire are
inserted into slots of the stator core.
 Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation.
 Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it surrounds, form an electromagnet.
 The stator windings are connected directly to the power source.

2. Rotor - The rotor is the rotating part of the electromagnetic circuit. There are two different types of
induction motor rotors which can be placed inside the stator. Squirrel-cage rotor and Wound(Slip ring)
rotor. However, the most common type of rotor is
the “squirrel cage” rotor.

27
 Wound and Squirrel Cage Rotor Classifications
Wound or slip ring
Rotor consists of a three phase winding similar to the
stator winding
Construction is complicated
Resistance can be added externally
Slip rings and brushes are present to add external
resistance
The construction is delicate and due to brushes,
frequent maintenance is necessary
The rotors are very costly
Only 5% of induction motors in industry use slip
ring rotor
High starting torque can be obtained
Rotor resistance starter can be obtained
Rotor must be wound for the same number of poles
as that of stator
speed control by rotor resistance is possible
Rotor copper losses are high hence efficiency is less
Used for lifts, hoists, cranes, elevators, compressors
etc.
The Equivalent Circuit of an Induction Motor
The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the exception that its secondary windings are free
to rotate.
Squirrel cage rotor
Rotor consists of bars which are shorted at the ends
with the help of end rings
Construction is very simple
As permanently shorted, external resistance cannot
be added
Slip rings and brushes are absent
The construction is robust and maintenance free
Due to simple construction, the rotors are cheap
Very common and almost 95% induction motors use
this type of motor
Moderate starting torque which can not be controlled
Rotor resistance starter can not be used
The rotor automatically adjusts itself for the same
number of poles as that of stator
speed control by rotor resistance is not possible
Rotor copper losses are less hence have higher
efficiency.
Used for lathes, drilling machines, fans, blowers,
water pumps, grinders, printing machines etc.
28
Working Principle of 3 Phase Induction Motor

When three phase supply is given to the three phase stator winding of the induction motor, a rotating
magnetic field is developed around the stator which rotates at synchronous speed. This rotating magnetic
field passes through the air gap and cuts the rotor conductors which were stationary. Due to the relative
speed between the stationary rotor conductors and the rotating magnetic field, an emf is induced in the
rotor conductors. As the rotor conductors are short circuited, current starts flowing through it. As these
current carrying rotor conductors are placed in the magnetic field produced by the stator, they experiences
a mechanical force i.e. torque which moves the rotor in the same direction as that of the rotating magnetic
field

II. Equations
a. Synchronous Speed

A three-phase set of voltages has been applied to the stator, and a three phase set of stator currents is
flowing. These currents produce a magnetic field 𝐵𝑠 , which is rotating in a clockwise/counterclockwise
direction. The speed of the magnetic field's rotation is given by

120 f
Ns=
P

Where: f is the system frequency applied to the stator in hertz

P is the number of poles in the machine.

N s is called the synchronous speed in rpm (revolutions per minute)

b. Slip

Slip is the relative speed expressed on a per-unit or a percentage basis.

N s−N
s= × 100 %
Ns

Where: s is the slip

29
 N s = speed of the magnetic field

N = mechanical shaft speed of the motor

c. Frequency

The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by,

f r=sf

Where: f r= rotor frequency (Hz)

f = supply frequency(Hz)

s= slip

d. Torque

Any mechanical load applied to the motor shaft will introduce a Torque on the motor shaft. This torque is
related to the motor output power and the rotor speed.

Pout 2 πN rad
τ load = ( N . m )∧ω m= ( )
ωm 60 s

e. Rotor efficiency

N actual speed
rotor efficiency=1−s= =
N s sychronous speed

Example:

1. A slip ring induction motor runs at 290 rpm at full load, when connected to 50Hz supply. Determine
the number of poles and slip.

Solution:

Assume that N s =300 rpm

120 f
Ns=
P

120 ( 50 )
300=
P

P=20

30
 N s−N
s= × 100 %
Ns

300−290
s= ×100 %
300

s=3.33 %

2. A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has a full-load slip of 5 percent

a) What is the synchronous speed of this motor?

b) What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load?

c) What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load?

d) What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?

