Basin Research (1999) 11, 167–189

Role of fault interactions in controlling synrift sediment

dispersal patterns: Miocene, Abu Alaqa Group,
Suez Rift, Sinai, Egypt
S. Gupta,*1 J. R. Underhill,* I. R. Sharp†2 and R. L. Gawthorpe†
*Department of Geology and Geophysics, Grant Institute,
The King’s Buildings, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh EH9 3JW, UK
†Basin and Stratigraphic Studies Group, Department of
Earth Sciences, University of Manchester,
Manchester M13 9PL, UK

ABST RACT
Although fault growth is an important control on drainage development in modern rifts, such
links are difficult to establish in ancient basins. To understand how the growth and interaction
of normal fault segments controls stratigraphic patterns, we investigate the response of a
coarse-grained delta system to evolution of a fault array in a Miocene half-graben basin, Suez
rift. The early Miocene Alaqa delta complex comprises a vertically stacked set of footwall-
sourced Gilbert deltas located in the immediate hangingwall of the rift border fault, adjacent to
a major intrabasinal relay zone. Sedimentological and stratigraphic studies, in combination
with structural analysis of the basin-bounding fault system, permit reconstruction of the
architecture, dispersal patterns and evolution of proximal Gilbert delta systems in relation to
the growth and interaction of normal fault segments. Structural geometries demonstrate that
fault-related folds developed along the basin margin above upward and laterally propagating
normal faults during the early stages of extension. Palaeocurrent data indicate that the delta
complex formed a point-sourced depositional system developed at the intersection of two
normal fault segments. Gilbert deltas prograded transverse into the basin and laterally parallel
to faults. Development of the transverse delta complex is proposed to be a function of its
location adjacent to an evolving zone of fault overlap, together with focusing of dispersal
between adjacent fault segments growing towards each other. Growth strata onlap and
converge onto the monoclinal fold limbs indicating that these structures formed evolving
structural topography. During fold growth, Gilbert deltas prograded across the deforming fold
surface, became progressively rotated and incorporated into fold limbs. Spatial variability of
facies architecture is linked to along-strike variation in the style of fault/fold growth, and in
particular variation in rates of crestal uplift and fold limb rotation. Our results clearly show
that the growth and linkage of fault segments during fault array evolution has a fundamental
control on patterns of sediment dispersal in rift basins.

and sea-level controls, and the rate of sediment input

INT RODUC TION
Stratigraphic architecture in extensional basins is a result
of complex interactions between the rate at which accom-
modation is generated by fault-controlled subsidence
Present addresses: 1 T. H. Huxley School of Environment,
Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College of Science,
Technology and Medicine, RSM Building, Prince Consort
Road, London SW7 2BP, UK. E-mail: s.gupta@ic.ac.uk.
2 Norsk Hydro Research Centre, Sandsliveien 90, N-5020,
Bergen, Norway.
(Schlische, 1991; Gawthorpe et al., 1994; Contreras et al.,
1997). Although there have been numerous descriptions
of sedimentary evolution in synrift settings, our under-
standing of the controls on sediment production and
dispersal into rift basins remains poorly constrained
(Leeder et al., 1998). The role of fault growth in
controlling sediment dispersal systems and stratigraphic
development in rift basins is particularly poorly under-
stood. This stems from our lack of knowledge of: (1)
how normal fault systems evolve through time, and (2)
how depositional systems evolve in concert with these

© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd 167

S. Gupta et al.
fault systems. The stratigraphy of rift-related deposits
rarely enables us to make direct links with coeval struc-
tural controls, because faults located adjacent to synrift
strata generally do not preserve evidence of their timing
of activity in relation to depositional or erosional episodes.
This paper examines the role of fault segment inter-
action and linkage during development of the basin-
bounding fault system in controlling the sedimentary
architecture of synrift hangingwall successions. We
investigate sediment dispersal systems and stratigraphic
architecture associated with growing normal faults and
fault-related folds in a Miocene half-graben located on
the east margin of the Suez rift, Sinai, Egypt. We
reconstruct depositional systems in the Alaqa delta com-
plex, a transverse coarse-grained synrift clastic wedge
developed along the footwall margin of the El Qaa half-
graben (Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Gawthorpe et al.,
1990; McClay et al., 1998). On the basis of (i) structural
relationships, (ii) facies distributions and growth stratal
architecture, and (iii) palaeotransport indicators, we docu-
ment the growth of faults and coeval depositional systems
in a zone of overlap between two normal fault segments.
Our observations demonstrate that the development
and architecture of footwall-derived coarse-grained delta
systems in synrift settings are linked to the evolving
structural geometry of the basin-bounding fault system.
Sediment dispersal patterns of footwall-derived depos-
itional systems are controlled by fault segment inter-
actions during development of fault arrays. These results
imply that sedimentation in extensional basins will be
influenced by spatially and temporally complex patterns
of sediment influx.
FA U LT G R O W T H , S E G M E N T L IN K A G E
AND D RAINAGE PATT ERNS
Theoretical fault growth models predict that as displace-
ment grows on a fault, the length of the fault will also
increase by propagation of the fault tips (Walsh &
Watterson, 1988; Cowie & Scholz, 1992a,b). Recent
studies of normal fault growth have shown that large
normal fault systems form by the linkage of shorter fault
segments (Peacock & Sanderson, 1991; Anders &
Schlische, 1994; Trudgill & Cartwright, 1994; Wu
& Bruhn, 1994; Cartwright et al., 1995, 1996; Dawers &
Anders, 1995). Since normal fault systems usually com-
prise an array of overlapping and underlapping fault
segments (Morley et al., 1990; Schlische, 1992;
Gawthorpe & Hurst, 1993; Peacock & Sanderson, 1994;
Trudgill & Cartwright, 1994; Childs et al., 1995; Huggins
et al., 1995), it is likely that there should be interaction
between growing fault segments, causing changes in the
fault pattern through time. Obviously such growth pat-
terns should impact upon the evolution of drainage
patterns and sediment entry points at basin margins.
Recent studies have examined the possibility and impli-
cations of lateral growth of normal faults using geomor-
phological criteria in a neotectonic setting (Leeder &
168
Jackson, 1993; Jackson & Leeder, 1994; Stewart, 1996).
Nevertheless, an understanding of the relationship
between fault growth dynamics and drainage evolution
requires a stratigraphic perspective.
The importance of relay zones on synrift dispersal
patterns is well known, because these areas form topo-
graphic lows along the basin margin, and hence serve
to localize footwall-derived drainage (Crossley, 1984;
Frostick & Reid, 1987; Leeder & Gawthorpe, 1987;
Schlische, 1992; Gawthorpe & Hurst, 1993; Leeder &
Jackson, 1993; Eliet & Gawthorpe, 1995). However, as
noted by Jackson & Leeder (1994), these models have
treated rift-bounding faults and their discontinuities as
static structures. There have been few investigations of
the stratigraphic implications of fault segment growth
and linkage for patterns of synrift sedimentation. An
understanding of such relationships is important because
changes in along-strike fault patterns cause changes to
footwall catchment morphologies and reorganization of
drainage networks. Moreover, lateral variation in dis-
placement gradients along growing fault segments con-
trols temporal and spatial variation in accommodation
creation, and hence the three-dimensional architecture of
synrift deposits. In particular, fault growth and linkage
should: (i) influence the number and position of sediment
entry points at the basin margin, (ii) create structural
barriers that substantially modify the pattern of sediment
dispersal and (iii) cause synsedimentary deformation in
the basin.
GEOLOGICAL S E TTING
The Gulf of Suez rift is the north-western arm of the
Cenozoic Red Sea rift system (Fig. 1), which resulted
from the separation of Africa and Arabia in the late
Oligocene and Miocene (Patton et al., 1994; Sellwood &
Netherwood, 1984; Scott & Govean, 1985; Colletta et al.,
1988; Steckler et al., 1988). It is a NW-SE-trending
elongate trough up to 400 km long and 80 km wide. The
Suez rift consists of individual half-graben basins
bounded by major normal faults that define large tilted
fault blocks (Fig. 2A). These normal faults are planar,
and dip predominantly to the east in the northern and
southern parts of the rift, whereas in the central part of
the rift the faults dip to the west (Moustafa, 1976;
Colletta et al., 1988; Jackson et al., 1988; Patton et al.,
1994). Individual half-graben basins, generally about
10–30 km wide, formed in the hangingwalls of the normal
faults and filled with Neogene sedimentary deposits.
Rifting of the Gulf of Suez commenced in the late
Oligocene to early Miocene (Patton et al., 1994)
The El Qaa half-graben
The NW-SE-trending El Qaa half-graben is located on
the eastern margin of the central Suez rift on the Sinai
Peninsula, Egypt (Figs 1 & 2). Approximately 40 km long
and 15–20 km wide, the basin formed by eastward tilting
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
 Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal

33°00’ 33°10’ 33°20’

N
Mediterranean
Sea

Ha ha
m lf-g
Thal fault
Ha

m r
am ab
m f
m au

x
am lt

Sinai

Fa en
Fa

Study

ra
A’ Arabian
ra

area A

un
Plate
un

Baba-Sidri

Afr late
x fault

P
Abu

ica
Zenima x

n
NF

Re
Gu

dS
ea
B
lf o

x
Wadi
Baba
f
Sue

Baba Fig. 2B
Abu Plain
z

Rudeis x Synthetic
x

relay zone
Wadi x
A

28°50’
Basal syn-rift Sidri
unconformity Gebah fault
G.

