Expert Systems used in the identification

( pengenaln,pngecamn ) of misconceptions ( slh knsep,slh fhm )

and assessment ( penilaian ) in school science: a review
( ulsn,kjian smle ) and proposed ( m’utrakn cdgn utk
dp’timbngkn ) development

Wan Salihin Wong Abdullah 1 Phil Wild 1

1
Wan Salihin Wong Abdullah is a lecturer in the Department of
Science & Technical Education at the University of Technology of
Malaysia. Phil Wild works in the Department of Education,
Loughborough University, Loughborough, LE11 3TU, UK.

ABSTRACT
From research carried out over the last 20 years, there is now a
wealth ( kkyaan ) of data on the identification of students'
misconceptions in various topics within ( d dlm ) science
education. Much of the data in the form ( bntuk ) of questions and
students' answers, and analysis of the data is well documented.
Within this same period there have been major developments in the
programming and use of microcomputer based ( asas ) expert
system shells which can use formalized expert knowledge to
mimic (mniru ) the processes normally carried out by a human
expert. It seems that the two areas of research could, in the future,
be brought together to provide ( mmp’lngkp ) support for teachers
in using the research findings to support the individualized and
targeted teaching of students in the classroom. A recent ( kblkngn
ini ) literature ( ksusasteraan ) search, however, has shown the
dearth ( kkurangan ) of activity in this field. This paper reviews the
situation at the present time and suggests how the two activities
could be united ( mnyatupdukn ).
Expert system for advising electrical engineering students
Okeene, J.G. Hubert, D.C.
Prairie View A&M Univ., TX;

This paper appears in: Frontiers ( sempadan ) in Education

Conference ( prundingan,p’sidangan ) 1991. Twenty-First
Annual Conference. 'Engineering Education in a New World
Order.' Proceedings ( lporn p’sidangn )

.
Publication Date: 21-24 Sep 1991
On page(s): 438-441
Meeting Date: 09/21/1991 - 09/24/1991
Location: West Lafayette, IN, USA
ISBN: 0-7803-0222-2
References Cited: 3
INSPEC Accession Number: 4275883
Digital Object Identifier: 10.1109/FIE.1991.187522
Date Published in Issue: 2002-08-06 18:03:12.0

Abstract
An expert system is described which can be used to advise
electrical engineering ( kjruteraan ) students about courses they can
take at the beginning of a semester. In response to student-supplied
answers to questions regarding ( tntg,b’kenaan ) the student's
identification ( pngecmn,pngenaln ) number, desired ( keinginn )
credit hours, and course preferences ( keutamaan ), the system
ascertains ( mnntukn,mmstikn ) if the student has satisfied
(mmnuhi ) the requisites ( y dprlukn ) and recommends a list of
courses for the student to take. Some students found the system
user-friendly. The explanation ( huraian ) feature (ciri2,sift ) of the
system is especially appealing since it clarifies ( m’jelskn ) the
university graduation requirements ( kprluan,tuntutn ) that the
students were ignorant ( jahil ) of or might have overlooked
( t’lpe ). It is noted that with minor modifications ( p’ubhsuaian ),
the system can be used to advise students in other institutions
(yysn,p’tbuhan )

Expert System for Tuning Optimizations (ESTO)

 Overview

ESTO (Expert System for Tuning

Optimizations) automates the process of
identifying and tuning the optimal set of
optimization options used when generating
performance-optimized programs.

A typical use is to tune, for maximum

performance, the optimization options used
by a compiler when creating an application.

The set of possible optimizations is usually

very large, an order of tens. In addition,
some of the options require an additional
parameter, which makes the selection
process even more complex.

Selecting the optimal set for a given

application is complex because
optimization options do not necessarily add
performance when combined with other
options, and/or when used for certain
application and a certain workload.

As a result of this complexity, users tend to

use combination options, such as -O, O1,
etc. These combinations select a subset of
the optimization options that have shown
up, in order to provide stable, high
 About IBM | Privacy | Legal | Contact

An Expert System for Accounting Education

Journal article by Timothy J. Fogarty, Paul M. Goldwater; T

H E Journal (Technological Horizons In Education), Vol. 21,
1993

Journal Article Excerpt

An expert system for accounting education

by Timothy J. Fogarty , Paul M. Goldwater

Accounting, like many other applied disciplines today, faces
several ( bbrpe ) forces ( kuasa ) that threaten ( mengancam ) the
traditional methods of instruction ( pengajarn ) used in
universities. A high rate (kdr ) of change in the area can be
partially ( sbhgian ) attributed ( mnyiftkn ) to increased
regulation ( pngaturn,p’aturn ) by the Financial Accounting
Standards Board and the Securities and Exchange Commission.
However, innovation ( pmbaharuan ) in accounting information
design and usage ( p’gunaan ) poses a much broader user-driven
source of change.
Companies are beginning to realize ( mnyedari ) that traditional
methods provide only a start...

