Republic of the Philippines

Benguet State University

INSTITUTE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
La Trinidad, Benguet

Module 1 and 2

Course: PA 151- Rural Administration and Development

Schedule: TTh, Section A and B, Second year, BPA

Module 1: Introduction to Rural Administration and Development

Learning Objectives:

1. Define and differentiate the different terminologies in understanding

rural administration and development
2. Familiarize the different elements and concepts applied to rural
development
3. Apply the principles of rural administration in conceptualizing a
sustainable rural development plan.

Defining Rural Development

In the 1960’s rural development is essentially a part of structural

transformation characterized by diversification of the economy away
from agriculture (Anriquez and Stamoulis, 2007). Meanwhile, in the late
1970’s rural development is mostly based on equity considerations, the
focus and definition of rural development turned to the provision of social
services to the rural poor. This shift was partially founded on the
recognition that even under rapid growth of income in rural areas, the
availability or equitable access to social services and amenities was not
guaranteed.
Based on the definition of Atkinson in 2017, rural development
involves efforts that are economic and social in nature intended to
encourage concepts of retention, growth, and expansion in areas outside
cities, including improving quality of life for rural residents through such
activity.
According to the definition of United Nations, rural development
can be defined as an integrated development of the area and the
people through optimum development and utilization of local resources-
physical, biological and human and by bringing about necessary
institutional, structural, and attitudinal changes of rural public.

Elements of Rural Development

Based on Josefina B. Bitonio in 2018: A Presentation on Rural

Development, the basic elements of rural development is enumerated as:

1. Basic Necessities of Life

- This aspect includes food, shelter, clothes, basic literacy, primary
health care and security of life and property.
2. Self-respect
 - Every person seeks some sort of self-respect, dignity, or honor.
Absence or denial of self-respect indicates lack of development.
3. Freedom
- Freedom from political, ideological freedom, economic freedom,
and freedom from social servitude.

We can attribute the Basic Elements of Rural Development in Maslow’s

Hierarchy of Needs:

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a charted set of human requirements

that are important for an individual to achieve complete development

and self-actualization.

The hierarchy is diagrammed as a pyramid starting at the bottom with

basic needs that must be satisfied for an individual to be able to progress
to addressing more secondary needs. It’s understood that a person who
has to struggle to survive doesn’t think as much about or attain self-
actualization as a person whose survival is relatively assured.

Thus Development is not attained when the other needs, based on the
hierarchy are not met.

According to Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), there are 3

main elements of Rural Development which encompass:

1. Economic
- The development of the economic or productive base of any
society, which will produce the goods and materials required for
life.

2. Social
 - The provision of a range of social amenities and services (i.e.,
health, education, welfare) which care for the non-productive
needs of a society.

3. Human
- The development of the people themselves, both individually and
communally, to realize their full potential, to use their skills and
talents, and to play a constructive part in shaping their own society

Defining Rural Areas

A rural area is an open swath of land that has few homes and other
buildings. A rural area’s population density is very low. It is a place where
homogeneity is observed (National Geographic).

International Fund for Agricultural Development Organization

Definition:

Rural areas are characterized as, agriculture is the primary and

often source of income for poor rural people. Most of them depend on
subsistence farming and fishing for their livelihoods. Illiteracy,
unemployment and the incidence of poverty are generally higher among
indigenous peoples and people living in upland areas.

The view of rural areas is comprehensive, including social,

economic, and environmental aspects of life in those places. The social
dimension concerns households as users of social services such as health
and education. The economic dimension covers agricultural production,
markets, and farm and non-farm income. The environmental dimensions
address the use of the natural resources of land and water (FAO, 2018).

However according to the later source, what people consider to be

a rural area is ultimately a subjective determination, which depends on
social and cultural context as much as settlement patterns and
landscape. Recognizing that subjectivity, no definition can be said or
proved to be uniquely correct; rather, a definition can only be judged to
be more or less appropriate for the use to which it will be used. In any
context, rurality is likely to have several conceptual dimensions, and it is
important to construct a definition that encompasses the aspects relevant
for its purposes.

Development Definitions

Before we define the meaning of development, we must first know

when did development started and which context it was used, in order for
us to understand the various changes in its meaning through time. The
definitions that will be presented will be based on the research of
Cobinnah et al. in 2011, entitled, Reflections on Six Decades of the
Concept of Development: Evaluation and Future Research.

