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Forensic engineering of firedamaged concrete
structures
Jeremy P Ingham, Halcrow Group Limited, London, UK
Abstract
There has never been a greater need for concrete buildings, tunnels and other infrastructure to
be assessed for damage following fires. Fortunately, even after a severe fire, concrete
structures are often capable of being repaired rather than demolished. This provides
substantial savings in capital expenditure and also savings in consequential losses, by
permitting earlier reoccupation.
An assessment of fire damage by competent persons is required before any repairs can be
specified. This paper describes the role of structural and materials engineers in the successful
fire damage assessment of concrete structures. Practical guidance is provided for conducting
the assessment, design and repair of firedamaged concrete structures in accordance with the
recently published Concrete Society Technical Report No. 68. Forensic engineering
procedures described include onsite inspection and testing techniques, laboratory testing,
structural fire analysis and concrete repair methods. This paper draws on a wide range of
actual fire damage investigations undertaken by the author and a case study example has been
included.
Introduction
The current cost of building fires in the United Kingdom is thought to exceed two million
pounds per day. This cost is likely to rise as the number of building fires has increased by
more than a 100% over the last 50 years (Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, 2006).
Consequently, there has never been a greater need for structures to be assessed for fire
damage to ensure safety and enable appropriate repairs to be planned and executed.
Concrete buildings most likely to be subjected to fire include private and public buildings
such as offices, warehouses, and schools. Other common scenarios involve vehicle fires in car
parks or concrete lined tunnels. In recent years a number of notable fires have occurred during
construction of concrete framed buildings, when formwork and falsework has caught fire (see
case study). Fortunately, even after a severe fire, concrete structures are generally capable of
being repaired rather than demolished. Tovey and Crook (1986a and 1986b) summarised the
information gathered from over 100 concrete structures damaged by fire. They found that the
structures almost always performed well in response to fire. They were usually repaired and
returned to service and in the few cases that they were demolished and replaced, it was
generally for reasons other than the firedamage.
Jeremy P Ingham 2
In the aftermath of a fire the focus is on immediate measures for securing public safety. In the
United Kingdom, the fire brigade will usually secure the building and may call in the local
Building Control Officer to make an assessment of the stability of the structure. The Building
Control Officer may require parts of the structure to be demolished or stabilised before
anyone else can enter. The responsible person, as defined in the Regulatory Reform (Fire
Safety) Order (Stationary Office, 2005), is required to assess whether the building is deemed
safe. The Fire and Rescue Authority can request that compliance with the requirements of the
fire safety order is demonstrated. The authority has the powers to take enforcement action
where requirements of the order are breached or where a serious risk to life exists. Often the
authority will also be notified by the police, who may investigate arson.
Once the immediate concerns have been dealt with, the insurer or owner may commission an
investigation of the damage. These parties will often have a major interest in finding the most
cost effective solution for repairing the structure. Guidance for the assessment, design and
repair of firedamaged concrete structures is provided in Concrete Society Technical Report
No. 68 (Concrete Society, 2008) and in the most concise terms this consists of the following
stages:
1) Preliminary inspection
2) Assessment of damage
3) Testing and detailed assessment
4) Design of repairs to structural elements
5) Implementation of structural repairs
The effect of fire on concrete structures
Concrete is the worlds most widely used construction material, commonly being made by
mixing Portland cement with aggregate and water. Structural elements are frequently built
with reinforced or prestressed concrete. Reinforced concrete is a concrete usually containing
steel bars, which is designed on the assumption that the two materials act together in resisting
tensile forces. Prestressed concrete contains steel tendons that are tensioned to introduce
precompression, which counteracts tensile stresses during service to prevent cracking. When
considering the effects of fire on structural concrete elements, the deleterious reactions
undergone by both concrete and any reinforcement bars (or prestressing tendons) must be
considered.
Heating of concrete in a fire causes a progressive series of mineralogical and strength changes
that are summarised in Table 1. The strength of concrete after cooling varies depending on
temperature attained, the heating duration, mix proportions, aggregates present and the
applied loading during heating. For temperatures up to 300°C, the residual compressive
strength of structuralquality concrete is not significantly reduced, while for temperatures
greater than 500°C the residual strength may be reduced to only a small fraction of its original
value. 300ºC is normally taken to be the critical temperature above which, concrete is deemed
to have been significantly damaged.