Definition
Expert systems are a kind of computer software that is able to
solve certain kinds of problems.

In education, expert systems are used in various kinds of artificial

( tiruan ) intelligence and education projects, e.g. intelligent
tutoring systems, intelligent learning environments, adaptive
( mnyesuaikn ) hypertext systems. They are also in use as a kind of
simulation.

See also: artificial intelligence (expert systems are one of its

subfields)

Expert system for surveillance ( pngawasn,pmrhtian ),

diagnosis ( pngenlpstian ssua2 pnykit ) and prognosis
( rmln,espc.sbb2 ssua2 pnykit ) of plant operation
Document Type and Number:
United States Patent 5009833

Abstract:
An expert system is used to perform surveillance, diagnosis and
prognosis of a plant such as a nuclear reactor used in electrical
power generation ( p’hsiln ). The expert system uses one of current
( smse ),actual plant data, previously stored actual plant

Knowledge base for an expert system used for steady state

security analysis

Tangibly, C. ; Bart, A. ; Garamond, A. J.

In: International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems,
vol. 16, num. 1, 1994, p. 49 - 59
Date: 1994
The purpose of this paper is to present a way to acquire some
knowledge for the development of an expert system for power
system security analysis. The paper discusses principally the
problem of security in steady state and especially the problem of
overloaded branches. The proposed method is based on a hybrid
approach which includes rules and numerical computations to
evaluate the effect of outages on the power system. The basic idea
is to use a systematic analysis of the single contingencies to build a
knowledge base. In real time the knowledge base is used to
perform a single contingency analysis around the working point
for which the base case has been calculated. The same knowledge
base is also used to carry out a double contingency analysis at the
working point for which it has been established. Rules are
extracted by considering similarities between the knowledge bases
obtained for different characteristic operating states. An advantage
of the proposed method is that, by using filtering, it provides a
general way to extract rules for each contingency
Keyword(s): expert systems; knowledge acquisition; power
system analysis computing; power , system protection;
Reference: LRE-ARTICLE-1994-003
Note: expert system; steady state security analysis; power system;
knowledge base; overloaded branches; power system outage
effects; contingency analysis;filtering;knowledge acquisition;
Record created on 2007-04-04, modified on 2008-04-21
Knowledge based expert systems

There are knowledge based agents and expert systems that reason
using rules of logic. These systems that do what an expert in a
given field might do, tax consulting, medical diagnosis etc. They
do well at the type of problem solving that people go to a
university to learn. Usually predicate calculus is used to work
through a given problem. This type of problem solving is known as
’system inference’. The program should be able to infer
relationships, functions between sets, some type of grammar, and
some basic logic skills. The system needs to have three major
properties: soundness, confidence that a conclusion is true;
completeness, the system has the knowledge to be able to reach a
conclusion; and tractability, it is realistic that a conclusion can be
reached.

Reasoning is commonly done with if-then rules in expert systems.

Rules are easily manipulated, forward chaining can produce new
facts and backward chaining can check statements accuracy. The
newer expert systems are set up so that users, who are not
programmers, can add rules and objects and alter existing rules and
objects. This provides a system that can remain current and useful
with out having to have a full time programmer working on it.

There are three main parts to the expert system: knowledge base, a
set of if-then rules; working memory, a database of facts; inference
engine, the reasoning logic to create rules and data.

The knowledge base is composed of sentences. Each sentence is a

representation of a fact or facts about the world the agent exists in
or facts the expert system will use to make determinations. The
sentences are in a language known as the knowledge representation
language.
Rule learning for knowledge based and expert systems is done with
either inductive or deductive reasoning. Inductive learning creates
new rules, that are not derivable from previous rules about a
domain. Deductive learning creates new rules from existing rules
and facts.

Rules are made of antecedent clauses (if), conjunctions (and, or)

and consequent clauses (then). A rule in which all antecedent
clauses are true is ready to fire or triggered. Rules are generally
named for ease of use and usually have a confidence index. The
confidence index (certainty factor) shows how true something is,
i.e. 100\% a car has four wheels, 50\% a car has four doors.
Sometimes sensors are also part of the system. They may monitor
states in the computer or environment. The Rate algorithm is the
most efficient of the forward chaining algorithms.