In the 19th Century, development was used in order to understand

natural sciences, physical sciences and social sciences (Abercrombie, Hill
& Turner, 1994; Cliché, 2005). For example, in the field of natural sciences,
Aristotle contributed the “Empiricism”. This explains that experiences came
through our sense. In these experiences one can gain memory that is
eventually processed in order to discern how things works and such and
thus the creation of knowledge. Another example for the physical
Sciences is how Charles Darwin explained the Theory of Evolution of
Species (Cliche, 2005). It is explained as the process by which organisms
change over time. As a result of changes in heritable physical or
behavioral traits. Changes that allow an organism to better adapt to its
environment will help it survive and have more offspring.
Social Sciences emerged during 1950’s and 1960’s following the
end of World War II. It was then realized that concept has been
associated with many disciplines such as economic development
(Todaro, 2000), social development (Seers, 1969), human development
(UNDP, 1990), sustainable development (Adams, 2006), and development
as freedom (Sen, 1999).
The UNDP’s World Development Report 1990, offered a different
interpretation to the concept of development following global agitations
for better indicators of development. Focusing on the general wellbeing
of people, the UNDP (1990) defines development as a process of
enlarging peoples’ choices, and these choices are available to
individuals who could lead long and healthy lives, acquire knowledge
and have access to resources needed for a decent standard of living.

Even though the UNDP (1990) admits that income is an important

indicator of development, it is not an ‘end’ in itself (Sen, 1999).
Development goes beyond the expansion of income and wealth, and
focuses on the welfare of people (UNDP, 1990). This notion of
development as ‘human centered’ overcame the limitations of the
economic growth-based concept of development which viewed income
as an ‘end’ in itself instead of a ‘means’ to an ‘end’ (Sant’Ana, 2008).

In the 2000, development was globally viewed as multidimensional

in both conceptualization and reality (Fukuda-Parr, 2003; Thomas, 2004;
Todaro, 2000). The introduction of gender empowerment measures to
encourage the participation of women and minority groups in economic,
political and professional lives especially in developing countries. It also
enhances the emphasis on the protection of the natural environment and
the eradication of poverty which dominated international debate on
development (UNDP, 1995; UN, 2000). This period also witnessed a global
commitment to improve the quality of life of people through the
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), which has become a
development indicator in many countries.

Concept of Rural Development

Based on the definition of Food and Agriculture Organization, the

term development does not refer to one single phenomenon or activity
nor does it mean a general process of social change. All societies, rural
and urban, are changing all the time. This change affects, for example,
the society's norms and values, its institutions, its methods of production,
the attitudes of its people and the way in which it distributes its resources.
A rural society's people, customs and practices are never static but are
continually evolving into new and different forms. Rural Development is
more closely associated with some form of action or intervention to
influence the entire process of social change. It is a dynamic concept
which suggests a change in, or a movement away from, a previous
situation.

All societies are changing, and rural extension attempts to develop

certain aspects of society in order to influence the nature and speed of
the change. In the past few decades, different nations have been studied
and their level of development has been determined; this has given rise to
the use of terms such as developed as opposed to developing nations.

In other words, it is assumed that some nations have advanced or

changed more than others, and indeed these nations are often used as
the model for other, developing, nations to follow.

This process of rural development can take different forms and

have a variety of objectives. It involves the introduction of new ideas into
a social system in order to produce higher per capita incomes and levels
of living through modern production methods and improved social
organization. In addition, it implies a total transformation of a traditional or
pre-modern society into types of technology and associated social
organization that characterize the advanced stable nations of the
Western world. Further, Rural Development is building up the people so
that they can build a future for themselves. Development is an experience
of freedom in deciding what people choose to do. To decide to do
something brings dignity and self-respect. Development efforts therefore
start with the people's potential and proceed to their enhancement and
growth.

Agricultural and Rural Development:

The concept of rural development must therefore be considered

with particular reference to agriculture, since agriculture is the basis of the
livelihood of most rural families. In the past two decades there has been
increasing emphasis on rural development programs and projects, and
recognition that the development of rural areas is just as important as the
building up of urban, industrial complexes. Development must have two
legs: urban industrialization and rural improvement.

Agricultural production

This concern to improve a country's agricultural base, and thus the

livelihood of the majority of its inhabitants, is usually expressed in terms of
programs and projects of rural development. However, while agriculture is
rightly the most important objective in the development of rural areas,
rural development should also embrace the non-agricultural aspects of
rural life. There are many definitions and statements on rural development
that attempt to describe succinctly what it is trying to achieve. Perhaps
the one used in conjunction with the UN-sponsored Second Development
Decade in the 1970s best illustrates the broad nature of rural
development:

Rural development is a process integrated with economic and

social objectives, which must seek to transform rural society and provide a
better and more secure livelihood for rural people. Rural development,
therefore, is a process of analysis, problem identification and the proposal
of relevant solutions. This process is usually encompassed within a program
or a project which seeks to tackle the problem identified.

However, as can be seen from the above statement, the problems

that rural development program attempt to solve are not only
agricultural; such programs must also tackle the social or institutional
problems found in rural areas. Indeed, if the kinds of problems which rural
development programs confront are considered in very broad terms, they
may perhaps be divided into two, Physical and non-physical.