Spalling of the surface layers is a common effect of fires and may be grouped into two or
more types. Explosive spalling is erratic and generally occurs in the first thirty minutes of the
fire. A slower spalling (referred to as 'sloughing off') occurs as cracks form parallel to the fire
affected surfaces leading to a gradual separation of concrete layers and detachment of a
section of concrete along some plane of weakness, such as a layer of reinforcement. Also, the
Jeremy P Ingham 3
thermal incompatibility of aggregates and cement paste causes stresses which frequently lead
to cracks, particularly in the form of surface crazing. Thermal shock caused by rapid cooling
from firefighting water may also cause cracking. In addition, concrete structures may deform
during fire by expansion and bowing. Such deflections can have an important impact on the
future serviceability of the structure.
The colour of concrete can change as a result of heating, which is apparent upon visual
inspection. In many cases a pink/red discolouration occurs above 300°C, which is important
since it coincides approximately with the onset of significant loss of strength due to heating.
Any pink/red discoloured concrete should be regarded as being suspect and potentially
weakened (Ingham and Tarada, 2007).
Table 1 – Summary of mineralogical and strength changes to concrete caused by
heating (modified from Concrete Society TR68, 2008).
Heating Changes caused by heating
temperature
Mineralogical changes Strength changes
70–80°C Dissociation of ettringite
105°C Loss of physically bound water in aggregate and cement Minor loss of
matrix commences, increasing capillary porosity strength possible
120–163°C Decomposition of gypsum (<10%)
250–350°C Oxidation of iron compounds causing pink/red
discolouration of aggregate. Loss of bound water in Significant loss of
cement matrix and associated degradation becomes strength
more prominent commences at
450–500°C Dehydroxylation of portlandite. Aggregate calcines and 300ºC
will eventually change colour to white/grey
573°C 5% increase in volume of quartz (αto βquartz
Concrete not
transition) causing radial cracking around the quartz structurally useful
grains in the aggregate after heating in
600–800°C Release of carbon dioxide from carbonates may cause a temperatures in
considerable contraction of the concrete (with severe excess of 500–
600ºC
microcracking of the cement matrix)
800–1200°C Dissociation and extreme thermal stress cause complete
disintegration of calcareous constituents, resulting in
whitishgrey concrete colour and severe microcracking
1200°C Concrete starts to melt
1300–1400°C Concrete melted
Significant loss of strength of reinforcing steel may occur while the steel is at high
temperature. This is usually responsible for any excessive residual deflections of structural
elements. However, recovery of yield strength after cooling is generally complete for
temperatures up to 450°C for cold worked steel and 600°C for hot rolled steel. Above these
temperatures, there will be a loss in yield strength after cooling.
The effect of high temperature is more critical on prestressing steel than on reinforcing steel.
At temperatures of 200400ºC, steel prestressing tendons show considerable loss of strength
(>50% loss at about 400°C). In terms of reuse, a more important factor is the effect of heat
upon the tension of the steel. Loss of tension may be contributed to by loss of elastic modulus
in the concrete, increased relaxation due to creep and nonrecoverable extension of tendons.
Jeremy P Ingham 4
Assessment of firedamaged concrete structures
The aim of an assessment of a firedamaged concrete structure is to propose appropriate repair
methods or to decide whether demolition of elements or the whole structure is more
appropriate (Concrete Society, 2008). The assessment process should determine the
following:
· Depth of damage (spalling) or loss in strength of the concrete.
· Loss in strength of steel reinforcement or embedded structural steel elements.
· Damage or distress to the structure from movement, settlement or imposed loads.
The assessment can follow the two methodologies described below (these can be used
separately or combined depending on the nature of the fire and of the structure):
1. Test the firedamaged concrete to directly assess the concrete quality. Typically
involving:
· Visual inspection and hammer soundings.
· Nondestructive testing.
· Coring, sampling and subsequent laboratory testing.
2. Estimate the fire severity so as to deduce temperature profiles and hence to calculate the
residual strength of the concrete and the reinforcement. Typically involving:
· Evaluation of fire severity – This can be performed based on debris examination or
applying numerical evaluation methods, such as computational fluid dynamics.
· Determination of temperatureprofiles – This may be performed by applying numerical
methods or simpler calculation techniques.
· Assessment of residual strength of the concrete.
With both methodologies, the result will be a damage classification, which may be used in the
selection of appropriate repair techniques. Ideally this should be provided on drawings
showing the actual condition of the firedamaged structure. The assessment needs to provide
sufficient information to finally prepare detailed drawings with instructions on how to repair
the structure.