Monocline
Ne

x
El Q
zza
zat

Syncline Wadi
x

x Feiran
a

x
a ha

Anticline
Nezzazat
lf-g

Major fault fault

x
r
x
ab

Feiran

28°40’
Ha
en

Plain
x

Quaternary
da

x
G.

hi
Ek

Miocene syn-rift
d
ma

on
m

x oclin
Eocene - Cretaceous e
Nubian Sandstones
Ab
uD

Precambrian Belayim
ur

10 km
ba

Basement
28°30’

Fig. 1. Geological map showing the location of the El Qaa half-graben on the eastern margin of the central Suez Rift, Sinai
Peninsula, modified after Moustafa (1993). Inset displays regional setting. Basin is bounded to east by footwall block formed by
Baba–Sidri, Gebah and Hadahid faults, and to the west by the hangingwall dipslope of the Nezzazat fault block. Location of
major footwall-derived synrift coarse-grained delta complexes is indicated: A – Alaqa and B – Baba dispersal systems. NF –
Nukhul fault. Box indicates location of study area.

of the Nezzazat fault block during the early Miocene
(Fig. 2). The structural outline of the basin narrows to
the north, terminating in the Baba area, where a structur-
ally complex zone of fault intersection separates the basin
from the Hammam Faraun half-graben to the north.
Miocene synrift strata are up to 1 km thick along the
eastern margin of the basin, and show marked thinning
and onlap to the west onto the hangingwall dipslope of
the tilted Nezzazat fault block, which defines the western
margin of the basin (Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977).
Prerift and synrift stratigraphy
The Cambrian to middle Eocene prerift stratigraphic
succession is 1 km thick overlying Precambrian crystalline
basement. It can be subdivided into three units: ‘Nubian

© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189 169

S. Gupta et al.

A Gulf of Suez
El Qaa
A W coastline E coastline half-graben A'
0 0
-2 -2
km -4 -4 km
-6 -6
-8 -8

Miocene evaporites
+ post-Miocene Pre-Miocene
Miocene clastics Basement

El Qaa
B Gebel
Coastline Nezzazat
half-graben Rift
shoulder
El Qaa G. Abu
Alaqa
1 Syncline Wadi Sidri 1

Depth in kilometres
Depth in kilometres

0 0
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4 -4
-5 -5
0 1 2 3 4 5 km

Abu Alaqa Gp Ras Malab Gharandal Gp

Gp

Eocene Cretaceous Nubian Basement

Fig. 2. (A) Cross-section of the Suez Rift across the central dip province (from Patton et al., 1994). For cross-section location
see Fig. 1 inset. Arrows indicate the present Gulf of Suez coastline. (B) Cross-section across the El Qaa half-graben in the
vicinity of Wadi Sidri (modified after Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977).

sandstones’, Cambrian – Early Cretaceous fluvial sand-

stones; a Late Cretaceous to lowermost Eocene mixed
Coarse-grained delta
carbonate–clastic succession; and an Eocene carbonate conglomerates
succession, the Thebes, Darat and Mokattam Formations
(Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977; Moustafa, 1992, 1993). Mheiherrat Fm
In the El Qaa half-graben, the onset of extension
Rudeis Formation
Burdigalian

during the early Miocene was marked by deposition 4

of the marginal to shallow-marine Nukhul Formation
(Fig. 3; Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977), which is of
Aquitanian age (sequence S10; Krebs et al., 1997). This
was followed by an episode of basin deepening, which
resulted in deposition of Burdigalian basinal marine marls
and clastics of the Rudeis/Mheiherrat Formation. At the
eastern basin margin, a thick succession of conglomerates
of the Abu Alaqa Group accumulated (Garfunkel & Turbidites &
Bartov, 1977). Although these are predominantly age-
offshore marls
3
equivalent to the Rudeis Formation, they range up into
Aquitanian

Formation

the middle Miocene Kareem Formation in the Sidri area. Lower shoreface/
2
Nukhul

The base of the synrift succession in the Sidri–Feiran offshore

study area is marked by an angular unconformity on
Eocene prerift units. The unconformity comprises either
an irregular fluvial erosion surface overlain by a basal
conglomerate (Unit 1) or a sharp, planar transgressive
surface overlain by marine deposits. Unit 1 consists of
fluvial conglomerates that infill <20-m deep palaeo-
channels incised into prerift bedrock (Fig. 3). Unit 2
1 Fluvial
Eocene Pre-rift
Fig. 3. Simplified stratigraphic column of Lower Miocene
extensional basin deposits in the Sidri–Feiran study area. Unit
4 forms the focus of study. Unit 5 is not indicated.

170 © 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189

 Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal

corresponds to the Nukhul Formation and is approxi-
mately 60 m thick, comprising shallow-marine shoreface
sandbodies interstratified with offshore marine mud-
stones. These are gradationally overlain by offshore marine
mudstones of Unit 3 and correspond to the lower Rudeis
Formation. Preliminary biostratigraphic results suggest
Units 2 and 3 are Aquitanian/early Burdigalian in age
(Gamal Azazi (GUPCO), personal communication).
Unit 4 comprises an aggradational, coarsening-up suc-
cession of interstratified conglomerates and sandstones,
approximately 600 m thick, which is located in the
immediate hangingwall of the overlapping Baba–Sidri
and Gebah faults (Fig. 4). Unit 4 represents deposits of
the Mheiherrat Formation (S20; Dolson et al., 1996;
Krebs et al., 1997), and marks development of the Alaqa
delta complex, the focus of this study. In the Sidri–
Feiran area, the presence of the calcareous nannofossil
Helicosphaera euphratis ( parallela) and the planktic foram
Globigerina ciperoensis indicates that the studied suc-
cession is probably lower Burdigalian (18–20 Ma) in age
(W. Krebs, personal communication 1998), although it
may range up into the Langhian in Wadi Sidri. Further
biostratigraphic dating is required. Unit 4 is succeeded
by a progradational succession of conglomeratic carbon-
ate–clastic Gilbert deltas (Unit 5) (Gawthorpe et al.,
1990), which are well exposed in Wadi Sidri and in the
hangingwall of the Feiran fault.
Units 1–3 record an overall deepening-upward trend,
which is followed by a shallowing-up trend into coarse-
grained deltaic deposits of Unit 4. A similar succession
is observed in the Wadi Baba area (Sharp et al., in press).
STRUC TURAL GEOME TRY OF THE
S ID RI – F EI RA N A RE A
The NW-striking down-to-the-west Baba-Sidri, Gebah
and Hadahid faults are the main basin-bounding normal
faults of the El Qaa half-graben and form an overlapping
fault array (Robson, 1971; Garfunkel & Bartov, 1977;
Moustafa, 1992, 1993; Sharp et al., in press) (Figs 1 &
4). In cross-sectional geometry, the faults form steeply
dipping (approximately 60°), down-to-the-west normal
faults at present-day erosion level (Moustafa, 1993;
Fig. 5). The geometry of the faults at depth is uncon-
strained. Fault-plane slickenline data indicate that faults
were essentially dip-slip with extension in a NE–SW
direction (Moustafa, 1992). The faults are characterized
by along-strike variation in throw (Moustafa, 1992; Sharp
et al., in press). The Baba–Sidri fault is a steeply dipping
NW–NNW-striking normal fault located along the

Fig. 4. Simplified geological map of Wadi Sidri and Wadi Feiran area, eastern margin of El Qaa half-graben (modified after
Moustafa, 1993). Location of localities discussed in text, measured sections and outcrop panels are indicated. Synrift strata in
hangingwall of Sidri fault segment define a NNW-SSE-trending growth syncline–anticline pair. Arrows show onlap relations
of synrift strata onto monoclinal flanks of growth folds at border fault zone. Key localities: S – Wadi Sidri; Al – south Alaqa;
It – Itha; EF – East Feiran; NF – North Feiran. Box on right shows location of photographic panoramas.

© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189 171

S. Gupta et al.
SW
km
A Unit 4
Gebel
Gilbert deltas
1 Abu Alaqa
Unit 5
0 t
Dara
es &
Theb & Esna s.
Sudr tulla Fm
, Ma ms
-1 ,W a t a
Raha & Quise e
bF
? a ton
Feiran
Malh
ian S
a n d s
fault
Nub
-2
Abu Alaqa
Group Eocene
Nukhul Fm
Sudr Fm.
& Rudeis Marls
Fig. 5. Simplified east–west structural cross-section across the eastern margin of the El Qaa half-graben in Sidri–Feiran area,
modified after Moustafa (1993). Note coarse-grained deltaic succession of Unit 4 in hangingwall of Sidri fault. See Fig. 4 for
location of section.
north-east flank of the half-graben (Fig. 4). A thick succes-
sion of SW-dipping synrift strata in its hangingwall are
juxtaposed against a variety of prerift rocks in the
footwall. The fault has a maximum throw of 2000 m
north of Wadi Sidri, with displacement decreasing to the
SSE (Moustafa, 1992, 1993). At its SSE end, displace-
ment across the fault decreases and is transferred to
several smaller fault strands. The Gebah fault (Figs 1, 2
& 4) juxtaposes Cretaceous prerift strata in the hang-
ingwall against Precambrian granitic basement in the
footwall south of Wadi Feiran, where it has a throw
of 1200 m (Moustafa, 1993). The throw on this fault
decreases to the north-west, where horizontal or gently
NE-dipping strata of the Nubian Sandstone Formation
are present in the hangingwall. The overlap zone between
the Sidri and Gebah faults shows an overlap of 12 km
and separation of 3–5 km: we later propose (cf. Evolution
of faulting) that it developed as a relay zone.
In map view, the faults mapped in the Sidri–Feiran
area are characterized by segmented zigzag trace geo-
metries (Fig. 4). The Gebah fault comprises the El Turr,
Mukattab–Feiran, East Sidri and North Sidri fault seg-
ments. Similarly, the Baba–Sidri fault between Wadis
Sidri and Feiran consists of two normal fault segments:
the NW-striking Sidri fault and the NNW-striking Alaqa
fault (Moustafa, 1993). The Alaqa fault segment tips out
to the SSE into an anticline in the Eocene Thebes
Formation and several fault splays. A complex zone of
fault linkage is developed between the Sidri and Alaqa
faults immediately to the east of Gebel Abu Alaqa
(Fig. 4).
The Sidri fault east of Abu Alaqa consists of a planar
fault plane that dips WSW at 65° (Figs 5 & 6). Strata in
the footwall of the Sidri fault south of Wadi Sidri mainly
comprise horizontal or gently NE-dipping Nubian sand-
172
Hangingwall NE
growth syncline A’km
Overlap Zone
1
Monocline
0
Sidri Gebah fault -1
fault
zone
-2
Raha, Wata
Matulla Fms. Nubian Sandstone
Malha &
Basement
Quiseb Fms.
stones. As the fault is approached, the Nubian strata
show a steepening of dip (10–20° to the west) in the
immediate footwall. In the immediate hangingwall to the
fault, in the zone of intersection of the Sidri and Alaqa
faults, well-bedded Cretaceous and Eocene prerift strata
dip at 40° to the WSW (Fig. 6A). These prerift strata
form a W-dipping monoclinal fold limb bounded to the
east by the planar master fault (Fig. 6B). The folded
zone preserved in the hangingwall typically has a width
of less than 500 m. Folded prerift strata of the Eocene
Mokattam Formation are overlain by synrift conglomer-
ates at an unconformable contact, which has mainly
been faulted.
Synrift strata are folded into an elongate NW-striking
hangingwall anticline–syncline pair parallel to the border
fault (Fig. 4). The syncline is approximately 2 km wide
and opens out to the SE. The eastern limb of the syncline
dips steeply to the west, defining a monoclinal fold limb
developed adjacent to the border fault. The western limb
of the syncline is gently dipping. Between Sidri and the
Abu Alaqa area, the synrift conglomerates are folded into
a steeply west-dipping monocline that runs parallel to
the Sidri fault. This NW-striking monocline can be
traced north of Wadi Sidri. East of Abu Alaqa, prerift
Eocene and Cretaceous strata are preserved in the core
of the monocline in the immediate hangingwall of the
Sidri fault. Maximum structural relief on the monocline
is midway between Wadi Sidri and Abu Alaqa. To the
west of the syncline, the N-striking intrabasinal Feiran
fault downthrows progradational deltas of Unit 5 (Fig. 5)
against basinal marls of Unit 4 in the footwall. The fault
becomes blind to the north in Wadi Sidri, where it forms
a growth anticline in synrift conglomerates. We interpret
the faulted monocline structure to have developed as a
consequence of folding of cover strata above an upward-
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
 Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal

(A)

ENE WSW
Basement in footwall to Onlap onto developing
Gebah fault fold above Alaqa fault Syn-rift coarse-grained
delta succession

Gebah fault fault

Alaqa
Onlapping
contact

Nubian Sandstone
40
˚ M
at
ul
18˚ la
Fm
39 Faulted
W

˚ .
at

basal syn-rift
Ra

Note rollover of Nubian

a

unconformity
Fm
ha

strata towards fault zone

Fm

Steeply dipping pre-rift

Cretaceous strata form
faulted monocline

Nubian Sandstone in zone of fault overlap Sidri fault ~50 m

between Sidri fault and Gebah fault - dips 65˚

Fig. 6. (A) Panorama and line drawing looking south across border fault zone east of Gebel Abu Alaqa. In the background,
basement rocks outcrop in footwall of Gebah fault. Flat-lying strata of Nubian Sandstone are present in the zone of overlap
between the Gebah fault and Sidri–Alaqa faults. Well-bedded Cretaceous strata in the immediate hangingwall to the Sidri fault
dip steeply (40°) to the WSW, and define W-dipping limb of a faulted monocline. Overlying synrift conglomerates, which rest
unconformably upon Eocene Mokattam Formation limestones, are also folded into a W-facing structure above fold in prerift
strata. Note that synrift strata show stratal convergence towards the crest of the monocline indicating that deposition of
conglomerates was contemporaneous with folding.

propagating blind normal fault (Patton, 1984; Withjack
et al., 1990; Schlische, 1995; Gawthorpe et al., 1997;
Sharp et al., in press) (see Tectono-sedimentary
evolution).
DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS A ND
AR CHITE CTUR E OF THE A LAQA
D ELTA COMPL EX
In the Sidri–Feiran area, transverse footwall-sourced
coarse-grained delta deposits of the lower Miocene part
of the Abu Alaqa Group form the Alaqa delta complex
(Gawthorpe et al., 1990). They comprise an aggradational,
coarsening-up succession, approximately 600 m thick,
which is located in the immediate hangingwall of the
overlapping Baba–Sidri and Gebah faults (Figs 3 & 4).
The delta succession thins and fines basinwards to the
west into deep marine mudstones, shaling out within
2.5 km of the Sidri fault. The large-scale coarsening-up
succession forms an overall shallowing-up package
resulting from overall progradation of the delta complex
over deeper water basinal marls. Distal prodelta sandy

© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189 173

S. Gupta et al.
(B)
Fig. 6. (B) View, looking south, showing detailed structure in
dip-orientated transect across Sidri fault zone. To extreme right
horizontally bedded Nubian Sandstone strata in footwall to
Sidri fault rollover towards fault zone. In hangingwall to fault,
prerift Cretaceous strata define monoclinal limb of a breached
monocline.
turbidites and marls coarsen upward into proximal pro-
delta turbidites and debris flow units, passing eventually
into coarse-grained proximal delta deposits.
We have reconstructed the depositional architecture of
the Alaqa complex based on sedimentological and photo-
geological analysis of exposures in the immediate hang-
ingwall to the rift border fault system. Extensive expo-
sures both parallel and perpendicular to major structural
elements allow broad-scale correlations to be made on
aerial photographs across the study area. The absence of
distinctive marker beds makes it difficult to establish
more detailed correlations. Nevertheless, mapping of
facies relationships within the coarse-grained delta
deposits, when coupled with analysis of the structural
geometry of the Sidri and Alaqa fault segments, permits
reconstruction of the evolution of depositional systems
in relation to fault growth. Below, the facies architecture
and stratal geometry of the Alaqa delta complex are
described in a number of locations along the Sidri–Alaqa
fault system, commencing with the zone of intersection
of the two fault segments at south Alaqa. An overview
of the sedimentary architecture is provided here. Detailed
174
facies descriptions of these depositional systems, together
with an analysis of depositional processes and environ-
ments will be presented elsewhere.
Transverse architecture at south Abu Alaqa
On the southern flank of Gebel Abu Alaqa, at south
Alaqa (Fig. 4), an approximately 500-m-thick succession
of proximal conglomerates of the Alaqa delta complex is
present in the hangingwall of the Sidri fault. This
succession comprises multiple, vertically stacked progra-
dational delta wedges. Individual delta wedges (between
15 and 30 m thick) comprise a distinctive foreset unit,
which consists of steeply dipping, medium- to thick-
bedded conglomerates that show planar to tangential
oblique geometries (Fig. 7). These foreset units show
rapid downtransport facies transition into proximal pro-
delta bottomset sandstone turbidite and conglomerate
debris flow deposits. We therefore interpret these wedges
as the deposits of Gilbert-type deltas (Postma, 1984,
1995; Postma & Roep, 1985; Colella et al., 1987; Colella,
1988). Only thin (<1 m thick) topset units are developed
above foreset wedges.
A cliff section at south Alaqa illustrates the facies
geometry and stacking patterns in a depositional dip-
orientated section located approximately 500 m west of
the Sidri–Alaqa fault zone (Fig. 9). At least 10 vertically
stacked Gilbert delta units that are vertically stacked in
an aggradational to slightly progradational pattern can be
delineated within a 150–200-m-thick succession in the
cliff face. Individual Gilbert deltas are separated from
one another by thin, subplanar horizons of shelly sand-
stones, rhodolith sandstones and calcarenites, which are
laterally persistent for hundreds of metres (Fig. 8). These
horizons are interpreted as transgressive intervals,
recording times of sediment starvation during which the
underlying Gilbert delta top was drowned and sub-
merged. No major erosional surfaces or basinward shifts
in facies are observed within or at the tops of the
progradational wedges. The foreset wedges pass seawards
into prodelta facies, form thick, parallel-bedded suc-
cessions on the western, distal part of the cliff face.
Further basinwards to the west, these proximal prodelta
deposits pass into interstratified marls and pebbly and
sandy high-density turbidite beds deposited in distal
prodelta environments. In these distal sections, a large-
scale coarsening-up succession is observed at the western
end of the south Alaqa outcrop panel. The lower part of
the proximal delta succession shown in Fig. 8 passes
down-dip within 500 m into distal prodelta facies, which
are overlain by proximal prodelta facies.
The vertically stacked Gilbert-deltas represent
repeated episodes of delta progradation punctuated by
abrupt transgression of the delta top and drowning of
the prograded delta. It is clear that the shoreline within
the Alaqa delta complex must have been relatively mobile,
stepping seawards and landwards up to several kilo-
metres to produce the observed stacking patterns (our
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
 Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal

Fig. 7. Photograph subparallel to

progradation direction (from right to
left) through a Gilbert coarse-grained
delta of delta progradational unit at
south Abu Alaqa. The thickness of the
unit is approximately 20 m. Steeply
dipping (approximately 20°) planar
foreset strata pass downslope to the left
into tangential toesets. Note abundant
wedge-shaped beds developed in
transition toeset region. Arrow indicates
final position of delta progradation.
Distinctive white horizon truncating
foresets is an algal calcarenite deposited
above a transgressive surface.