Physical. These are problems which relate to the physical environment of

a particular rural area, e.g., lack of water, poor infrastructure, lack of
health facilities, or soil erosion. Rural development programs can study the
nature and extent of the problem and propose a course of action.

Non-physical. Not all the problems which farmers face are physical in
nature. Some problems are more related to the social and political
conditions of the region in which the farmers live, e.g., limited access to
land, no contact with government services, or dependence upon a
bigger farmer. These problems are also very real even though they exist
below the surface.

Farmers and their families face a whole range of problems

In thinking of rural development, therefore, a whole range of

problems which the farmer confronts daily must be considered. Some of
these problems will be physical or tangible, and relatively easy to identify.
They can quickly be spotted by observation or by means of a survey and
once the extent of the problem is understood a relevant course of action
can be proposed. For example, fertilizer can be recommended to
improve the production level of a certain crop.

However, not all of the problems that farmers are facing is physical
nor can they always easily be seen. Many of these problems derive from
the farmer's place in the social and political structure in the rural area.
Farmers and their families are involved in a complex web of relationships
with other farmers in the area and often these relationships bring about
problems. Dependence upon a money-lender, for example, it is a
problem that is faced by many farmers in developing countries. Farmers
may also have little access to the resources necessary for development,
nor any way of getting such resources. Finally, they may have had very
little contact with rural development programs or other government
services, and may not know how to take advantage of such activities.

It should be emphasized that the problems that the farmer faces

are complex and not all of them are physical or tangible. With this, the
kinds of strategies which rural development programs can adopt can be
considered. The first point to make is that there is no one strategy which is
relevant to the problems of all rural areas. Different areas have different
kinds of problems and the strategy must be adapted accordingly. There
are three broad rural development strategies to be considered.

Technological

- Here, the emphasis is upon technological transformation of different

aspects of the rural society, e.g., improved cropping practice or
better water supply, by the provision of the inputs and skills required
to bring about the transformation.

Reformist

- In this strategy, importance is also attached to technological

change, but with a corresponding effort to provide the means by
which the farmer can play a bigger part in rural development, for
example, through organizational development, or participation in
rural development programs. For example based on the Republic
Act No. 6657, or known as “An Act Instituting A Comprehensive
Agrarian Reform Program To Promote Social Justice And
Industrialization, Providing The Mechanism For Its Implementation,
And For Other Purposes” Section 2: “The State shall recognize the
right of farmers, farm workers and landowners, as well as
cooperatives and other independent farmers’ organizations, to
participate in the planning, organization, and management of the
program, and shall provide support to agriculture through
appropriate technology and research, and adequate financial
production, marketing and other support services.”

Structural

- This strategy seeks to transform the economic, social and political

relationships which exist in rural areas. Often, this strategy is carried
out by means of an agrarian reform program. In which, the
government redistributes the lands among the farmers of the
country.

Principles of Rural Development

(As enumerated by Food and Agriculture Organization)

Access

- Try to ensure that the program and its benefits can reach those who
are truly in need.
Independence

- Devise a program which helps and supports the farmer but which
does not make him or his livelihood dependent upon the program.

Sustainability

- Ensure that the program's plans and solutions are relevant to the
local economic, social and administrative situation. Short-term
solutions may yield quick results, but long-term programs that are
suitable to the local environment have greater success.

Going forward

- Technological aspects of rural development programs should help

the farmer to take the next step in his development and not
demand that he take a huge technological leap. It is better to
secure a modest advance which can be sustained than to suggest
a substantial advance which is beyond the ability of most.

Participation

- Always try to consult the local people, seek out their ideas and
involve them as much as possible in the program.

Effectiveness

- A program should be based on the effective use of local resources

and not necessarily on their most efficient use. While efficiency is
important, its requirements are often unrealistic. For example, the
maximum use of fertilizer is beyond the means of most farmers. But
an effective use of resources, which is within the capabilities of most
farmers, will have a better chance of a wider impact.

Students Activity No. 3. Illustration of rural areas against urban areas

Instructions:

1. Look for pictures or videos that will illustrate an urban and rural
areas. Take as many pictures or videos that is enough to explain the
elements of rural areas.
2. Use MS word or cut pictures and paste it on a coupon bond, then
take a photo of your work and submit it in our google classroom as
attachment.

Module 2: MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

I. INTRODUCTION
 Today, as in yesterday, in the world not all societies benefit from
the available resources at the same rate. The population and problems
of the world are increasing in the distribution of resources. The
population of the world, which was 2.5 billion in 1950, now exceeds 7
billion and in 2050, it is estimated to be 9 billion. In areas, such as
education and health, global solutions are being tried to be produced
under the roof of the United Nations (UN). In year 2015, member
countries adopted a set of goals to end poverty, protect the planet,
and ensure prosperity for all the new sustainable development agenda.
According to the UN, new agenda has 17 sustainable development
goals for sustainable development which cannot be realized without
peace and security. Peace and security will be at risk without
sustainable development. There are currently around 750 million people
worldwide who are illiterate. Underdevelopment is a tremendous
problem, especially among low-developed and developing countries,
under the influence of uneducated and old technology. This is more
evident in the rural areas and in the agricultural sector.