Onsite investigation techniques
Prior to undertaking onsite inspection the investigator must be satisfied that the structure is
safe to enter. Temporary falsework (props) may be required to secure individual members and
stabilise the structure as a whole. The primary onsite investigation technique is the visual
inspection, which records such features as collapse, deflections, spalling, cracking, surface
crazing and smoke damage. Importantly, certain colour changes of the concrete aggregate can
often be used to identify the presence and extent of damaged material. A small hammer is
commonly used to conduct a tapping survey that will detect hollow sounding delaminated
material.
A site specific classification scheme for the damage would normally be devised. An example
of such a fire damage classification is provided in Concrete Society TR 68, and this is
Jeremy P Ingham 5
summarised in Table 2. This classification uses visual indications of damage to assign each
structural member a class of damage from 0 to 4. Each damage classification number has a
corresponding category of repair, ranging from decoration to major repair.
Table 2: Simplified visual concrete fire damage classification (modified from Concrete
Society TR 68, 2008).
Features observed
Class of
damage Finishes Colour Crazing Spalling Reinforcement Cracks/
bars Deflection
0 Unaffected Normal None None None exposed None
(Decoration
required)
1 Some Normal Slight Minor None exposed None
(Superficial peeling
repair
required)
2 Substantial Pink/red i) Moderate Localised Up to 25% None
(General loss exposed
repair
required)
3 Total loss Pink/red i) Extensive Considerable Up to 50% Minor/
(Principal Whitish exposed None
ii)
repair grey
required)
4 Destroyed Whitish Surface Almost total Up to 50% Major/
(Major grey ii) lost exposed Distorted
repair
required)
i) Pink/red discolouration is due to oxidation of ferric salts in aggregates and is not always present and
seldom in calcareous aggregate.
ii) Whitegrey discolouration due to calcination of calcareous components of cement matrix and (where
present) calcareous or flint aggregate.
A number of complimentary nondestructive techniques can be used to assess material
strength insitu. These include Schmidt (rebound) hammer, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV),
penetration resistance test (Windsor probe) and drilling resistance tests. Samples of damaged
material (and undamaged references) may be removed for laboratory investigation. Concrete
samples are typically obtained by diamond drilling of cores or by careful extraction of lump
samples, while samples of steel reinforcement are cut out using an angle grinder.
Laboratory based investigation techniques
A number of laboratory tests are available to aid the investigator in determining concrete and
reinforcement condition. Of the concrete tests the two most useful are petrographic
examination and compressive strength. Petrographic examination is the definitive technique
for determining the depth of fire damage in concrete (Ingham, 2007). It is performed in the
laboratory by experienced concrete petrographers, using optical microscopes in accordance
with ASTM C856 (ASTM International, 2004). The technique involves visual and lowpower
optical microscopical examination of the asreceived sample, followed by a more detailed
highpower optical microscopical examination of prepared thinsection specimens.
Jeremy P Ingham 6
It is advisable to assess the strength of the unaffected concrete to confirm the design
assumptions. The most direct method of estimating the compressive strength of concrete is by
testing core samples cut from the structure. The test procedure is given in Part 3 of BS EN
12390 (British Standards Institution, 2002). The main value of core testing is to determine the
original strength of the concrete and hence should be carried out in areas that have not been
affected by the fire.
A number of other laboratory tests have been used to investigate firedamaged concrete.
These include thermoluminescence, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and mineralogical
analysis by Xray diffraction (XRD). Thermal analytical methods used include differential
thermal analysis (DTA), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and derivative
thermogravimetric analysis. To date, these methods have been used mainly for academic
research and are not routinely used to investigate firedamaged structures commercially.
Samples of steel reinforcement can be laboratory tested for yield, elongation and tensile
strength. The results should be compared with the relevant standard for the grade of steel
concerned.
Modelling of firedamaged concrete
As an alternative or addition to inspection and testing, predictive fire engineering tools, such
as empirical equations or computer modelling used in design, can be used to assess the fire
severity in the structure. These predictions are based on the fire load in the building,
ventilation conditions, compartment size and shape and properties of wall linings. An estimate
of the fire time:temperature curve can be based on the heatrelease, the characteristic
temperatures at flashover, the expected gas temperatures during a fully developed phase of the
fire and the area of window openings providing ventilation to the fire. An assessment with a
finite element Computer Fluid Dynamics program might then allow hot spots to be
determined. Once a credible time:temperature distribution within the compartment has been
determined, an assessment of the temperatures within the concrete is possible without relying
solely on site inspections and laboratory testing. As a result of heat transfer analysis it may be
possible to reduce the amount of testing.