300 Sidri and Gebah faults, and subsequently have been

eroded during later uplift of the Baba–Sidri footwall.
Stacked subaqueous
P8 debris flow deposits
in the foresets of deltas Along-strike architecture on the western
250 flank of Gebel Abu Alaqa
The architecture of the distal part of Alaqa delta complex
Transgressive horizon
is observed on the west face of Gebel Abu Alaqa (Figs 4
& 10), perpendicular to the outcrop panel at south Abu
200 P7 Vertically stacked Alaqa. A N–S depositional strike profile illustrates dis-
Gilbert-delta
progradation tinct along-strike thinning and shale-out of prodelta facies
cycles packages, which are the lateral equivalents of the vertically
P6 stacked Gilbert deltas observed at south Alaqa. Over a
distance of 2 km, proximal prodelta conglomerates show
150
P5 Palaeotransport
lateral, northward facies transition into interbedded distal
Drowned
direction
turbidite sandstones and shales deposited in distal pro-
Solitary corals
delta top
delta areas. These relations suggest that the lower part
P4 Bivalve of Alaqa complex forms a planoconvex wedge, which
100 Shell hash fines and thins basinwards (westwards), and laterally to
Transgressive horizon Rhodoliths the north and south. In the upper part of the cliff face,
Delta
conglomeratic Gilbert-delta foreset deposits overlie finer-
P3 progradation grained facies towards the north, suggesting a northward
cycle
shift or expansion of the depocentre. The southern extent
50
P2 Transgressive
surface
of deposition cannot be determined owing to erosion.

P1 Conglomerate
Growth strata adjacent to the Sidri fault,
Sandstone
eastern flank of Gebel Abu Alaqa
0 Sandy
limestone
Synrift stratal relationships adjacent to the Sidri fault
meters m fs ms cs G P C B

clearly demonstrate the interaction of growing structures

Fig. 8. Sedimentary log of lower, proximal part of Alaqa delta
complex in zone of intersection between Sidri and Alaqa faults.
The section shows up to eight vertically stacked Gilbert delta
progradational cycles, separated by transgressive surfaces
marking delta-top flooding episodes.
unpublished observations). Only the subaqueous portions
of the Gilbert deltas are observed in the study area.
Subaerial delta plain and alluvial deposits may have
accumulated in the zone of overlap between the Baba–
and coarse-grained delta depositional systems. Structural
reltionships indicate that prerift Eocene rocks are folded
into a south-plunging syncline–anticline pair in the hang-
ingwall of the Sidri fault zone (Fig. 11). Synrift conglom-
erates laterally equivalent to the stacked deltas observed
at south Alaqa rest unconformably upon folded prerift
Eocene strata, and are themselves folded into an anticline–
syncline pair. The basal synrift unconformity defines the
surface envelope of the fold pair forming a steeply
dipping, and locally overturned, surface where traced

© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189 175

S. Gupta et al.

WSW Gilbert delta foresets

ENE
150 m prograde across Gebel Abu Alaqa
prodelta deposits Vertically stacked Gilbert-type
coarse-grained deltas
Sidri fault
Stacked prodelta zone
deposits

0m

Prodelta deposits onlap

Bottomset drowned delta front
beds
Stacked foreset
conglomerates
Shoreline breakpoint =
maximum seaward extent of Transgressive Surface
delta foreset progradation

Fig. 9. East–west photomontage and line drawing illustrating facies geometry and stacking patterns in a depositional dip-
orientated section across proximal part of Alaqa coarse-grained delta complex (section is subparallel to direction of progradation).
Section is located on southern side of Gebel Abu Alaqa in hangingwall of Sidri–Alaqa fault zone, which lies several hundred
metres to the east.

Fig. 10. North–south photomontage showing depositional strike profile across distal part of Alaqa delta complex exposed on west
face of Gebel Abu Alaqa. Note along-strike thinning and fining of lower coarse-grained delta succession from south to north
(right to left) (horizontal distance ~2 km).

onto the flanks of the fold (Fig. 11). Traced southwards
this contact decreases in dip into the adjacent growth
syncline. The unconformity surface is karstified, indicat-
ing that the fold limb was subaerially exposed prior to
synrift deposition. Lower synrift strata of Units 1–3 are
not present at this erosion level.
Synrift growth strata preserved in the hangingwall
syncline and adjacent to the fold limbs form a wedge-
shaped succession characterized by the following distinc-
tive features: (a) west-to-east and along-strike south-to-
north onlap onto the anticline forelimb formed by prerift
strata; (b) stratal convergence and thinning to the north
when traced onto the flanks and crest of the anticline;
(c) progressive shallowing of synrift dips up-section; (d)
southward stratal expansion and decrease in dips away
from the anticline into the adjacent hangingwall syncline.
These features indicate that the synrift wedge comprises
a composite progressive syntectonic unconformity (Riba,

176 © 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189

 Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal

W Along-strike expansion of growth Stratal convergence Growth E

Fig. 11. Photograph and line drawing of strata into hangingwall syncline towards crest of
growth anticline
Anticline

growth anticline and synrift stratal Progressively rotated

conglomerate wedges Erosional truncation Steeply dipping basal
relations along Sidri fault. Oblique view and onlap syn-rift unconformity
Karstified
to north along Sidri fault illustrates surface
stratal relationships both perpendicular Mokattam
Fm
and parallel to the strike of the fault.
Miocene synrift strata occur in an

at Fm

Fm
~200 m
asymmetric hangingwall syncline and

dr
Fm
ar

Su
D

s
shared limb of an anticline–syncline.

be
e
Th n
Nubia
Prerift strata form gently dipping

Fm
Nubian sandstones in footwall of Sidri

a
Rah
fault and steeply dipping Cretaceous to
Fm
Reverse
Eocene strata, which form a faulted Sidri
Fm
fault
lla
fault
tu

ta
monocline in the hangingwall. Note
Ma

Wa

development of a minor reverse fault, Gilbert delta conglomerates

accumulate in growth syncline
the tip of which is overlapped by synrift Pre-rift strata in monoclinal
conglomerates. This probably Basal syn-rift Onlap
flank of growth anticline
unconformity
developed as an accommodation feature
branching off the Sidri fault during fold Syn-rift coarse-grained Eocene Cretaceous
Nubian
delta succession Sandstone
limb rotation.

1976) formed as a result of deposition during on-going
deformation and uplift.
Onlap of synrift rocks onto prerift strata in the anticline
forelimb demonstrates that the prerift fold limb formed
a palaeotopographic feature prior to being overlain by
the synrift strata. This onlap indicates that structural
uplift, fold amplification and erosion commenced prior
to deposition of deltaic conglomerates. Individual delta
units show convergence and thinning towards the fold
crest, and divergence and expansion towards the south
away from the fold crest. Laterally discontinuous surfaces
of erosional truncation (intraformational unconformities)
are developed between synrift depositional packages in
crestal areas and on the upper flank of the monoclinal
fold limb. Low-angle truncations and internal onlaps are
apparent. The crest of the growth monocline developed
above the Sidri fault shows decrease in structural relief
to the south.
The distinct tapering and steepening of stratal packages
onto the crest of the fold, and progressive decrease in
tilting up stratigraphic section clearly indicate that synrift
deposition was influenced by syndepositional growth of a
monocline above the blind Sidri fault. Syndepositional
rotation of depositional surfaces on the fold limb during
fold amplification resulted in progressive rotation of suc-
cessive delta progradational units. Development of
internal erosion surfaces is probably related to uplift rates
on the anticline flanks exceeding sediment accumulation
rates.
It seems likely that the Gilbert deltas here were
prograding in a palaeotopographic low at the tip of a
growing anticline/monocline. Delta conglomerates acc-
umulated in the growth syncline, and on the shared limb
and crest of a developing syncline–anticline pair, though
they show marked attenuation when traced axially onto
areas with greater crestal relief.
Architecture along Sidri fault, Wadi Sidri
In Wadi Sidri, synrift conglomerates preserved in the
Sidri fault hangingwall are also folded into a distinct

© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189 177

S. Gupta et al.

anticline–syncline pair (Figs 4 & 12). Here too, stratal
thinning, convergence and steepening of dips when traced
from the hangingwall syncline onto the anticlinal forelimb
indicate that fold growth was concurrent with deposition
of synrift strata.
In detail, synrift strata comprise a coarsening-up suc-
cession, showing vertical transition from shallow-marine
sandstones through conglomeratic prodelta and sub-
sequently into foreset facies of Gilbert deltas that pro-
graded north-west (Fig. 12). Several stacked deltas are
preserved here, which show decrease in degree of rotation
upsection. Transgressive surfaces separating individual
deltas show decrease in dip from 40° to 15°, indicating
that the deltas were progressively rotated during depos-
ition (our unpublished observations). Progradation of
each successive delta occurred across the rotated top of
the underlying deltaic unit. Progressive rotation of the
deltas can be explained by syndepositional tilting of
the forelimb of a growing extensional fault-related anti-
cline, formed above the tip of the blind Feiran fault. As
the fold amplified, successive prograding deltas became
incorporated into the tilting fold limb.
North-west of Wadi Sidri, an intraformational uncon-
formity is observed within the deltaic succession in the
hangingwall of the Sidri fault (Figs 4 & 13). An older set
of steeply dipping conglomerates are folded into a steeply
dipping (#50°) south-facing monocline, and are uncon-
formably overlain and onlapped by a gently dipping
(#20°) succession of grey conglomerates. The onlap
surface is marked by reddening of the upper surface of
the steeply dipping, folded conglomerates, which is
suggestive of subaerial exposure and weathering of the
red-brown conglomerates. We propose that the red con-
glomerates were deposited and subsequently uplifted and

NE Growth Hangingwall SW
anticline growth syncline
Hangingwall
Footwall block block 75
Sidri fault Gebel
Abu Alaqa Onlap and convergence
towards growth
anticline Syn-rift
conglomerates
0m
Nubian Sandstone Prodelta sandstones
and mudrocks
Feiran fault
Precambrian
Basement

Wadi
Sidri Progradational
Sudr Fm deltas of Unit 5

Rotated foresets
of Gilbert deltas
Transgressive
surface Coarsening-up Shallow marine Proximal prodelta Gilbert delta Slumped
succession bottomset beds foreset delta front
Onlap sandstones

Fig. 12. Panorama and line drawing of overview south of Wadi Sidri showing stratal relationships of coarse-grained delta
depositional systems in hangingwall of Sidri fault. In background, synrift strata converge to east onto flanks of a prominent
growth anticline developed adjacent to fault zone.

178 © 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189


Reddened top to folded
N conglomerates
= subaerial erosion surface
Conglomerates folded
into a growth anticline
above Sidri fault
20˚
50˚
Intraformational
unconformity
Increase in dip toward
Steeply dipping red
conglomerates
Fig. 13. Photograph and line drawing of view looking east along growth monocline developed above Sidri fault, north Wadi
Sidri, showing intraformational unconformity and internal onlap relations of synrift coarse-grained delta conglomerates.
rotated on the flanks of a growing monoclinal fold raising
the fold profile above sea level. Subsequently, the grey
conglomerates were deposited against the folded and
exposed conglomerates following renewed submergence.
Increase in dip of the grey conglomerates towards the
monocline flank indicates that the fold continued to grow
syndepositionally. These relationships are observed less
than 1 km along-strike from the eastern side of Wadi
Sidri (Fig. 4), where the deltaic succession shows pro-
gressive rotation without development of a subaerial
unconformity between successive deltas. This lateral
transition suggests that there was along-strike increase in
the degree of structural uplift on the fold towards the
NW to account for the presence of the intraformational
unconformity.
Architecture adjacent to the Alaqa fault,
North Feiran
The lower part of Unit 4 exposed at south Alaqa can be
traced along-strike southwards to North Feiran in the
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal
S
Onlap of grey
conglomerates onto
folded red conglomerates
~100 m
Deltaic conglomerates in
growth fold hangingwall syncline
hangingwall of the Alaqa fault segment (Fig. 4). Here,
facies architecture in a distal part of the Alaqa complex
is well exposed in an E–W-orientated section perpendicu-
lar to structural elements at the southern tip of the Alaqa
fault segment (Fig. 14). The Alaqa fault zone comprises
a set of steeply dipping, planar normal faults that tip out
southward into a broad anticline developed in prerift
Thebes Limestones. In its immediate hangingwall, west-
dipping (#60°) nummulitic limestones of the prerift
Eocene Mokattam Formation define a monoclinal fold
developed above the Alaqa fault (Fig. 14).
The basal synrift unconformity forms an erosional
surface cut into the Mokattam Formation. Locally, it is
characterized by the development of palaeokarst cavities,
which are up to 2.5 m deep and 2 m wide, and show
subvertical to overhanging walls. Locally, cave-form geo-
metries are observed, which are filled with cobble-pebble
conglomerates containing clasts of Mokattam Formation,
Thebes Formation limestone and chert, set in a coarse
calcarenitic matrix containing abundant nummulite frag-
ments. These erosional features are indicative of subaerial
179
S. Gupta et al.

Mokattam Fm forming Karstified

Boulder conglomerate Major downlap surface Synsedimentary unconformity
slump folds monoclinal flank of
in Gilbert delta foresets at base of foreset unit growth fold surface

WNW ESE
Alaqa fault
regressive cycle
Gilbert delta

Distal prodelta
Unit 4 turbidites & debris flow
sandstones & conglomerates

udstones
Offshore m
Base of distal Unit 3 - Rudeis Fm
Gilbert delta Onlap of units 2 & 3
progradational unit Shoaling-up onto monocline flank
Unit 2 cycles
Nukhul Fm 60 m
Sharp-based
shoreface

Major flooding surface Mokattam Fm

at top of Unit 2
Shoreface sandstones Basal syn-rift Transgressive
& offshore mudstones unconformity ravinement Nummulitic Limestones
surface

Fig. 14. E-W-orientated panorama and line drawing across synrift strata in hangingwall of Alaqa fault at North Feiran. Note
onlap and pinchout of Units 2 and 3 against flank of the monocline, indicating this formed structural palaeotopography at the
onset of synrift sedimentation. Boulder conglomerates in upper cliff face, with distinct downlap surface at base, were deposited in
foresets of Gilbert deltas which prograded southwards, out of plane of photograph. Cliff face is parallel to depositional strike.

exposure and erosion of the upper limb of the monoclinal
fold surface prior to synrift deposition. Traced away from
the monocline, the angularity of the basal unconformity
decreases until prerift and synrift strata become subparal-
lel (Fig. 14). Above the unconformity, shoreface sand-
stones and offshore mudstones of Unit 2 (Nukhul
Formation) thin and onlap eastwards against the flanks
of the monocline (Fig. 14). Internally, shoreface sand-
stones amalgamate, show transition from gradationally
based shoreface bodies to sharp-based shorefaces, and
develop internal angular truncation surfaces between
successive shoreface bodies when traced eastwards
towards the monocline. The overlying offshore mud-
stones (Unit 3) also thin and pinchout to the east onto
the flanks of the monocline.
Karstification at the basal synrift unconformity on the
monoclinal fold, together with onlap and pinchout of
Units 2 and 3 against the fold limb, indicate that the
monocline formed during earliest synrift time. We pro-
pose that growth of the monocline above the blind,
upward-propagating Alaqa fault produced structural
palaeotopography at the basal synrift unconformity prior
to the onset of synrift deposition. This suggests that the
Alaqa fault nucleated during the early stages of extension
in the study area. Evidence of lateral variation in the
development of sharp-based sandstones and local angular
truncation surfaces points to syndepositional amplifi-
cation and rotation of a monocline limb above a blind
normal fault, as also observed in the Baba area
(Gawthorpe et al., 1997).
Unit 3 mudstones show an upward transition into
distal debris flow and turbidite conglomerates and sand-
stones of Unit 4 (Fig. 14), which represent distal prodelta
facies deposited on a low-relief slope apron, located
downdip of the delta front. These are overlain by boulder
conglomerates deposited in the foresets of Gilbert deltas
that prograded southwards. Along the flank of the Alaqa
fault monocline, these conglomerates rest directly on the
karstified basal synrift unconformity (Fig. 15). Units 2
and 3 are not present, having pinched out against the

