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Classification of Steels,
Welding of Mild Steels
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 32
Figure 4.1
As far as the main quality classes are concerned, the steels are classified in accor-
dance with their main characteristics and main application properties into unalloyed,
stainless and other alloyed steels.
As regards unalloyed steels a distinction is made between unalloyed quality steels
and unalloyed high-grade steels.
Regarding unalloyed quality steels, prevailing demands apply, for example, to the
toughness, the grain size and / or the forming properties.
Unalloyed high-grade steels are characterised by a higher degree of purity than
unalloyed quality steels, particularly with regard to non-metal inclusions. A more
precise setting of the chemical composition and special diligence during the manufac-
turing and monitoring process guarantee better properties. In most cases these
steels are intended for tempering and surface hardening.
Stainless steels have a chromium mass fraction of at least 10,5 % and maximally
1,2 % of carbon. They are further classified in accordance with the nickel content and
the main characteristics (corrosion resistance, heat resistance and creep resistance).
Other alloyed steels are classified into alloyed quality steels and alloyed high-grade
steels.
Special demands are put on the alloyed quality steels, as, for example, to toughness,
grain size and / or forming properties. Those steels are generally not intended for
tempering or surface hardening.
The alloyed high-grade steels comprise steel grades which have improved properties
through precise setting of their chemical composition and also through special manu-
facturing and control conditions.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 34
The European Standard DIN EN 10027-1 (September 1992) stipulates the rules for
the designation of the steels by means of code letters and identification numbers.
The code letters and identification numbers give information about the main applica-
tion field, about the mechanical or physical properties or about the composition.
The code designations of the steels are divided into two groups. The code designa-
tions of the first group refer to the application and to the mechanical or physical
properties of the steels. The code designations of the second group refer to the
chemical composition of the steels.
l Y = Prestressing steels
e.g. Y1770C, Y1230H
l T = Black plate and tin plate and strips and also specially
chromium-plated plate and strip
e.g. TH550, TS550
Figure 4.3
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 35
An example of the code designation structure with reference to the usage and the
mechanical or physical properties for “steels in structural steel engineering“ is ex-
plained in Figure 4.4.
Figure 4.4
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 36
For designating special features of the steel or the steel product, additional symbols
are added to the code designation. A distinction is made between symbols for spe-
cial demands, symbols for the type of coating and symbols for the treatment con-
dition. These additional symbols are stipulated in the ECISS-note IC 10 and depicted
in Figures 4.5 and 4.6.
Symbol1)2) Coating
+A hot dipped
+ AR aluminium, cladded by rolling
+ AS coated with Al-Si alloy
+ AZ coated with Al-Tn alloy (>50% Al)
+ CE electrolytically chromium-plated
+ Cu copper-coated
+ IC inorganically coated
+ OC organically coated
+S hot-galvanised
+ SE electrolytically galvanised
+T upgraded by hot dipping with a lead-tin alloy
+ TE electrolytically coated with a lead-tin alloy
+Z hot-galvised
+ ZA coated with Al-Zn alloy (>50% Zn)
+ ZE electrolytically galvanised
+ ZF diffusion-annealed zinc coatings (galvannealed, with diffused Fe)
+ ZN nickel-zinc coating (electrolytically)
1
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
2
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure S may precede,
for example +SA
br-er-05-05.cdr © ISF 2004
Figure 4.5
+A softened
+ AC annealed for the production of globular carbides
+C work-hardened (e.g., by rolling and drawing), also a distinguishing
mark for cold-rolled narrow strips)
+ Cnnn cold-rolled to a minimum tensile strength of nnn MPa/mm²
+ CR cold-rolled
+ HC thermoformed/cold formed
+ LC slightly cold-drawn or slightly rerolled (skin passed)
+Q quenched or hardened
+S treatment for capacity for cold shearing
+ ST solution annealed
+U untreated
1
) The symbols are separated from the preceding symbols by plus-signs (+)
2
) In order to avoid mix-ups with other symbols, the figure T may precede,
for example +TA
Figure 4.6
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 37
Figure 4.7 shows an example of the novel designation of a steel for structural steel
engineering which had formerly been labelled St37-2.
