The LVDT: A Simple and Accurate Position

Sensor
August 1, 2005 By: David S. Nyce, Revolution Sensor
Sensors
The venerable linear variable differential transformer is
still a viable solution to many position sensing problems.
The linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) has
been around for many years, and remains a popular
sensing technology for absolute position measurement. It
is relatively simple, operates over a wide temperature
range, has extremely fine resolution, never wears out, and
has high reliability. It is well suited for linear
measurements over ranges from microns to several
inches, but becomes less cost-effective at stroke lengths
greater than ±3 in.
Differential transformers have been used in various forms
since the 1930s, and the LVDT became widely known in
the 1940s when Herman Schaevitz published his paper,
"The Linear Variable Differential Transformer," [1]. The
LVDT became more prevalent as an industrial sensor in
the 1960s with the advent of solid-state electronics. It is
still popular today, having undergone many
improvements in performance and having been adapted
for the miniaturization of the associated electronics.
Basic Configuration
The basic LVDT (see Figure 1) comprises three axially
aligned stationary coils having a central bore, and a core
that is movable within the bore. There is enough
clearance between the core and the bore to prevent them
from contacting each other. The center coil is the primary
of the transformer, and is driven by an AC waveform at a
constant frequency of 50 Hz to >10 kHz. The most
popular operating frequency is 2.5 kHz. The two
secondary coils are wired in series-bucking, so that their
voltages subtract.
Figure 1. The basic
configuration of an
LVDT comprises
three coils and a
movable core.
Operation
When the core is centered, an equal voltage amplitude is
induced across each secondary by transformer action. But
since the secondaries are wired in series-bucking, the
phases of the two voltages are opposite, thus producing a
theoretical output of zero V. When the core is centered, it
is called the null position (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. An LVDT is shown with the core positioned at
null (A) and at full scale (B).
Although the output voltage at null is theoretically zero,
there remains a small AC null voltage. The exact position
of the null is where the sum of the outputs of the two
secondaries is at its lowest value [2]. The null voltage,
however, is insignificant after demodulation. When the
core moves to one side of null, the voltage across that
coil increases as the other decreases. This results in a
steadily increasing voltage across the output leads. This
AC voltage is usually rectified or demodulated to
produce a DC output voltage that increases with the
distance of the core from null, and with a polarity
(positive or negative) that indicates the direction of travel
from null. So, for example, an LVDT with a range of
±1.000 in. could be demodulated to provide a DC output
signal of ±1.000 V. Then the output would linearly
change from +1 V at +full scale of +1.000 in., down to
zero V at null, and then continue to â 1.000 V when it
reaches negative full scale.
The venerable linear variable differential
transformer is still a viable solution to many
position sensing problems.
Since the core is coupled to the coils inductively, there is
no need for any mechanical contact between the moving
core and the stationary parts (e.g., coils, housing). The
LVDT is therefore a noncontact position sensor, which
means it can be used in applications that have continuous
motion and there will be no worry of its ever wearing
out. If a mechanical assembly is used for alignment of the
core assembly, however, then the assembly should be
evaluated for any lifetime limitations due to wear (see
Figure 3).
Figure 3. A typical LVDT has a cylindrical housing and
separate core (A). An LVDT of the gauge head
configuration has a built-in core assembly (B).
The LVDT is an absolute position sensor, providing a
reading of distance from a fixed datum, rather than from
a previous position. This is important in high-noise
industrial environments, and ensures that the correct
signal will be present after externally induced corruption
of the measurement data.
The LVDT in Figure 3(B) is called a gauge head
configuration. It includes a mounting thread, a core
holder that may include a spring or air pressure return,
and linear bearings that provide for core alignment. The
gauge head configuration has the advantages of easy
mounting and alignment. Even though there may
eventually be some wear of the mechanical elements, this
does not affect the accuracy of the sensor.
The LVDT core is fabricated from a nickel-iron alloy,
formulated to provide relatively high permeability for
induction and heat treated to ensure uniform permeability
along its length. The core usually has an internal thread
for mounting. For uniform permeability, the heat-treating
must take place after the core is cut to length and
threaded. A core extension rod is normally connected
between the core and the member to be measured. The
core extension rod must be fabricated from material with
low magnetic permeability, such as plastic, aluminum,
brass, or some stainless steels.
Figure 4. The elements of an LVDT signal conditioner
are shown in this block diagram.
Circuitry
The circuitry used to operate an LVDT is often called the
conditioning circuit, or the signal conditioner. A typical
conditioning circuit would include a voltage regulator,
sine wave generator, demodulator, and an amplifier (see
Figure 4).
It is important that the sine wave generator have a
constant amplitude and frequency, unaffected by time or
temperature. A sine wave can be produced by a Wien
bridge circuit, by filtering a square wave or staircase
wave, or by other suitable methods. Some representative
circuits are shown in Figure 5.
The demodulator may be a simple diode configuration or
a synchronous demodulator (see Figure 6). The simple
diode demodulator in Figure 6(A) may be used when the
AC output voltage from the LVDT secondaries is >1 V
F.S. If the signal voltage is lower than that, there may be
a temperature sensitivity problem due to differences in
the forward voltages between the two diodes. With a
higher signal voltage, the diode error is less noticeable.
Figure 5. A suitable sine wave to drive the LVDT
primary can be produced by using a Wien bridge circuit
or by filtering a staircase waveform.
In the synchronous demodulator of Figure 6(B), the two
field effect transistor switches alternately turn on and off
with timing that is synchronous with the sine wave that
powers the primary. The amount of phase shift required
between the primary and the demodulator switches
depends on the LVDT specification and on the length of
the leads between the LVDT and the signal conditioner.
Figure 6. A simple diode demodulator can be used (A),
or one with synchronous demodulation (B).
Sine wave generator, demodulator, and amplifier circuits
have been combined into commercially available ICs for
more than 20 years. Using one of these components will
substantially simplify the design of an LVDT signal
conditioner. The most popular are the NE5521 from
Philips (http://www.philipsusa.com/), and the AD
598/698 series from Analog Devices Inc.
(http://www.analog.com/). The Philips NE5521 has been
recently discontinued, however, reportedly due to the loss
of the mask in a fire. The Analog Devices parts are well
proven, but somewhat expensive. Alternatively, with the
advent of standard analog and digital device availability
in fine-pitch packages, the circuitry can be designed from
scratch and still fit inside an LVDT housing.
Technology Comparison
As previously noted, the LVDT has many excellent
qualities. Its principal limitations are the need for the
sensor housing to be longer than the stroke length for
linear performance, and the nonlinearity of the output
signal vs. input measurand. Some of the typical
performance parameters of an LVDT and the way they
compare to other technologies are shown in Figure 7.
Both the ratio of stroke length to housing length and the
nonlinearity problem can be ameliorated with special
conditioning techniques, one of which is to add a
microcontroller to make corrections. This is possible
because the LVDT has very good repeatability.
Figure 7: Comparison of Technologies.
LVDTs are also available as rotary devices. They operate
in a fashion similar to that of the linear models, but have
shaped cores that move over a curved path. They are
typically available for full-scale travel of up to 120° of
rotation. Figure 8 lists some LVDT and/or signal
conditioner suppliers and their URLs.
Summary
Although LVDTs have been around for a long time, they
are still a demonstrated solution to many position sensing
problems. Their robust construction provides high
reliability, while their performance is well-suited to most
applications with less than ±3 in. of travel. Keep them in
mind for your next position sensing application.
Figure 8: LVDT and Signal Conditioner Suppliers.