180 © 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189


SSE
Transgressive surface
truncates delta foresets
Syn-rift prodelta
conglomerates
Planar foresets
Progradational
Gilbert delta
20 m
Darat Fm
Karstified
surface
Steeply dipping strata - forms monoclinal limb Prodelta
of Mokattam Fm of growth fold sandstones
Fig. 15. Line drawing showing oblique overview of synrift stratal relations, parallel to strike of Alaqa fault, at its southern tip at
East Feiran (view is to north-west). Stacked, south-prograding Gilbert-delta units overlie prerift strata on flank of a breached
fault-related monocline developed above Alaqa fault.
lower flanks of the monocline. Distinctive planar foresets
indicate southward progradation of the delta front along
the limb of the monocline parallel to fault strike (Fig. 15).
Slump structures within these coarse conglomerates indi-
cate synsedimentary slumping to the west, down the
monocline flank, and perpendicular to the palaeotransport
direction. This suggests that synsedimentary growth of
the fold caused episodic destabilization of the deltaic
deposits.
Clearly, synrift stratal geometries at North Feiran were
controlled by growth folding above the upward-
propagating blind Alaqa fault. This monocline influenced
synrift dispersal patterns by creating a structurally con-
trolled topographic barrier to transverse delta progra-
dation. Gilbert deltas were forced to prograde parallel to
the flank of the monocline. However, because synrift
strata here do not show marked stratal rotation, it is clear
that there was no major fold amplification along the
Alaqa segment. Displacement on the blind Alaqa fault
was not significant at this locality, probably because it is
positioned close to the tip of the fault.
S E DI M E N T D I SP E RS A L PAT T E R N S
AND PAL AEOGEOGRAP HY
The principal palaeotransport directions for progradation
of coarse-grained Gilbert delta units in the Sidri–Feiran
area are summarized in Fig. 16. These data are derived
from measurements of foreset dip directions in Gilbert
deltas, supplemented by clast imbrication and gutter cast
orientation data. Palaeotransport features indicate: (a)
E-to-W delta progradation in the Alaqa area, (b) N-to-S
progradation, parallel to the Alaqa fault segment, south
of Alaqa towards North Feiran, and (c) SW progradation
in the Sidri area.
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal
Transgressive surface NNW
Reefal Limestone
u lt
fa
a
aq
Mokattam Fm
Al
Basal syn-rift
unconformity Nubian
sandstone
The delta progradation directions indicated by delta
foreset-dips define an approximately radial dispersal pat-
tern. The area to the west of the intersection of the Sidri
and Alaqa fault segments is characterized by transverse
progradation of coarse-grained deltas. Adjacent to fault
segments, foresets indicate progradation parallel or
slightly oblique to fault trends; southwards along the
Alaqa fault segment and south-west in Wadi Sidri. These
patterns suggest that the apex of the Alaqa coarse-grained
delta complex was approximately located at the intersec-
tion of the Sidri and Alaqa fault segments.
The Alaqa coarse-grained delta complex thus forms a
point-sourced depositional system developed along the
basin margin fault system (Fig. 16). Facies distributions
indicate that coarse-grained deltaic deposits are thickest
and dominated by most proximal facies in the zone of
intersection of the Sidri and Alaqa fault segments at Abu
Alaqa. Here, vertically stacked Gilbert deltas dominate
the proximal basin, with the succession thinning and
fining into distal prodelta and deep-water, basin plain
environments to the north-west, west and south-east of
the entry point. Overall, the lower part of the Alaqa delta
complex forms a planoconvex wedge that thins and
interfingers with basinal marlstones basinwards and lat-
erally along strike. Although delta deposits are not pre-
served in the footwall of the Sidri–Alaqa fault, it is likely
that the zone of overlap between this and the Gebah
fault was also occupied by Gilbert delta deposits, possibly
grading into alluvial delta-plain deposits towards the
fault zone. Thus the progradation distance basinwards
was approximately 7 km, if fan sedimentation is taken to
have commenced at the trace of the Gebah fault.
Approximately 7 km north-west of the study area, in
south Wadi Baba, only basinal offshore marine marlstones
are present in the hangingwall of the Baba–Sidri fault
181
S. Gupta et al.

hangingwall of the Sidri–Alaqa fault, stratal relations

N clearly demonstrate that this fault was blind during
deposition of the deltaic conglomerates. The asymmetric
fault-controlled subsidence profile that is typical of half-
graben settings probably limited deltaic progradational
Sidri extents to within several kilometres of the border fault
fault Zone of fault
segment system. Fault-controlled subsidence was clearly great
intersection enough relative to sediment supply to trap coarse-grained
sediment very close to the eastern basin margin (Gordon
Wadi Sidri Alaqa & Heller, 1993).
Observations of growth-stratal relationships adjacent
Feiran
fault Unit 4 Alaqa to the Sidri fault indicate that synrift strata were influ-
fault enced by growth of normal fault-related monoclinal folds.
Towards the crest of growing monoclines, synrift sedi-
Unit 5 ments show onlap, convergence and the development of
laterally restricted erosional truncation surfaces. Away
North from monoclines, synrift strata expand into an asymmet-
0 km 2.5 ric west-verging hangingwall syncline. Onlap of the oldest
Feiran
synrift strata onto folded prerift strata in the Sidri
monocline demonstrates that this structure formed
Abu Alaqa Gp Nubian Sst palaeotopography at the onset of synrift deltaic accumu-
lation. Progressive rotation of synrift strata on the flanks
Nukhul Fm & Basement
Basement of folds and thinning of these strata onto the fold limbs
Rudeis Fm
provides conclusive evidence of syndepositional rotation
Basal syn-rift
Eocene unconformity of fold limbs and crestal uplift during early synrift times
(Fig. 17). Successively younger units dip into the syn-
Cretaceous Palaeocurrent clines at progressively shallower angles, suggesting that
folds grew by progressive limb rotation. Since growth
Fig. 16. Palaeotransport directions indicated by Gilbert-delta folds are overlain by synrift deltaic depositional systems,
systems in the Sidri–Feiran area. The directions are based sediment accumulation rates must have exceeded fold tip
primarily on dip orientations of foresets forming Gilbert deltas.
uplift rates, with the result that the Alaqa delta system
This indicates the pattern of sediment dispersal during
prograded above the deforming fold. Stratal architecture
development of Alaqa delta complex. The sediment entry point
is located in the zone of linkage between the Sidri and Alaqa during fold growth is dependent upon the balance
fault segments. The data indicate sustained transverse between rates of sediment accumulation vs. rates of
progradation of delta systems in Alaqa area, immediately crestal uplift of the growing fold (Burbank et al., 1996),
basinwards of zone of intersection of Sidri and Alaqa faults, and the latter being a function of the displacement field of
southwards progradation parallel to the Alaqa fault. the buried fault.
Along-strike onlap and convergence of synrift strata
north-westward towards the centre of the Sidri fault
segment. These represent interfan deposits developed suggest that there was along-strike variation in displace-
between the point-sourced Alaqa and Baba coarse-grained ment along this fault. North-directed onlap of the lower
delta systems. synrift conglomerates onto the Sidri monocline further
suggests that structural relief on the fold/fault increased
to the north, away from the tip of the fault. The degree
T ECT ONOS E DIMENTA RY EVOLUT ION
of rotation also decreases southwards along the Sidri
Our analysis of the Alaqa delta complex allows us to fault and towards the tip of the Alaqa fault segment,
reconstruct how fault growth impacts upon deltaic pro- synrift strata are tilted only gently to the west.
gradation, spatial variability of stratigraphic geometries During the early stages of fault growth, an anticline–
and patterns of sediment dispersal. syncline pair developed above the upward propagating
normal fault (Fig. 17A). Gilbert deltas prograded across
the developing anticline/monocline into the adjacent
Sedimentary response to fault growth and
hangingwall growth syncline. Slip on the underlying
folding
blind normal fault led to crestal amplification of an
The development of vertically stacked Gilbert deltas, as anticlinal/monoclinal fold, and progressive steepening
observed at south Alaqa, suggests that displacement on and rotation of the fold forelimb. Initially, sediment
the basin-bounding Gebah fault created accommodation accumulation rates exceeded the rate of forelimb uplift,
for accumulation of the deltaic succession (Fig. 4). resulting in onlap onto the folded prerift surface during
Although these strata are presently preserved in the early fold growth. During the intermediate stages of

182 © 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189


Subsidence in
A hangingwall syncline
Gilbert delta progrades
across growing fold
Sea Level
Marine
T
shales
Pre-rift Crestal
uplift
Transgressive Blind upward
T propagating
horizon
normal fault
Progressive rotation
B of Gilbert deltas
prograding across
fault-propagation fold
T
T
Fold limb rotation
Fig. 17. Schematic cross-sections illustrating sequential evolution of a growth anticline–syncline pair above an upward-
propagating normal fault and resulting growth stratal architecture along eastern flank of El Qaa half-graben. The growth syncline
in hangingwall to Sidri fault continuously deforms as fold amplitude increases and the growth syncline tightens. Syntectonic
units deposited on shared fold limb are separated by local intraformational unconformities. See text for details.
growth-syncline development, prerift and synrift strata
in the shared fold limb were rotated to steeper than
depositional dips (Fig. 17B). Continued deformation of
the growth syncline–anticline pair resulted in progressive
rotation of Gilbert deltas prograding transversely across
structures as a consequence of continued fold limb
rotation. Growth stratal relationships during this stage
reveal that deltaic strata overlapped the fold crest
(Fig. 11). Thus a composite progressive unconformity is
developed in the deltaic conglomerates (Riba, 1976),
which is characterized by a lower onlapping stratal wedge
and an upper overlapping one. These relationships sug-
gest that during the early stages of fold growth uplift
rates were high relative to sedimentation rates, whereas
during the later stages sediment accumulation rates were
greater than fold crest uplift rates. Locally angular
unconformities developed between syntectonic units
where uplift rates exceeded accumulation rates and the
fold limb became eroded (Fig. 17C). Eventually, as defor-
mation proceeded, the master normal fault propagated
through the fold limb breaching the monocline/anticline,
and preserving it in the immediate hangingwall of the
fault (Fig. 17D; Sharp et al., in press).
Evolution of faulting
Synchronous growth of both the Gebah and Baba–Sidri
faults (Fig. 1) during early synrift time is indicated by
vertical stacking of deltas at Abu Alaqa as a consequence
of displacement on the Gebah fault, and synsedimentary
deformation of the deltaic succession by the Sidri fault
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal
C Rotation of
Gilbert deltas
Onlap & intraformational
truncation
above growth fold
Convergence of deltaic units
onto flanks of growth fold
Subsidence Progressively rotated
D
Gilbert deltas on limb
of growth fold
Fault propagates to
Syn-rift deltas preserved in surface and growth
hangingwall of normal fault fold breached
in the Gebah hangingwall. The overall decrease in throw
along the Gebah fault to the north-west (Moustafa, 1993)
suggests that it may have propagated north-westwards
during border fault evolution, although this cannot be
unequivocally demonstrated. Moreover its segmented
zigzag trace geometry in map view suggests that it may
have evolved by the progressive capture and linkage of
smaller faults in the tip region of the propagating central
fault (Fig. 18).
Similarly, we think that activity on the Sidri fault has
propagated southward by linkage with the Alaqa fault
(Fig. 18). As it did so, Gilbert-delta systems prograding
across the Gebah–Sidri overlap zone were deformed by
growth of a fault-related monocline developed above the
blind Sidri fault. Decrease in degree of syndepositional
rotation of synrift strata along strike towards the tip of
the linked Sidri–Alaqa fault suggests that propagation of
this structure occurred by incorporation of the Alaqa
segment into the growing Sidri fault by linkage. This
interpretation is consistent with fault propagation by
migration of linkage events, as has been observed else-
where (Dawers & Underhill, 1999). However, the obser-
vation that the Alaqa fault tip was active at North Feiran
during early synrift time indicates that the fault grew to
its full length early in its evolution. Unfortunately, our
data do not allow us to constrain whether deltaic dispersal
was initially directed round the southern tip of the Sidri
fault, and the Alaqa segment developed later, or whether
the two segments both developed at an early stage, prior
to major delta progradation, forming monoclines at the
surface that controlled sediment dispersal (see later).
183
S. Gupta et al.