The steel St37-2 (DIN 17100) is, according to the new standard (DIN EN 10027-1),
designated as follows:
S235 J 2 G3
impact energy ³ 27 J
Figure 4.7
Steel
Stahl C Si Mn P S Cr Al Cu N Mo Ni Nb V
S355J0
£0,20 £0,55 £1,60 0,040 0,040 / / / £0,009 / / / /
(St 52-3)
S500N
0,21 0,1 - 0,6 1 - 1,7 0,035 0,030 0,30 0,020 0,20 0,020 0,1 1 0,05 0,22
(StE500)
P295NH
£0,26 £0,35 ³0,6 £0,05 £ 0,05 / / / / / / / /
(HIV)
S355J2G1W 0,40 - 0,25 - 0,02 -
£0,15 £0,50 0,5 - 1,3 0,035 0,035 / / £0,30 £0,65 /
(WTSt510-3) 0,80 0,5 0,12
S355G3S £0,1 -
£ 0,18 0,7 - 1,5 £0,05 £ 0,05 / / / / / / / /
(EH36) 0,35
Steel
Stahl Tensile strength
Zugfestigkeit RmRm yield point ReeHH
Streckgrenze Bruchdehnung
elongation A A
after fracture impact energy AVV
Kerbschlagarbeit
[N/mm²] [N/mm²] [%] [J]
0°C -20°C
S355J2G3
510-680 355 20-22 27 27
(St 52-3)
S500N
610-780 500 16 31-47 21-39
(StE500)
P295NH
460-550 285 >18 49 (bei +20°C)
(HIV)
S355J2G1W
510-610 355 22
(WTSt510-3)
S355G3S
400-490 355 >22 76 (bei -10°C)
(EH36)
br-er-05-08.cdr © ISF 2004
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8 depicts the chemical composition and the mechanical parameters of dif-
ferent steel grades. The figure explains the influence of the chemical composition on
the mechanical properties.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 38
The steel S355J2G2 represents the basic type of structural steels which are nowa-
days commonly used. Apart from a slightly increased Si content for desoxidisation it
this an unalloyed steel.
S355G3S belongs to the group of shipbuilding steels with properties similar to those
of usual structural steels. Due to special quality requirements of the classification
companies (in this case: impact energy) these steels are summarised under a special
group.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 39
The steel grades are classified into four subgroups according to the chemical com-
position (Fig. 4.9):
● Alloyed steels (except high-speed steels), if, at least for one alloying element
the content is ≥ 5 percent in weight
● High-speed steels
by the factor as indicated in Fig. 4.9 / Table 4.1 and rounded up to the next whole
number.
The alloyed steels are labelled with the code letter X, a number which again com-
plies with the hundredfold of the mean value of the range stipulated for the carbon
content, the chemical symbols of the alloying elements, ordered according to de-
creasing contents of the elements and numbers which in sequence of the designating
alloying elements refer to their content.
High-speed steels are designated with the code letter HS and numbers which, in the
following sequence, indicate the contents of elements:: tungsten (W), molybdenum
(Mo), vanadium (V) and cobalt (Co).
1. XX XX (XX)
Sequential number
The digits inside the brackets are intended
for possible future demands.
Figure 4.10 specifies the material numbers for the material main group „steel“.
Figure 4.10
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 42
The influence of the austenite grain size on the transformation behaviour has been
explained in Chapter 2. Figure 4.11 shows the dependence between grain size of the
austenite which develops during the welding cycle, the distance from the fusion line
and the energy-per-unit length from the welding method. The higher the energy-per-
until length, the
bigger the austen-
ite grains in the
13
Energy-per-unit length in kJ/cm HAZ and the width
Austenite grain size index according
11
9 12 18 36 of the HAZ in-
9 creases. Such
to DIN 50601
7
coarsened austen-
ite grain decreases
5
the critical cooling
3
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 mm 1,0 time, thus increas-
Distance of the fusion line
br-er-05-11.cdr © ISF 2004 ing the tendency of
Influence of the energy-per-unit the steel to harden.
length on the austenite grain size
Figure 4.11
With fine-grained structural steels it is tried to suppress the grain growth with alloying
elements. Favourable are nitride and carbide forming alloys. They develop precipita-
tions which suppress undesired grain growth. There is, however, a limitation due to
the solubility of these precipitations, starting with a certain temperature, as shown in
Figure 4.12. Steel 1 does not contain any precipitations and shows therefore a con-
tinuous grain growth related to temperature. Steel 2 contains AIN precipitations which
are stable up to a temperature of approx. 1100°C, thus preventing a growth of the
austenite grain.