What are the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations?

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the

Global Goals, were adopted by all United Nations Member States in
2015 as a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet
and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity by 2030.

The 17 SDGs are integrated—that is, they recognize that action in

one area will affect outcomes in others, and that development must
balance social, economic and environmental sustainability.

Through the pledge to Leave No One Behind, countries have

committed to fast-track progress for those furthest behind first. That is
why the SDGs are designed to bring the world to several life-changing
‘zeros’, including zero poverty, hunger, AIDS and discrimination against
women and girls.
GOAL 1: No Poverty - End poverty in all its forms everywhere

GOAL 2: Zero Hunger - End hunger, achieve food security and improved
nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture

GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being - Ensure healthy lives and promote
well-being for all at all ages

GOAL 4: Quality Education - Ensure inclusive and equitable quality

education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all

GOAL 5: Gender Equality - Achieve gender equality and empower all

women and girls

GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation - Ensure availability and sustainable

management of water and sanitation for all

GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy - Ensure access to affordable,

reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all

GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth - Promote sustained,

inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive
employment and decent work for all

GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure - Build resilient

infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and
foster innovation

GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality - educe inequality within and among

countries

GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities - Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production - Ensure sustainable

consumption and production patterns

GOAL 13: Climate Action - Take urgent action to combat climate change
and its impacts

GOAL 14: Life Below Water - Conserve and sustainably use the oceans,
seas and marine resources for sustainable development

GOAL 15: Life on Land - Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of
terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification,
and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss

GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions - Promote peaceful and
inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice
for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all
levels

GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal - Strengthen the means of

implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable
development

II. MAJOR DIMENSIONS OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT

A. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

 The Human Development Index and Sustainable Development

[1980]
 The Human Development Index (HDI) is a summary measure of
average achievement in key dimensions of human development: a
long and healthy life, being knowledgeable and have a decent
standard of living. The HDI is the geometric mean of normalized
indices for each of the three dimensions.

 The HDI is nowadays a statistical tool that measures countries’

economic and social achievements.

 To do so, it uses dimensions such as health, education, financial

flows, mobility or human security, among others.

 Every year the UN Development Programme ranks countries based

on the HDI report released together with their annual report.
 It works as a periodic way of monitoring the development levels of
countries.

 Human Development and Research and Development (R&D)

 Progress is evident for many measures of human development such
as those for health, education, income, security, and participation
and for such composite indicators as the human development
index(HDI). According to this, human development is about
expanding the richness of human life rather than simply the richness
of the economy in which people live. HD grew out of global
discussions on the links between economic growth and
 development. In terms of showing human well-being, the HD value
is an important indicator. Research and development (R&D) is very
important for human potential and resource utilization efficiency.
Therefore, the R&D capacity of the country is important for human
development of the country. The HD index provides insight into the
development of countries.

Some important indicators of human development (source: UNDP)

 Research and development expenditure

 Public expenditure on education
 Education system and functional teaching
 Per capita gross domestic product
 Limitations of the national budget
 Awareness of the subject and culture of innovation
 The presence of qualified researchers
 Well-equipped research infrastructure
 Level of international academic relations
 Sourcing of innovation requests
 Balance between basic research and applied research
 The attitudes and beliefs of the administrators
 Attitudes and beliefs of employees
 Standard of living
 Country and management vision
 Life expectancy
 Human development index

Conclusion:

Human capital is the most important strategic factor for

development and also rural development; as new technologies emerge,
the market demand for better and healthier products and consumer
demand in terms of quality and delivery time are changing. In today’s
world, it becomes increasingly important to know how information can be
accessed, how it is adopted, and how it can be assimilated. In this
respect, each country allocates budget for training, education, and
extension according to its own conditions. This budget may be intended
for rural community-based social assistance, but the economic and
welfare effect is essential. In this way, it is aimed to increase the living
standards of the families living in the rural areas. This will naturally
contribute to national income and to the prosperity of society.

B. NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENT

Sustainable and diversified development in rural areas is key to

keeping the countryside alive and prospering. The rural areas of the
county are changing rapidly as a result of the changing nature of farming
and the demands of modern agricultural practices, the impact of the
growing demand for one-off houses in the countryside and the
recreational needs of urban based populations. The increase in off-farm
employment and trends towards rural diversification are becoming
increasingly important and necessary to sustain rural communities.