A Baba-Sidri fault
Footwall B Laterally propagating
tip of Gebah fault system ?
uplands Propagation of Gebah fault
may lead to northwestward:
Large catchment Maximum Clastic • Expansion of footwall catchments
displacement • Expansion of hangingwall subsidence
develops in ~ 2 km entry
Laterally propagating tip evolving relay zone point
Sidri fa
of blind normal fault u lt
Drainage Fault linkage
• Forms fault-propagation fold entry point Zone of
at depositional surface in relay zone Rotational stacking fault linkage
of prograding
• Causes progressive rotation of deltas on flanks of
deltas prograding across growth folds Gebah fault

Ala
relay zone
RELAY system
ZONE

qa
Aggradational stacking
• Reduction of accommodation of prograding deltas in

fau
due to propagation of zone of fault intersection

lt
fold tip
SE
El Qaa basin propagating
fault tip
Vertically
stacked Coarse-grained
delta complex Clastic
deltas in Gebah Basin plain
entry point
Gebah-fault fault
hanging wall system

Point-sourced Short, steep

C Hammam
Nukhul
Nukhul
fault fault
10 km
delta complex catchments on Faraun
footwall fault block basin
Linkage between
pr E
e- oc
Baba & Nukhul faults rif e
t s ne
tra &
Footwall Wadi Baba ta Cr
catchment growth Baba delta on eta
by divide migration complex Baba rif ce
Basin plain t s ou
fault NW growth of ho s
Fault scarp Gebah fault ? ul
bahada - forms de
r
line-sourced apron ? Si
dr Clastic entry point
i fa

Gulf o
ult in relay zone

Wadi Sidri

f Suez
? Alaqa delta
complex G
Gebah
eb fault
ah
? ? fa
ul
t
?
Present day
coastline

W
?

ad
?

iF
Sand supply from
Sand complex

eir
relay zone between
in basin centre

an
Gebah and
Hadahid faults ?

Fig. 18. Cartoons showing inferred evolution of faulting and sediment dispersal. (A) Alaqa dispersal system is focused in the
overlap zone (relay zone) between the Gebah and Baba–Sidri fault systems to produce a point-sourced delta complex.
Distribution of catchments, dispersal systems and facies distributions is schematic. (B) In detail, clastic entry point was localized
between the two initially blind Sidri and Alaqa monoclines. (C) Simplified palaeogeographical map of El Qaa half-graben
showing distribution of point-sourced delta complexes (Unit 4) during lower Burdigalian (Mheiherrat Formation).

Nevertheless, our stratigraphic evidence clearly shows
that the Sidri–Alaqa fault developed from the coalescence
of two independent fold/fault segments.
Catchment evolution in response to fault
growth
The Alaqa complex deltas were derived from erosion of
the Gebah footwall during growth of the Gebah fault.
Short, steep fault-scarp domain catchments became
eroded into the segmented range front, which fed their
sediment discharges into the El Qaa basin (Fig. 19A).
Exhumation of the Gebah footwall is indicated by an
up-section increase in prerift Mesozoic clasts and decrease
in Eocene limestone clasts within the synrift deltaic
succession at south Alaqa (Gupta, unpublished data).
Northward propagation of the Gebah range front would
have led to diachronous catchment development in its
footwall, and hence northward expansion of deltaic sedi-
mentation. This is consistent with field observations that
demonstrate that the basal deltaic conglomerates in Wadi
Sidri are younger than those observed at Abu Alaqa,
suggesting northward migration or expansion of the
delta complex.
Catchment evolution in the Gebah footwall is likely to
have been a strong function of differing erodibilities of
prerift bedrock lithologies. During the initial stages of
fault propagation, Thebes limestones would have formed
a resistant carapace on the flanks of monoclinal folds.
Rates of catchment expansion by divide migration were
probably relatively low during this stage, and as a result
rates of coarse sediment production would also have been
low (i.e. sediment supply was weathering-limited) (cf.
Leeder et al., 1998). With increased displacement on the
Gebah fault (after ~250 m) catchment streams would
have downcut through the Thebes limestone into under-
lying less resistant units. Once the contact between the
Thebes and the less resistant units became exhumed,
undercutting of the Thebes hillslopes would have been
possible either as a consequence of sapping or stream
erosion, and catchment expansion would have initiated
(cf. Hovius et al., 1998). This would have greatly
increased the efficiency of hillslope mass wasting by
bedrock landsliding and rockfall (cf. Allen & Hovius,
1998). As a result, the production of abundant gravelly
Thebes detritus would have increased, hence enabling
delta progradation. Undercutting of the Thebes limestone
is likely to have led to a marked increase in rates of
divide migration of footwall catchment basins (see also
Steckler & Omar, 1994). Clearly resistance to erosion of