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 43
4
0 Steel 3 contains mainly titanium car-
2
bonitrides of a much lower grain-
Medium fibre length
-1
10
8 4 refining effect than that of AIN. Steel 4
6
-193
700
-185
-180
inversely propor- 600 -170
-155
tional to the root of 500
structural steels are concerned, this means the improvement of the mechanical prop-
erties without any further alloying. Modern fine-grained structural steels show im-
proved mechanical properties with, at the same time, decreased content of alloying
elements. As a consequence of this chemical composition the carbon equivalent
decreases, the weldability is improved and processing of the steel is easier.
steels
Based on the
unalloyed alloyed
Figure 4.15
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 45
casts, rimmed and semi-killed steels are causing problems. “Killing” means the re-
moval of oxygen from the steel bath.
Figure 4.16 shows cross-sections of ingot blocks with different oxygen contents.
Rimming steels with increased oxygen content show, from the outside to the inside,
three different zones after solidification: 1.: a pronounced, very pure outer envelope,
2.: a typical blowhole formation (not critical, blowholes are forged together during
rolling), 3.: in the
centre a clearly
segregated zone
where unfavourable
elements like sul-
phur and phospho-
0,025 rus are enriched.
0,012
0,003
During rolling, such
Figure 4.17 shows important points to be observed during welding such steels. Due
to their enrichment with alloy elements, the segregation zones are more transforma-
tion-inert than the
outer envelope a b
Figure 4.17
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 46
Therefore, “ touching” such segregation zones during welding must be avoided by all
means.
In the case of low-
alloy steels, the
Microstructures Average Brinell Hardness (Approximately)
problem of HAZ
Ferrite 80
hardening during
Austenite 250
because the critical cooling rate with these low C-contents is so high that it normally
won’t be reached within the welding cycle. In general, such steels can be welded
without special problems (e.g., S. 235).
In addition to car-
Mn Cr + Mo + V Cu + Ni
bon, all other alloy
IIW C - Äqu. = C + + +
6 5 15
elements are im-
Mn Cr + Mn
Mo Ni Cu
Stout C - Äqu. = C + + + +
6 10 20 40 portant when it
Si Mn + Cu + Cr Ni Mo V
Ito and Bessyo PCM = C +
30
+
20
+ + + + 5B
60 15 10 comes to marten-
C - Äqu.PLS = C +
Si Mn + Cu Cr Ni Mo V
+ + + + +
site formation in
Mannesmann 25 16 20 60 40 15
the welding cycle,
Si + Mn + Cu + Cr + Ni + Mo + V
Hoesch C - Äqu. = C +
20
as they have sub-
Mn + Mo Cr + Cu Ni
Thyssen C ET = C+ + +
10 20 40 stantial influence
Br-er-05-20.cdr
C-Äqu.= carbon equivalent (%) PLS = pipeline steels PCM = cracking parameters (%)
© ISF 2002
on the transforma-
tion behaviour of
Definition of C - Equivalent
steels (see
Figure 4.20 Fig. 2.12 ). It is not
appropriate just
to take the carbon content as a measure for the hardening tendency of such steels.