 HDI & The Ecological Footprint – Achieving Sustainable

Development

 Ideally, humankind should get to a point where at least the

minimum HDI is achieved and live below the maximum ecological
footprint per capita. Living above the minimum HDI would
guarantee that human needs such as education or health are
satisfied.

An ecological footprint represents the maximum limit of

consumption per person according to Earth’s ecological capacity.
Living below it wouldn’t compromise the future generations, as the
planet would be able to regenerate itself. If we could manage to
keep above the minimum HDI and below the maximum ecological
footprint per capita (a number that is decreasing as the human
population increases) we’d be on track for a sustainable future.

But the fact is that every year the Earth overshoot day comes
earlier. This day represents the date when humankind gets in debt
with the planet. Why? Because our demand for ecological
resources in a given year has been exceeding what the planet can
regenerate in that same year.

We’re keeping this deficit because we’re using more ecological

resources than the planet can handle to lose. At the same time,
we’re also not taking proper care of our waste. We’re dealing with
it in a linear way, in opposition to nature, where everything follows a
circular approach. Today’s consumption habits are a big threat to
sustainable development.

 The Brundtland Report And Sustainable Development [1987]

The Brundtland report, also known as Our Common Future, gave the
most recognized and widely accepted definition of the term
sustainable development in 1987. Following this report, “the human
ability to ensure that the current development meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their own needs” was the first widely accepted definition of sustainable
development.

The World Commission on the Environment and Development also

stood out that sustainable development needed to consider that
developing has limitations. According to the organization, the “present
state of technology and the social organization on environmental
resources, together with the limited ability of the biosphere to absorb
the effects of human activities” impose limitations on sustainable
development.

 Climate Change & Sustainable Development [1988]

As the consciousness about the impact that climate change could
have on the planet and on human life grew, the International Panel on
Climate Change was created by the UN Development Programme
and the World Meteorological Organization. Its purpose was (and still
is) to develop and share knowledge about the impact of human
activities on climate change. It also aims to explore the causes,
consequences, and ways of fighting climate change.
CO2 and methane are gases that exist to help the Earth keep its ideal
temperature and guarantee life as we know it. Nonetheless, the
excessive production of these gases leads to an increase in the
planet’s temperature. This happens because part of the heat the Earth
irradiates and that’d go to space keeps trapped in the atmosphere.

 The Triple Bottom Line & Sustainable Development [1994]

The triple bottom line is an important assumption that’s part of the

foundations of sustainable development. It was first used by John
Elkington, the founder of a sustainability consultancy firm.

This expression means that companies should consider 3 different

bottom lines in their businesses – and not only, as was usual at the time
(and still is in many companies today), care about the profit and loss
account. This means that organizations should also measure how
socially responsible the operations across their value-chain are.
In addition, Elkington combined a third concern: that companies also
needed to measure their environmental impact on the planet. In the
end, the idea is business needs to be concerned about its impact on
people and planet – and not only finance and profit.

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and Sustainable

Development [2001]

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment was a 4 years-long investigation

that started in 2001 and was requested by the UN. Over 1200
researchers gathered to assess the consequences that ecosystems’
changes had on human well-being. Finding the scientific basis for
action needed to improve the conservation and sustainable use of
ecosystems was another goal.

The main findings of the investigation were:

1. Humans have changed ecosystems more quickly and widely than
ever before.
2. This resulted in a substantial and largely irreversible biodiversity loss;
3. The changes made to ecosystems improved human well-being and
the economy but have harmed the planet and society.
4. It wasn’t only biodiversity decreasing at a high rate. Poverty was
also still affecting many communities and climate change
increased the risk of nonlinear changes;
5. The degradation of ecosystems services would probably get worse
over the 21st century;
6. The changes needed to preserve the ecosystem’s degradation and
meet the increasing demand for services could still be met.
 Nonetheless, it would involve significant changes in policies across
the public and private sectors.

C. ECONOMIC GROWTH

Rural Areas Key to Economic Growth: Economic growth may come

from rural areas, as food production and job creation come from
agricultural opportunities (According to a new United Nations agriculture
agency report released in Oct 2017)

The rural economy: An untapped source of jobs, growth and

development. Decent work in the rural economy will be key to fulfilling the
United Nations Sustainable Development Goals’ pledge to leave no one
behind. (from the International Labour Organiztion, 13 March 2017)

Rural economies remain largely associated with primary agricultural

production. Rural development is therefore often considered outside the
mandate of ministries of labour. And yet, the productive transformation of
both agriculture and the rural non-farm economy cannot be fully
effectively without their active involvement. Improving the quality of
agricultural jobs – generally among the least protected, poorly
remunerated, most hazardous and of low status – is essential to attract
rural youth.

There is more to rural economies than just farming. Rural areas are
characterized by a great diversity of economic activities, including
processing and marketing of agricultural products, tourism, mining and
services.