Design and implementation of repairs
Repairs to a firedamaged concrete structure should provide the strength, fire resistance,
durability and appearance appropriate to the proposed use and projected design life of the
building (Concrete Society, 2008). The intended use for the structure and the objectives for
the repair should be agreed with the building owner before commencing the design of the
repair work. In addition, the local authority should be consulted regarding the need for
approval under the Building Regulations for the proposed reinstatement and repair works. In
general the design of the repaired sections of the building should comply with current codes
of practice. However, the damaged structure may have been designed to out of date codes of
practice. Consequently, it may be necessary to formulate a strategy for the structural design of
the repaired section of the building which is compatible with the original design. In addition,
limitations may be imposed on the restoration of listed buildings. The designer should prepare
key plans of each area showing the location of the repair work. In addition to the design
drawings and details, the designer should prepare detailed material and workmanship
specifications for the repair work. These should include full information on the repair
materials and the means for ensuring quality control.
Jeremy P Ingham 7
Regarding repair, at best members may need no structural repair as they have sufficient
residual strength, and at worst demolition will be required. Concrete element repair will
usually include three main processes, the first being removal of damaged concrete by using
either power breakers or water jetting. After a severe fire it is likely that the second process
will comprise removal of weakened reinforcement and connection of new reinforcement. The
final part of the repair stage will comprise reinstatement of concrete to provide adequate
structural capacity, the necessary durability and fire resistance, and an acceptable appearance.
An alternative to providing additional steel reinforcement is the use of fibre composite
materials (FRPs), bonded to the surface using an epoxy adhesive.
Case study of a firedamaged concrete structure
An investigation was commisioned to determine the extent of damage caused by a large fire to
the reinforced concrete frame of a tenstorey building (Figure 1). The fire started during
construction and swept through three whole storeys, burning the wooden formwork that was
still insitu after placement of the upper three concrete floor slabs.
Overall, although the fire damage was widespread it was generally confined to the outer 5
30mm of the slab soffits and some columns. Strength testing of steel reinforcement samples
indicated that the steel had not been significantly affected by heating. It was concluded that
despite the fire being widespread the damage was eminently repairable. This had been aided
by the presence of formwork that had afforded the slab soffits a degree of protection and the
relatively short duration of fire due to a lack of combustible material. The combined findings
of the phase 1 and 2 assessments were then used to draw up a repair specification.
The repairs comprised cutting away the damaged cover concrete on the floor slab soffits and
columns, either by water jetting or manual breaker (usually a large hammer action drill). It
was found that removing concrete manually using a breaker was more accurate than water
jetting as the water jet left variations in relief of up to 30mm on the concrete surface (Figure
3). This high relief did have the advantage of providing an excellent key for the sprayed
concrete to adhere to the original concrete. The original depth of cover was then reinstated
with sprayed concrete (Figure 4).
Jeremy P Ingham 8
Figure 1: View of the exterior of the firedamaged reinforced concrete frame.
Figure 2: View of the interior of the firedamaged reinforced concrete structure
showing a spalled floor slab soffit and burnt formwork debris.
Jeremy P Ingham 9
Figure 3: Comparison of two different methods of removing damaged concrete.
Water jetting (left) with much greater relief than manual removal by breaker (right).
Figure 4: Application of sprayed concrete to repair a floor slab soffit following removal
of the firedamaged concrete.
Jeremy P Ingham 10
Conclusions
The relatively high fire resistance of concrete means that firedamaged concrete structures are
often capable of being repaired rather than replaced. Specialist structural and materials
engineers can assess firedamaged structures using a range of forensic engineering techniques
and specify wellinformed repair solutions. As an alternative to demolition this can provide
substantial savings in capital expenditure and also savings in consequential losses, by
permitting earlier reoccupation. Current guidance for undertaking assessment, design and
repair of firedamaged concrete structures is available in Concrete Society TR 68.
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concrete. ASTM C85604. Philadelphia, USA.
British Standards Institution, 2002. BS EN 12504. Testing hardened concrete, Part 3:
Compressive strength of test specimens, BSI, London.
The Concrete Society. 2008. Assessment, design and repair of firedamaged concrete
structures. Technical Report 68. The Concrete Society, Camberley.
Ingham, J. P. 2007. Assessment of firedamaged concrete and masonry structures: the
application of petrography. Proceedings of the 11th Euroseminar on Microscopy Applied to
Building Materials, Porto, 59 June 2007.
Office of the Deputy Prime Minister. 2006. Fire statistics, United Kingdom, 2004. ODPM
Publications.
The Stationary Office. 2005. The Regulatory Reform (Fire Safety) Order, Statutory
Instrument 2005 No. 1541, Stationery Office, London.
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Institute, Detroit, 1–14.