To estimate the weldability, several authors developed formulas for calculating the
so-called carbon equivalent, which include the contribution of the other alloy ele-
ments to hardening tendency, (Fig. 4.20). As these approximation formulas are em-
pirically determined 250
Tp ==750
Tp 750CET - 150- 150
CET
100
delta Tp
delta Tp= 62
= 62
0,35
HD HD0,35
- 100- 100
200 80
150 60
Tp [° C]
50 20
Q = Q1=kJ/mm
1 kJ/mm
0
CET = =0,33
CET
d =d30
= 30mmmm
Q =Q1= 1kJ/mm
kJ/mm
%
0,33 %
Kohlenstoffäquivalent
Carbon aquivalent CET [%] Wasserstoffgehalt
Hydrogen contentHDof des
theSchweißgutes
weld metal [%]
thickness, heat
50 CET = 0,4 % CET = 0,2 % CET = 0,2 %
CET = 0,4 % CET = 0,2 % CET = 0,2 %
0
40
delta Tp [°C]
delta Tp [°C]
-20
20
-60
of importance, the 10
CET
CET ==0,4
HD
HD =
2 2
0,4
%%
-80
d =d50
= 50mm
mm
QQ== 11kJ/mm
kJ/mm HDHD=8=8
0 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5 4 4,5 5
0,35
Heat input Q [kJ/mm]
Wärmeeinbringen
tion of the preheating temperature Tp, the formula as shown in Figure 4.21 is used.
The effects of the chemical composition which is marked by the carbon equivalent
CET, the plate thickness d, the hydrogen content of the weld metal HD and the heat
input Q are considered.
The essential factor
to martensite forma-
Tmax
tion in the welding
°C
cycle is the cooling
Temperature T
time. As a measure
800
of cooling time, the
DT
time of cooling from
500
t8/5 800 to 500°C (t8/5) is
defined (Fig. 4.22).
t800 t500 s
Time t The temperature
br-er-05-22.cdr © ISF 2004
A 10mm
ity of a weld. Peak 1000
tion of the 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 s 300
measurement and Time t
br-er-05-23.cdr © ISF 2004
With the use of thinner plates with complete heating of the cross-section during weld-
ing, the heat conductivity is only carried out in parallel to the plate surface, this is the
two-dimensional heat dissipation.
With thicker plates, e.g. during welding of a blind bead, heat dissipation can also be
carried out in direction of plate thickness, heat dissipation is three-dimensional.
three-dimensional
Calculation equation for two- and
three-dimensional heat dissipation heat dissipation,
Figure 4.24
t8/5 it independent
of plate thickness.
In the case of two-dimensional heat dissipation it is clear that t8/5 becomes the shorter
the thicker the plate thickness d is. Provided, the cooling times are equal, the plate
thickness can be calculated from these relations where a two-dimensional heat dissi-
pation changes to a three-dimensional heat dissipation.
Figure 4.25
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 50
welding method. This dependence is described by the relative thermal efficiency ŋ’.
The influence of
weld factor
Type of weld 2-dimensional 3-dimensional
the groove ge- heat dissipation heat dissipation
ometry is covered 1 1
by seam factors
0,45 - 0,67 0,67
according to
Fig. 4.26. Empiri-
0,9 0,67
cally determined,
these factors were 0,9 0,9
introduced for an
br-er-05-26.cdr © ISF 2004
easier calculation.
Weld factors for different
For other groove weld geometries
Fig. 4.27 shows the transition of the two-dimensional to the three-dimensional heat
dissipation for two different preheating temperatures in form of a curve according to
the equation of Fig. 4.24. Above the curve, t8/5 depends only on the energy input, but
not on the plate thickness, heat dissipation is carried out three-dimensionally.