To attract a new generation of farmers like Gurung, however, the

sector needs greater modernization, to increase its lucrativeness and
dynamism and to raise its status as a source of decent jobs. Investing in
education and skills of rural youth is key for triggering productive
transformation and promoting economic diversification in rural areas.

Ministries of labour should take the lead in ensuring that social and
labour issues are effectively reflected in rural policies. They can also
ensure the involvement of social partners in rural development, which is a
prerequisite to the success of these policies.
D. INFRASTRUCTURE

Rural poverty is linked to the exposure of the households to

economic vulnerability, through their chronic dependence on agriculture
for income generation. A starting point in mitigating this vulnerability
would be a comprehensive improvement in accessibility. This would
substantially reduce transportation cost and thereby lessen the isolation of
rural communities from basic welfare services.

An advocacy campaign and/or incentive system would be

needed to encourage private firms to establish operations in rural areas.
More private establishments in rural areas would not only shield
households against exposure to vulnerability, but would also serve as a
catalyst for microenterprise development. Sustainable rural development
would follow, provided that there was an ample corporate social
responsibility programme among these firms to avert a widening
of inequality. A natural resource management strategy would also be
needed for ecological integrity.

Community participation is crucial in identifying development

projects; it can help to minimise the wastage of resources on
inappropriate projects, and enable resources to be allocated instead it to
other productive uses. The provision of rural roads should be bundled
properly with support services and capacity-building activities. This can
enhance the demand for other infrastructure and services, resulting in a
dynamic evolution of essential elements in the pursuit of rural
development. Bundles of intervention improve the production efficiency
of rural households at the different stages of production, both on and off
the farm.

Rural development interventions should pay special attention to the

more vulnerable segments of the community, especially, the farmers.
Interventions should aim gradually to detach them from complete
dependence on agriculture, without putting their food security at risk.
 Public investments in infrastructure and in users’ fees can
complement each other, in the continuous provision of new infrastructure
and the maintenance of existing infrastructure, to create a sustainable
track towards rural development. The socialised users’ fee system is a
potential tool for preventing widening income disparity in rural areas. The
careful selection of a suitable and acceptable basis for the socialised
users’ fee rate is important, however. An incorrect choice of rate could be
perceived as a disincentive to access or might stimulate distrust among a
segment of the rural society, regarding the government's sincerity in
promoting rural development. This might eventually create more social
issues, rather than bridging inequality.

Rural infrastructure provision usually consists of a large number of

comparatively small investments over a geographically large area. With
the appropriate management tools and sufficient resources, local
authorities are in a good position to effectively plan and supervise the
development of rural infrastructure. The nature of these works offers
significant potential for the use of local resources including labour,
materials, communities and small contractors. The ILO has done
groundbreaking work in the fields of rural participatory infrastructure
planning, labour-based technology, community and small-scale
contracting and rural road maintenance.

E. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Developing countries face the challenge of improving living

standards of rural people for their sustainable livelihoods. Majority of
developing nations are agrarian economies characterized by low
productivity operating on smallholdings with inadequate and poor
infrastructure. There are several interventions for development and one
such potential instrument is the “application of science and technology in
rural areas (ASTRA)” which intends to transform rural areas towards
development for sustainable and profitable livelihood. It is evident that
science and technology has to be adopted to increase efficiency in
production, productivity and marketing phases of rural sector.

There are quite good number of cases to illustrate that ASTRA has
promoted rural areas balancing the available resources.

 POTENTIAL AREAS OF APPLICATION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

IN RURAL AREAS (ASTRA) in Ethiopian setting:

Some of the potential areas for development is elaborated which has

been identified as the possible areas of ASTRA to be applied in different
sectors:

(i) Agriculture: The potential areas for the application of ASTRA in

Ethiopian agriculture are improving land use,
reclamation of waste land, introduction of new cropping patterns,
dissemination of improved techniques of cultivation, supply of improved
seeds, agricultural tools and marketing facilities, post-harvest technology.
(ii) Animal husbandry: Improvement in livestock, dairy, improvement in
fodder supply, development of new fodder, development of poultry, fish
culture, etc. are the possible areas for the application of ASTRA in
livestock and dairy sectors of Ethiopia.

(iii) Rural and cottage industries: One of the key areas that ASTRA can
applied in rural sectors are the cottage industries that is, Rural
engineering.

(iv) Health: Application of ASTA in health sector is one of the prominent

area and the applications are towards improving health services, supply
of pure drinking water, improvement in sanitation, supply of low cost
balanced diet.

(v) Water-minor irrigation: Application of ASTRA in water and irrigation are

on the Water management including storage and conservation coupled
with equitable distribution systems - repair and maintenance of water
supply systems.
(vi) Energy: Development of practical application of renewable sources
like solar, wind and water power, gobar gas, introduction of improved /
smokeless chulhas are the areas that ASTRA can be applied in the energy
sector.