Reasoning can be done using ‘Horn Clauses’, these are first-order

predicate calculus statements that have, at most, one true literal.
Horn Clauses have linear order time algorithms and this allows for
a faster method of reasoning through lots of information. This is
usually done with PROLOG or lisp. Clauses are ordered as such:
goal, facts, rules. Rules have one or more negative literals and one
positive literal that can be strung together in conjunctions that
imply a true literal. A fact is a rule that has no negative literals. A
list of positive literals with out a consequent are a goal. The
program loops checking the list in order, when a resolution is
performed a new loop is begun with that resolution. If the program
resolves its goal the proof can be given in tree form, ‘and/or tree’.

Nonmonotomic reasoning is used to fix problems created by a

change in information over time. More information coming in
negates a previous conclusion and a new one needs to be drawn.

A conflict resolution process must be put in place as well to deal

with conflicting information. This can be done by: first come, first
serve; most specific rule is kept; most recently changed data rule
triggered; once rule is resolved take it out of the conflict resolution
set.

Forward chaining takes the available facts and rules and deduces
new facts which it then uses to deduce more new facts, or invoke
actions. Forward chaining can also be done by simply the
application of if-then statements: The RETE algorithm is the most
efficient at doing forward chaining right now, it compiles the rules
into a network that it traverses efficiently. This is similar to the
blackboard systems.

Dynamic knowledge bases, known as truth maintenance systems,

may be used. This uses a ’spread line’ which is similar to a spread
sheet that will calculate missing and updated values as other values
entered.

General algorithm forward chaining

load rule base into memory
load facts into memory
load initial data into memory
match rules to data and collect triggered rules
Expert System In The Development Of Pharmaceutical
Formulations

in

• Latest Reviews

Teas Thacker

It is well known that in an Information Technology (IT) driven

society, knowledge is the most significant asset of any
organization. The role of IT in health care system is well
established.1.

In last few decades, tremendous advancement and development

has been made by utilizing IT in the field of pharmaceutical
formulation development. Preparation of various dosage forms
such as oral (tablet, capsule), parental (intravenous injection) or
semisolid (skin based products) etc. has begin with product
specification and end up with the final recipe of formulation. In
development of the new formulation may require list of ingredients
with different proposition. Performance and specification of
formulation varies with changing the proposition of recipients and
processing variables. At the time of developing new formulation,
formulator may account the physical, chemical and
biopharmaceutical properties of active drug as well as possible
chemical interaction between added recipients which improve the
performance of final formulation. Recipients and its proportion are
fixed by performing laboratory level experiment and routine
database of past experiments. The performance criteria of
developed formulations are need to refined in the light of
experience of experts. Process of formulation development is
beginning with chemical synthesis of new substance to the
entrance of product into market which may take 12 years and cost
$400 million2. So it is need of era to reduce cost of R&D and save
time during development processes.

Pharmaceutical formulation development is an information and

knowledge intensive process. By use of new Process Analytical
Technology (PAT), scientists has enables to gets a better
understanding of underlying physical and chemical phenomenon.
The knowledge created from the learning processes can be in
different forms like reports on paper, scientific hypothesis,
journals, official guideline, mathematical models, experience
gained by scientist, experts and experience person. Therefore more
information and knowledge become available; it is needed the
more powerful and intelligent software system to mange and
accesses all available scientific data for efficient decision making
process. To support the activity and decision making task in the
formulation development process, it may required a systematic
integrated frame work which based on formal and explicit
modeling of related information. Various form of knowledge
including heuristic rules, guidelines, evidence based data and
mathematical models are needed to be handled in a systematic
manner so that knowledge can be easily created, use independently
or in an integrated fashion. By using such frame work, expert
decision support systems can be developed to provide decision
support prospectively. Several expert systems have been developed
by numbers of pharmaceutical companies and academic institutes.
This article describes concept of expert system used in
development of different type of formulations. 5

Expert System 6, 7

“An expert system is a computer program that draws on the

knowledge of human experts captured in a knowledge base to
solve problems that normally require human expertise.”
“An expert system is a knowledge-based system emulates expert
thought to solve significant problems in a particular domain of
expertise.”

In its simplest form, an expert system has three major components:

An interface, monitor and key board that allows two way
communications between the user and the system;

1)A knowledge base where all the knowledge pertaining to domain

is stored; and

2)An inference engine/ Reasoning engine where the knowledge is

extracted and manipulated to solve the problem at hand.