5
cooling time t8/5 [s] cooling time t8/5 [s]
10 15 20 25 10 20 30 40 50
cm
TA=20°C TA=200°C
Plate thickness
3 60
30 80
3-dimensional 3-dimensional
40 100
2
150
60
100
1
2-dimensional 2-dimensional
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Heat input E.h.Nn [kJ/cm]
Figure 4.27
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 51
4
tively large working
-short arc
range is available
3,25 4 5 6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,6 2,5 3,0 4,0 5,0
Manual metal arc welding MAGC-, MAGM- SA-welding
for arc welding
method
25
Energy-per-unit length
20
Æ6,0mm x 450mm
15
Æ5,0mm x 450mm
10 Æ4,0mm x 450mm
Æ3,25mm x 350mm
5 Æ2,5mm x 350mm
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 mm 600
run-out length
br-er05-29.cdr © ISF 2004
Energy-per-unit length as a
function of the run-out length
Figure 4.29
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 52
50
40
T0 200°C
30
150°C
20 100°C
20°C
10
d = 7,5 mm
7
50
40
Cooling time t8/5 in s
30 T0 200°C
150°C
20 100°C
20°C
10
d = 10 mm
7
50
40
30 T0 200°C
150°C
20 100°C
20°C
10 d = 15 mm
7
50
40
30 T0 200°C
150°C
20 100°C
transition to 20°C
3-dimensional
10 heat flow d = 20 mm
7
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 kJ/cm 50
br-er05-30.cdr
Heat input E © ISF 2004
Figure 4.30
50
With the transition to thicker plates,
mm
Transition thickness dÜ 40
aera of
the diagrams in Fig. 4.31 apply. The
3-dimensional
30 0 °C
heat flow
2 50
°C 20 °C
00
upper part of the figure determines
T0 ° C 1
1 50
20 °C whether a two-dimensional or a three-
20
15
area of
dimensional heat dissipation is pre-
2-dimensional
10
heat flow sent. For the three-dimensional heat
9
8
7
dissipation, the lower diagram applies
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 kJ/cm 50
Heat input E where the same information can be
50
s
40 determined, independent of plate
30 thickness, as with Fig. 4.30.
Cooling time t8/5
20 °C
0
25 °C
15 0
T 20 °C
0
0
15 °C
0
10 °C
20
10
9
8
7
5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 kJ/cm 50
br-er05-31.cdr
Heat input E © ISF 2004
Dependence of
E, T0, t8/5 And dÜ
Figure 4.31
25
in Fig. 4.32 and
20
the used shielding
gas is one of the 15
short arc mixed arc spray arc
parameters. Weld- contact tube distance ~15mm contact tube distance ~19mm
welding current, or 3,5 4,5 5,5 7,0 8,0 9,0 10,5 m/min
br-er-05-32.cdr
Wire feed © ISF 2004
MAG - weldind
40 47
Heat input E
SA - welding
Heat input E
20s
5 cracking tendency 6
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 40
Plate thickness
br-er05-33.cdr © ISF 2004
Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding
Figure 4.33
60 70
butt welds
kJ/cm T0= 150 °C kJ/cm
50 59
toughness affection
45 53
30s
MAG - welding
40 47
Heat input E
SA - welding
Heat input E
25s
35 41
30 20s 35
25 29
15s
20 23
15 10s 18
10 6s 12
5 cracking tendency 6
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 40
Plate thickness
br-er05-34.cdr © ISF 2004
Permissible E-Range
During SA - And MAG - Welding
Figure 4.34
4. Classification of Steels, Welding of Mild Steels 55
The curve family in Fig. 4.35 shows the dependence of the heat input from the weld-
ing speed as well as the acceptable working range. The parameters of the curves 1
to 8 in the table
curve 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
have been taken
V 29 27 24 22 20 19 18 17
5
7
6 conditions like wire
10
8
diameter, wire
5
feed, welding
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 cm/min 60
Welding speed vS voltage, etc.
MAG/ M21 (82% Ar, 18% CO)
br-er-05-35.cdr © ISF 2004
Figure 4.35
toughness affection vZ(m/min) 10.5 9.0 8.0 7.0 5.5 4.5 3.5 3.0
SA - welding
45 53
(according to DVS- 40
30s
47
25s
Reference Sheet 35 41
Heat input E
Heat input E
30 20s 35 25
kJ/cm
Nr. 0916). 25 29 20
2
1
15s work
16
heat input E
20 23 3 ing
rang
15
In this example, a 15 10s 18
13
6
5
4 e
16 10 7
12 13
8
10
plate thickness of cracking tendency
6s
5
5 6
33 41
0
15 mm and a cool- 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 mm 40
0
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 cm/min 60
Plate thickness Welding speed vS
Temperature
tural composition and cooling time B
P
500
200
lower diagram, the point of the plate HV30=400 300 200
1400
Peak temperature
1200
800
Arc1
linking line with the middle scale
600
1 10 100 s 1000 t8/5
represents the cooling time t8/5 . plate thickness
40 30 25 20 15 10 9 8 7 6 5 mm 4
two-dimensional
t8/5
cycle is known, one can read from the 1 2 3 5 10 20 50 100 200 400 s 1000
preheating temperature
0 100 °C 200