(vii) Rural housing: Developing economies needs to work on rural housing

strategies and the areas to apply ASTA are towards designing,
constructing and fabricating cheap and affordable houses in rural areas
using locally available material and local labour.

(viii) Roads and communication: There has been a large thrust provided
towards roads and communications in the recent decades in several
countries however, the application of ASTRA is on the improvement in
village roads, transport and communication systems.

(ix) Rural Education: Computer technology, literacy campaigns,

improvement in attendance, reduction of dropouts, etc.

 Significance of science and technology

Science and technology have been regarded to be significant

aspects with concern to rural areas; they are connected with
development because they have had a past record of bringing about
development in the lifestyle, health conditions, income generation and
enhancement of productivity in the lives of the people. Science and
technology have been considered to be the main ingredients to solutions
to the most severe problems faced by the people in rural areas; these are
poverty alleviation and economic challenges.

The fields of science and technology possess the following

characteristics, plans, operations and maintenance, more frequent
maintenance is required in the case of technologies, locally available
skills; tools and materials are made use of to sustain the technological
factors. In the case of rural development, only those kinds of technologies
should be used that can be easily managed and repaired. Technologies
should be economically sustainable, beneficial and contribute towards a
healthy lifestyle of the rural population. Low cost, minimal usage, making
the most benefit out of minimal usage should be implemented [6].

 Examples of Appropriate Technologies

1. Information and Communications Technology
2. Construction
3. Energy
4. Cooking
5. Health care
6. Refrigeration
7. Television and Radio
8. Agricultural Technologies
9. Computers
10. Mobile Phones

F. POLICY AND ADMINISTRATION

 The failure of trickle-down

We saw that in the 1950s and much of the 1960s, the key to economic
development was considered to be industrial growth and
modernisation. The agricultural sector was hence relatively neglected
by national policy, in favour of investment in industry. It was assumed
that the benefits of growth would trickle down to the poor as they
shifted into the modern sector of the economy, and that the
agricultural sector could act as a reservoir of surplus resources and
labour for industrial growth without requiring investment in its own right.

However, the poor, who lived primarily in rural areas, and were to
varying extents dependent upon subsistence agriculture, failed to
benefit from modernisation and industrial growth. The industrial sector
in most cases did not expand rapidly enough to provide the necessary
jobs, and the agricultural sector itself remained stagnant and
unproductive.

Hence, for reasons of efficiency as well as equity, policy-makers

began, from the end of the 1960s, to take a much more active interest
in the role of the agricultural sector – and especially smallholder
agriculture – in overall economic development. Supporting smallholder
agriculture seemed to serve both efficiency and equity objectives and
has been an enduring theme in both development and rural
development policy.

 The 1970s – a decade of intervention

As discussed previously, an interest amongst policy-makers in rural

development strengthened during the 1970s, as a strong backlash
against theories of development which put emphasis on industrial
growth whilst relatively neglecting the agricultural sector – an
approach subsequently shown to be inefficient the fact that the
benefits of growth did not generally trickle down to the poor In this
section we consider three ways in which these concerns have been
reflected in policy, especially during the 1970s, the decade that is most
strongly associated with government intervention in the rural sector.

 The green revolution is the nickname given to a technology and

strategy for agricultural development which proved enormously
successful at increasing wheat and rice yields in parts of the
developing world.
- During the late 1960s and 1970s, efforts were made to improve the
productivity of small farmers in developing countries through the
introduction of new high-yielding crop varieties (HYVs).

 Integrated Rural Development (IRD) is an approach to poverty

reduction which aims to reach the poor through better co-ordination
of development interventions.
- It relates to the recognition by policy-makers and donors that rural
development is multidimensional and requires intervention and support
on a large number of different fronts that include health, education,
rural infrastructure, as well as agriculture and rural non-agricultural
industries.
-In its other use, ‘integrated’ refers to an emphasis on improved
administrative co-ordination of rural development planning and
service provision.
-However, common problems with the IRD approach, whether at the
project level or at higher levels of government administration, were
that it was  difficult to manage  costly to implement  overambitious
As a result, successful IRD initiatives were rarely replicated and in the
1980s and 1990s the strategy fell out of favour within the mainstream,
as the neo-liberal ideas of market liberalisation and state withdrawal
increasingly began to shape development policy.

 Basic needs approaches involve the redistribution of resources to the

poorest in order to satisfy the basic needs of as large a number of
people as possible within a relatively short space of time.
- In previous decades the main focus for development initiatives had
been macroeconomic growth. Focusing on growth was considered to
be the best way of reducing poverty. The basic needs approach
contested this view, arguing that development policies should focus
directly on poverty by ensuring that the primary goal of policy
interventions was to meet the basic needs of poor people.