Solution:

III. Torque Slip Characteristics of Three Phase Induction Motor

The torque slip curve for an induction motor gives us the information about the variation of
torque with the slip. The slip is defined as the ratio of difference of synchronous speed and actual rotor
speed to the synchronous speed of the machine. The variation of slip can be obtained with the variation of
speed that is when speed varies the slip will also vary and the torque corresponding to that speed will also
vary.

31
The curve can be described in three modes of operation-

The torque-slip characteristic curve can be divided

roughly into three regions:

 Low slip region

 Medium slip region

 High slip region

Motoring Mode

In this mode of operation, supply is given to the

stator sides and the motor always rotates below the
synchronous speed. The induction motor torque
varies from zero to full load torque as the slip
varies. The slip varies from zero to one. It is zero at
no load and one at standstill. From the curve it is seen that the torque is directly proportional to the slip.

That is, more is the slip, more will be the torque produced and vice-versa. The linear relationship
simplifies the calculation of motor parameter to great extent.

Generating Mode

In this mode of operation induction motor runs above the synchronous speed and it should be driven by a
prime mover. The stator winding is connected to a three phase supply in which it supplies electrical
energy. Actually, in this case, the torque and slip both are negative so the motor receives mechanical

32
energy and delivers electrical energy. Induction motor is not much used as generator because it requires
reactive power for its operation.

That is, reactive power should be supplied from outside and if it runs below the synchronous speed by any
means, it consumes electrical energy rather than giving it at the output. So, as far as possible, induction
generators are generally avoided.

Braking Mode

In the Braking mode, the two leads or the polarity of the supply voltage is changed so that the motor starts
to rotate in the reverse direction and as a result the motor stops. This method of braking is known as
plugging. This method is used when it is required to stop the motor within a very short period of time.
The kinetic energy stored in the revolving load is dissipated as heat. Also, motor is still receiving power
from the stator which is also dissipated as heat. So as a result of which motor develops enormous heat
energy. For this stator is disconnected from the supply before motor enters the braking mode.

If load which the motor drives accelerates the motor in the same direction as the motor is rotating, the
speed of the motor may increase more than synchronous speed. In this case, it acts as an induction
generator which supplies electrical energy to the mains which tends to slow down the motor to its
synchronous speed, in this case the motor stops. This type of breaking principle is called dynamic or
regenerative breaking.

33
 CHAPTER 5
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES
I. Introduction
In synchronous machines, the armature winding either exports ac power (synchronous generator)
or imports ac power (synchronous motor) whereas the field winding is always energized from dc source.
A three-phase synchronous machine is doubly-excited ac machines because its field winding is energized
from dc source and its armature winding is connected to ac source. A synchronous generator called an
alternator is universally employed for the generator of three-phase power. The generation of emf, in
general depends on the relative motion between the field flux and armature winding.
In view of this, an ac generator, alternator or synchronous generator may have either

 rotating field poles and stationary armature or

 rotating armature and stationary field pole.
But practically most of the alternators prefer rotating field type construction with stationary armature due
to certain advantages. Synchronous machines are constructed with high power armature winding on the
stator and low-power field winding on the rotor, though small synchronous machines with the reverses
arrangement may also be built. The machines generating ac emf are called alternators or synchronous
generators. While the machine accepting input from ac supply to produce mechanical output are called
synchronous motors. Both these machines work at a specific constant speed called synchronous speed and
hence in general called synchronous machines. All the modern power stations consists of large capacity
three phase alternators.
Construction of Synchronous Generator
For synchronous machines, the field windings are on the rotor, so the terms "rotor windings" and
"field windings" are used interchangeably. Similarly, the terms "stator windings" and "armature
windings" are used interchangeably.
Generally a synchronous generator must have at least 2 components:

34
1) Stator Windings or Armature Windings
2) Rotor Windings or Field Windings
a. Salient Pole
It is also called projected pole type as all the poles are projected out
from the surface of the rotor. The field winding is provided on the pole
shoe. These rotors have large diameter and small axial length. Mechanical
strength of salient pole type is less, this is preferred for low speed
alternators ranging from 125 rpm to 500 rpm. The prime movers used to
drive such rotor are generally water turbines and I.C. engines. Number of
salient poles is between 4 to 60. Non-salient pole rotors are normally used
for rotors with 2 or 4 poles rotor, while salient pole rotors are used for 4 or
more poles rotor.

b. Non Salient Pole

This is also called Smooth Cylindrical Type or non-projected
pole type or round rotor construction. The slots are covered at the top
with the help of steel or manganese wedges. The poles are not
projecting out and the surface of the rotor is smooth which maintains
uniform air gap between stator and the rotor. These rotors have small
diameters and large axial lengths. This is to keep peripheral speed
within limits. These are mechanically very strong and thus preferred
for high speed alternators ranging between 1500 to 3000 rpm. Number
of poles is usually 2 or 4. The prime movers used to drive such type of
rotors are generally steam turbines, electric motors.
A dc current must be supplied to the field circuit on the rotor.
There are two common approaches to supplying this dc power:
1. Supply the dc power from an external dc source to the rotor by means of slip rings and brushes.
2. Supply the dc power from a special dc power source mounted directly on the shaft of the synchronous
generator.
Synchronous generator stators are normally made of preformed stator coils in a double layer winding. The
winding itself is distributed and chorded in order to reduce the harmonic content of the output voltages
and currents.
II. Equations

a. Speed of rotation of a synchronous generator

Synchronous generators are by definition synchronous, meaning that the electrical frequency
produced is locked in or synchronized with the mechanical rate of rotation of the generator. The rate of
rotation of the magnetic fields in the machine is related to the stator electrical frequency

35
 120 f e
n m=
P
Where: n m= rotation of synchronous machine’s magnetic field, rpm

f e= electrical frequency, in Hz

P =number of poles
Example:
1. How many poles should each of the two machines have in order to convert 50-Hz power to 60-Hz
power?
Solution:
120 f e 120(50) 120(60)
n m= = =
P P1 P2
P 2 6 12
= =
P 1 5 10
Therefore, a 10-pole synchronous motor must be coupled to a 12-pole synchronous generator to
accomplish this frequency conversion.

b. Internal generated voltage of a synchronous generator

The magnitude of the voltage induced in a given stator

E A =√ 2 π N c ∅ f =k ∅ ω
Where: ∅ = flux in the machine

f = frequency of the machine

ω = speed of rotation of the machine
k = Constant representing the construction of the machine
Nc
k= (if ω ∈electrical rad / s)
√2
Nc p
k= (if ω∈mechanical rad / s)
2√ 2
Note: The internal generated voltage E A is directly proportional to the flux and to the speed, but the flux
itself depends on the current flowing in the rotor field circuit.
Example:

36
1. What is the internal generated voltage of a 2300-V 1000-kVA 0.8-PF-lagging 60-Hz machine.

c. Power and torque in synchronous generators

Not all the mechanical power going into a synchronous generator becomes electrical power out of
the machine. The difference between input power and output power represents the losses of the machine.

3 V ∅ EA
Pconv = sinδ
XS
3 V ∅ EA
τ ind = sinδ
ωm X S
Example:
1. How much power and torque must a 2300-V 1000-kVA 0.8-PF-lagging 60-Hz machine generator’s
prime mover be capable of supplying?
Solution:

37
 d. Efficiency and voltage regulation
A convenient way to compare the voltage behavior of two generators is by their voltage
regulation. The voltage regulation (VR) of a generator is defined by the equation
V nl −V fl
VR= ×100 %
V fl

Where: V nl is the no-load voltage of the generator

V fl is the full-load voltage of the generator

Note: 1. A synchronous generator operating at a lagging power factor has a fairly large positive
VR. 2. A synchronous generator operating at a unity power factor has a small positive VR.
Efficiency is given as
P out Pout
ƞ= ×100 %= ×100 %
P¿ P out + Plosses

III. Equivalent Circuit of a Three-phase

Synchronous Generator

In addition to the effects of armature

reaction, the stator coils have a self inductance and
a resistance.  If the stator self-inductance is called

38
𝐿𝐴 (and its corresponding reactance is called 𝑋𝐴 ) while the stator resistance is called 𝑅𝐴 , then the total
difference between 𝐸𝐴 and 𝑉∅ is given by
V ∅ =E A − jXI A − j X A I A −¿R A IA¿
V ∅ =E A − j X S I A −R A I A

Where X S - Synchronous reactance(X+ 𝑋𝐴)

The internal field circuit resistance and the external variable

resistance have been combined into a single resistor R f .