184 © 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189


A C
Isolated faults - grow by tipline migration
Developing relay
zone catchment
Basin plain
B D
Fault tip Relay
zone
overlap and
interaction
Laterally propagating
normal fault and growth fold Prograding
point-sourced
delta complex
Fig. 19. Cartoon illustrating conceptual model for spatial and temporal variation in coarse clastic input from the footwall margin
of an extensional basin in response to patterns of fault growth and linkage.
footwall bedrock lithologies leads to a lag effect between
the initiation of footwall uplift and the onset of fan
sedimentation.
Response of sediment dispersal systems to
fault evolution
Major sediment entry points along the footwall margin
of extensional basins commonly develop either at zones
of fault segment overlap (relay zones) or where antecedent
drainage cuts across growing footwall uplifts (Leeder &
Jackson, 1993; Eliet & Gawthorpe, 1995). The location
of the point-sourced Alaqa complex adjacent to the relay
zone between the Baba–Sidri and Gebah faults (Fig. 1)
suggests that initiation of the delta progradation is closely
related to relay development. Propagation and overlap of
these faults led to focusing of deltaic feeder systems in
the topographically low relay zone (Fig. 18). Along the
length of the zone of fault overlap, drainage from catch-
ments in the growing Gebah footwall became integrated
to form a deltaic complex in the footwall of the blind
Sidri fault. As the Sidri fault propagated southwards into
the hangingwall of the Gebah fault, a southward-tilting
lateral gradient probably developed causing drainages
from the uplifting footwall to be directed southwards.
It is interesting to note, however, that the apex of the
coarse-grained delta system is not located at the southern
tip of the linked Sidri–Alaqa fault (Fig. 18). Facies
distributions and palaeotransport indicators demonstrate
that coarse-grained Gilbert deltas entered the basin in
the zone of linkage between the Sidri and Alaqa faults
(Figs 16 & 18). Stratal onlap relations suggest that both
the Sidri and the Alaqa faults nucleated at an early stage
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal
Incision rate > uplift rate
Newly linked => sediment dispersal
maintained
fault
Breached
relay zone
Uplift rate > incision rate
=> sediment dispersal
switched off
Newly linked
fault
Fault splay
stranded in
Basin plain hangingwall Drowned
delta complex
of extension, developing as fault-related folds at the
surface. The degree of rotation of Gilbert deltas is
greatest north of the zone of linkage. Stratal geometries
south of the zone of fault linkage do not show evidence
of marked rotation, suggesting that fold amplification was
not great here. In addition, south of the zone of linkage,
deltas prograded parallel to the Alaqa fault segment,
indicating that this structure formed a palaeotopographic
barrier to transverse sediment transport from the east.
Taken together, these features show that sediment disper-
sal in the Alaqa complex was constrained by the inter-
action of the Sidri and Alaqa fault segments. The close
association of the apex of the delta complex and the zone
of intersection of the Sidri and Alaqa fault segments
suggests that the transverse fluviodeltaic dispersal system
was focused in a topographic low between these two
growing fault segments (Fig. 18). Clearly sediment dis-
persal patterns are linked to the pattern of fault segment
interaction and linkage at a variety of scales.
The northward onlap and overlap of the Sidri anticline
by synrift strata indicates that, although this structure
formed a topographic feature controlling initial dispersal
of deltas, the deltas were eventually able to prograde
across the top of this growing structure. We suggest that
northward migration of fault-controlled subsidence in
response to propagation of the Gebah fault enabled
accommodation to be generated despite uplift on the
Sidri fault.
Because delta progradation occurred in pulses, separ-
ated by episodes of delta-top transgression, the detailed
pattern of shoreline migration may have been governed
by either high-frequency sea-level fluctuation, epi-
sodic fault-controlled subsidence or climatically driven
185
S. Gupta et al.
variations in sediment supply (Dorsey et al., 1997; our
unpublished observations). Nevertheless, the evolution
of normal faulting was the principal control on the
location of sediment influx into the half-graben. Our
interpretation is applicable to other examples of footwall-
derived delta complexes in the Suez rift. For example,
in the northern part of the El Qaa half graben, the Baba
coarse-grained delta complex is sourced from a major
zone of fault intersection between the Baba fault and the
Nukhul fault (which bounds the Hammam Faraun half-
graben) (Figs 1 & 18C). This dispersal system was derived
from footwall highlands to the north of the El Qaa half-
graben, focused between these two fault segments and
directed southwards into the basin. Interestingly, the
courses of Wadi Baba and Wadi Sidri coincide with the
locations of the Miocene Baba and Alaqa delta complexes,
respectively, indicating that the ancestral drainage has
persisted to the present day (Fig. 18C).
D I S CU S S IO N
Implications for sediment dispersal in
extensional basins
Recent studies of normal fault growth have shown that
large normal fault systems evolve by a process of fault
segment interaction and linkage (e.g. Anders & Schlische,
1994; Cartwright et al., 1995; Dawers & Anders, 1995).
As en echelon fault segments propagate vertically and
laterally, relay zones develop between overlapping fault
segments (Fig. 19). Eventually these may become brea-
ched through linkage of fault segments (e.g. Cartwright
et al., 1995, 1996). Development of large fault arrays is
likely to involve multiple episodes of tip propagation,
segment interaction and eventual linkage to build large
fault systems (Cowie, 1998; Gupta et al., 1998).
The development of relay zones causes changes in
basin margin physiography, which leads to the develop-
ment of long-lived point-sourced sediment dispersal sys-
tems along the footwall block. The location and evolution
of these sediment entry points will clearly be controlled
by interactions between en echelon fault segments.
Figure 19 shows a cartoon illustrating this conceptual
model for spatial and temporal variation in sediment
influx into an extensional basin in response to patterns
of fault growth and linkage. Major clastic dispersal
systems are initiated when fault segments propagating
towards each other generate footwall topography and
become subject to erosion (Fig. 19A). Drainage emerging
from footwall catchments becomes integrated in topo-
graphically low relay zones between laterally propagating
and overlapping fault segments. As fault overlap pro-
ceeds, gradients in evolving relay zones increase and
transport pathways are likely to be influenced by complex
patterns of linkage at the propagating tips of the fault
segments (Fig. 19B). Overlap zones are sites of distrib-
uted minor faulting, and as such will lead to complex
dispersal pathways. Eventually, with continued fault
186
overlap, the relay zone becomes progressively deformed
until eventually the faults may become linked by dev-
elopment of a breaching fault (Fig. 19C,D; Cartwright
et al., 1996).
Two end-member scenarios for drainage evolution
following linkage are plausible depending upon whether
river incision rates are able to balance rates of structural
uplift in the relay zone. If footwall drainage continues to
incise in the face of uplift of the relay zone, sediment
dispersal and deposition in hangingwall depocentres will
be maintained despite hard linkage and breaching of the
relay ramp (Fig. 19C). However, if river incision rates
are unable to balance rates of footwall uplift during the
transition to hard linkage, drainage may become reversed
and sediment dispersal switched off (Fig. 19D). The
consequence of this will be to abruptly terminate coarse
clastic supply into the basin at that location, redirect
drainage systems to an alternative entry point, and
preserve the previously deposited fan sediments in the
immediate hangingwall to the linked fault system. In this
scenario, relay zone catchments are not destroyed, but
simply their sediment efflux is directed elsewhere.
Drainage response to fault overlap and hard-linkage will
also be a function of the structural style of relay zone
breaching. Whether footwall or hangingwall breaching of
a relay zone occurs is likely to strongly determine the
preservation potential and stratal geometry of coarse
clastic accumulations at relay zones.
We propose that coarse sediment dispersal is likely to
be focused in evolving relay zones, and preferentially
preserved adjacent to zones of fault segment overstep
and linkage. Evidence of this can also be found elsewhere
in the stratigraphic record. In the Newark basin, along
the rifted margin of North America, for example, sites
of coarse clastic deposition show a striking correlation
with zones of fault segment overlap and linkage
(Schlische, 1992, his fig. 1). Overlap, interference and
linkage of segments during fault evolution may through
reorganization of drainage patterns potentially lead to
abrupt changes in basinal clastic supply. Such behaviour
is dependent on the balance between structurally con-
trolled rates of uplift, erodibility of uplifted bedrock,
rates of fluvial incision and the efficiency of bedrock
landsliding (Tucker & Slingerland, 1996). Since episodes
of fault growth and linkage are unlikely to occur simul-
taneously along an evolving border fault array, we predict
marked spatial and temporal variation in the development
of sediment entry points at a basin margin, and hence
the onset and cessation of sediment influx. Activation
and deactivation of entry points during development of
a linked fault array offers a plausible explanation for the
abrupt onset and cessation of coarse clastic progradation
observed in many rift basins. For example, along-strike
variation in the timing of fault overlap is likely to result
in a different age for onset of fan progradation along a
developing fault array. Testing of this model requires
data in which the onset and cessation of fan progradation
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189

can be more clearly defined in relation to fault array
evolution.
In summary, the development of fault-controlled top-
ography during the evolution of fault arrays plays an
important role in determining synrift facies distributions
and stratal geometry by its influence on catchment
evolution and sediment dispersal pathways. Analysis of
depositional patterns, when coupled with detailed infor-
mation of fault geometry, should allow major changes in
sediment supply to be linked to structurally controlled
drainage reorganization in the developing footwall.
C O N CLU S I O N S
Our analysis of synrift stratal geometries in a footwall-
derived delta complex in a half-graben basin allows
reconstruction of the interaction between footwall-
derived deltaic systems and evolving normal faults at the
basin margin. Our study allows us to draw the following
principal conclusions:
1 Fault-propagation folding related to the growth of
extensional faults is an important process in the early
development of normal fault systems. Monoclinal folds
develop above upward- and laterally propagating normal
faults, and can form topographic relief at the basin
margin.
2 Fold growth during fault propagation impacts on the
depositional geometries and stacking patterns of coeval
synrift sediments, as indicated by onlap relations and
growth strata. As coarse clastic depositional systems
prograde across growing folds, they become incorporated
and progressively rotated in fold limbs as folds become
amplified. Stratal architecture is characterized by the
presence of progressive rotation of strata, development
of progressive unconformities and marked attenuation
onto the flanks of growing structures.
3 Point-sourced, coarse clastic depositional systems are
preferentially developed adjacent to overlap or relay zones
between propagating en echelon fault segments. Since
these zones form topographic lows that serve as important
conduits for coarse clastic transport from footwall uplands
to hangingwall depocentres, their evolution has major
implications for predicting synrift sediment dispersal
patterns.
4 Coeval depositional units show marked along-strike
variability in stacking patterns depending on the position
of the depositional site adjacent to a fault segment. Stratal
architecture is linked to evolution of the fault zone
displacement field.
5 Field relations demonstrate that the growth and inter-
action of normal fault segments during fault array evol-
ution has a significant impact on the location and
evolution of sediment entry points, patterns of sediment
dispersal into hangingwall depocentres and synrift stratal
architecture. We predict significant spatial and temporal
variations in sediment delivery as a consequence of the
response of dispersal systems to evolving fault arrays.
Accurate reconstruction of fault array geometry and
© 1999 Blackwell Science Ltd, Basin Research, 11, 167–189
Fault interactions and synrift sediment dispersal
evolution has important consequences for predicting
stratigraphic variability and patterns of sediment dispersal
in extensional basins.
ACKNOWLE DGMENT S
This research was supported by funding from Norsk
Hydro, Amoco, Marathon Oil and NERC (Realizing Our
Potential Awards Scheme, Grant GR3/R9527). We thank
Roald Fœrseth, John Gjelberg, Leif Lømo, Gunn
Mangerud, Tom Dreyer, Mark Stephenson and Rodger
Connell for their support. We are also grateful to Bill
Wescott, Bill Krebs, John Dolson and the GUPCO
exploration team for helpful discussions. Discussions
with Nancye Dawers and Patience Cowie clarified our
thoughts on many aspects of fault growth. We thank
Mike Leeder, George Postma and Philip Allen for their
very helpful reviews. Our fieldwork in Egypt could not
have been possible without the logistical support of Sayed
Gooda. Gerard White and Yvonne Cooper (University
of Edinburgh) are thanked for their help in preparation
of figures and photographs. Finally, we acknowledge the
excellent structural studies in the Sinai by Dr Adel
Moustafa (Ain Shams University, Cairo), without which
our own work would not have been possible.
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