 Rural development as policy and as process

Rural development emerged as a distinct focus of policy and research
in the 1960s and gained full momentum in the 1970s, as observers
increasingly realised that, whilst economic growth and industrialisation
were important, rural areas and rural development had important and
different roles to play in a country’s development.

- According to Harriss, rural development can be viewed as either of

the following:  a state-led activity and a focus for development policy
 a broader process of change in rural societies, which may or may not
involve state intervention. These are two angles, if you like, from which
we can consider rural development. Implicit in the first of these is the
notion of government intervention of one sort or another. Admittedly,
policy can be characterised by non-intervention or a laissezfaire
attitude to rural development. The withdrawal of government from
rural development activities can also be considered to be a policy.
However, in this unit when we talk of rural development as policy we
are referring to a policy of active state engagement with the rural
development process.

 An area-based approach
In relation to rural development policy, Harriss identifies a number of
important characteristics, perhaps the most obvious of which is that it is
an area-based approach to development. In other words, rural
development policy targets particular geographical areas (rural areas)
rather than an economic sector (e.g. agriculture, manufacturing,
education) or a particular group of people (e.g. small farmers, female-
headed households, ethnic minorities) – even though individual sectors
or groups of people may be targeted as part of a broader rural
development strategy. Given that the livelihoods of the majority of the
world’s rural population depend, either directly or indirectly, on the
agricultural sector, agriculture is an obvious sector in which to
concentrate efforts to promote growth. Indeed the promotion of
agricultural development and smallholder agriculture, in particular, has
always been a central feature of rural development policy.
  Multi-sectoral
However, rural development is not just about agricultural growth and,
whilst agricultural growth is a very important dimension of rural
development, it is not enough on its own to ensure economic growth in
rural areas. Other sectors or dimensions come into play in the process
of rural growth, such as health, education and economic activities
outside the agricultural sector. Rural development is multi sectoral. It
embraces a variety of different economic and social sectors. These are
summarised below:  agriculture and natural resources – crops,
livestock, fishing, forestry  the non-farm sector – services to agriculture
(including input supply, marketing, transport, finance, agricultural
processing), rural manufacturing, mining, and other rural services  rural
infrastructure – roads, transport, energy, water  education  health

 Implications for the 21st century

The green revolution, IRD and basic needs were at their height during
the 1970s – their role in development policy diminished in the following
decades. Their diminished role was due in large part to the introduction
of market liberalisation and structural adjustment policies which
reduced the role of the state and its capacity to implement these
strategies. Nevertheless, the ideas and priorities that drove these
approaches to development remain very much alive in development
thinking today.

 The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)

The Millennium Development Goals have much in common with the
basic needs approach, and the challenge of how to meet the basic
needs of the poor remains as urgent as ever. As with basic needs in the
1970s, achieving the MDGs is seen by many to depend at least in part
on aid from rich countries. 2005 was a year in which aid and the MDGs
gained a particularly high international profile, and spurred on by the
UN’s Millennium Development Project and the much-publicized ‘Make
Poverty History’ campaign, rich countries committed themselves to
substantial increases in development aid. Linked to the Millennium
Development Project is the Millennium Villages project that aims to
demonstrate how people can escape from poverty by targeted
investments in agriculture, health, education and infrastructure.

 Co-ordination Integrated Rural Development (IRD)

is still an approach that many NGOs seek to apply in their projects and
programs, and IRD’s concern for the effective coordination of rural
services is one that is still shared by many economists. Moreover, the
problem of how governments should effectively prioritize and co-
ordinate their interventions in the rural sector has not gone away and
the question of how much to decentralize public sector planning and
intervention continues to be debated. With liberalization, co-ordination
issues have arguably become more complex, as the variety of actors
involved in providing rural services has grown. These include
government agencies, NGOs, and the private sector.

 A new green revolution?

 In those countries (or regions within countries) where the green
revolution was successful the need to pursue it as a development
strategy is less than it once was. However, in countries and regions that
failed to experience a green revolution there is still considerable
interest in how to do so.

Conclusion
The problem with all of the approaches discussed so far has often not
been the goals themselves, but how to achieve them in practice. From
the early 1980s an increasingly popular strand of development thinking
saw the answer to this problem as lying, not so much in direct policy
interventions, but through altering the process of development itself.

Activity No. 4. Application of principles in conceptualizing a rural

development plan.
Instruction:
1. Develop a comprehensive rural development plan for the province
of Benguet. Align your plans with the current status of Benguet in
terms of poverty, agriculture, health, education, and basic social
services.
2. Apply the principles and concepts that you have learned.
3. Use MS word or Coupon bond and submit it to our google
classroom.
4. Submit your output on specified schedule provided in the google
classroom.

Prepared:

Virgilio C. Ablaza, PhD

Course Facilitator

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(Radhika Kapur, October 28, 2019)
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