The per-phase equivalent circuit

V T =√ 3V ∅ ( for Y connection)

V T =V ∅ ( for ∆ connection)

Phasor diagram of a synchronous generator

Because the voltages in a synchronous generator are ac voltages, they are usually expressed as
phasors. Since phasors have both a magnitude and an angle, the relationship between them must be
expressed by a two-dimensional plot. When the voltages within a phase (V ∅ , E A , j X S I A 𝑎𝑛𝑑 R A I A )and
the current I A in the phase are plotted in such a fashion as to show the relationships among them, the
resulting plot is called a phasor diagram.

39
 Notice that, for a given phase voltage and armature current, a larger internal generated voltage E A
is needed for lagging loads than for leading loads.  Therefore, a larger field current is needed with
lagging loads to get the same terminal voltage, because E A = 𝑘∅𝜔 and 𝜔 must be constant to keep a
constant frequency. For a given field current and magnitude of load current, the terminal voltage is lower
for lagging loads and higher for leading loads. In real synchronous machines, the synchronous reactance
is normally much larger than the winding resistance R A , so R A is often neglected in the qualitative study
of voltage variations.
Zero power factor (ZPF) method
This method is also called potier method and this triangle is used to determine the voltage regulation of
the machine. This method is based on the separation of armature leakage reactance and armature reaction
effects. The armature leakage reactance 𝑋𝐿 is called Potier reactance in this method, hence method is also
called potier reactance method.
To determine armature leakage reactance and armature reaction mmf separately, two tests are performed
on the given alternator. The two tests are,
1. Open circuit test
2. Zero power factor test
The synchronous generator operating alone
The behavior of a synchronous generator under load varies greatly depending on the power factor of the
load and on whether the generator is operating alone or in parallel with other synchronous generator. We
shall disregard 𝑅𝐴 and rotor flux is assumed to be constant unless it is stated that the field current is
changed. Also, the speed of the generator will be assumed constant, and all terminal characteristics are
drawn assuming constant speed.
The effect of load changes on a synchronous generator operating alone
Assumptions:
- Field resistor has not been changed, field current is kept constant, hence flux is
constant.
- Generator rotor speed is maintained constant.
- Therefore 𝐸𝐴 is constant.
Load increase:
- An increase in the load is an increase in the real and/or reactive power drawn from
the generator.
- Such a load increase increases the load current drawn from the generator.
- Because the field resistor has not been changed, the field current is constant, and
therefore the flux ∅ is constant.
- Since the prime mover also keeps a constant speed 𝜔, the magnitude of the internal
generated voltage 𝐸𝐴 = 𝑘∅𝜔 is constant

40
 REFERENCES
https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Materials_Science/Supplemental_Modules_(Materials_Science)/M
agnetic_Properties/Magnetic_Hysteresis
file:///C:/Users/User/Desktop/ACDC
%20MACHINERY/9780073529547_Electric_Machinery_Fundamentals_5th_dc21.pdf
https://www.tcd.ie/Physics/study/current/undergraduate/service-teaching/notesandtests1112/Lecture
%2015.pdf
http://www.physics.usyd.edu.au/super/physics_tut/worksheets/regEM.pdf
https://circuitglobe.com/what-is-eddy-current-loss.html
https://www.electrical4u.com/torque-slip-characteristics-of-induction-motor/#:~:text=Torque%20Slip
%20Characteristics%20of%20Three,synchronous%20speed%20of%20the%20machine.
file:///C:/Users/User/Desktop/Ch-34-Induction-motor.pdf

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