Inference engine strategies may be either 8,9 forward chaining,

which involves the system reasoning from data and information
gained by consultation from the user to form a hypothesis, or
backward chaining, which involves the system starting with a
hypothesis and then attempting to find data and information to
prove or disprove the hypothesis. Both strategies are included in
most expert systems.

Introduction

This paper describes an expert system, grounded on case-based

reasoning, which predicts the yield of a banana plantation. The
knowledge of the system resides in a collection of historic records,
which correspond to weekly-assembled descriptions of actual
weather conditions over the bunch maturation period. The records
are organized in cohorts of parturition. Each record is made out of
a label, which contains the identification of the week of the year in
which parturition of the cohort occurred together with data on rain,
sunshine, mean temperature, and mean humidity, and a vector with
the yield during the harvesting weeks of the cohort. The records
are concrete descriptions rather than frames or prototypes.

The cases in memory make possible the prediction of yield by

simulation. In addition, they allow for the validation of the system,
by "inverse prediction": after each new record is assembled on the
basis of statistics, its label is used to retrieve preexisting records to
check simulated yield with actual yield. The knowledge base of
records grows monotonically with the following exception: if a
label of a newly assembled record matches –within the margin of
error– a preexisting record for the same week of the year, the two
records are compacted according to some formula. This process of
compaction corresponds to the learning of the system that, with
time, enhances performance.

Section 1 describes the domain of application. Section 2 describes

the methodology used. Section 3 explains the assemblage of
historic records. Section 4 explains the execution of the simulation
(assemblage of actual weather labels, retrieval and selection of
relevant records, instantiation, and aggregation of records to form
predicted total yield). Section 5 presents the validation of the
system. Section 6 describes the self-correcting behavior (learning)
of the system. Section 7 is the conclusion, and shows that the
mechanisms described are generalizable

Advantages:

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• The ES is a repository of valuable information that might

otherwise be lost and inaccessible to the firm creating the
system and even useful to state them explicitly.
 • The ES can be indispensable when human expertise is not
accessible. This could be critical in disciplines such as
medicine and in remote areas.
• ES could be more efficient and cost effective than human
systems, and will become increasingly so as wages of human
professionals rise.
• The ES could be better than local and even national human
expert if the expertise of world-renowned experts is captures
within the knowledge-base of the system.
• An ES that is predictive can be particularly valuable when
the predictions are generated fast and tirelessly.
• An ES can be used for training future human experts. One
such system can be duplicated, at very little cost, to yield as
many copies as are required.
• An ES can be used also:

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• To store and be able to manipulate important levels of

information
• To be able to provide consistent answers for repetitive
decisions, processes and tasks
• Reduce employee training costs
• Centralize the decision making process
• Create efficiencies and reduce time needed to solve problems
• Combine multiple human expert intelligences
• Reduce the amount of human errors
• Review transactions that human experts may overlook

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Disadvantages:

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• An ES cannot reason on the basis of human ‘gut feeling’, of

intuition, or even of common sense, because these modes of
reasoning are not easily represent able as a knowledge-base
of rules and facts.
• An ES is confined to a restricted domain of expertise; it
cannot easily integrate expertise from other domains, nor an
it generalize reliably.
• Many of the conceptually complex and tough problems in
business, industry, and society do not appear to be applicable
to current ES technology.
• Current ES cannot reason reliably from theories or from
analysis.
• The knowledge in an ES is highly dependent upon the human
expert expressing and articulating knowledge in the form that
can be used in a knowledge-base.
• The lack of human common sense needed in some decision
makings
• The creative responses human experts can respond to in
unusual circumstances
• Domain experts not always being able to explain their logic
and reasoning
• The challenges of automating complex processes
• The lack of flexibility and ability to adapt to changing
environments
• Not being able to recognize when no answer is available

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In general, expert system and knowledge systems can solve
complex problems, this cannot be seen as a disadvantages.
Keeping in mind, Expert system can cause lack of employment in a
society where it is implemented. Expert and knowledge based
system are to be analyzed well before being implemented if there
are critical drawbacks then it is better off. I have a strong belief
that the government should keep track of the number of such
systems in the country as the more the systems are created, the
tougher employment gets, due to this, life might become easier to
live in, but that’s not always a good thing.

Posted by Saud Said Al-Sakami at 9:20 AM

Labels: Advantages of Expert Systems, AI, Artificial Intelligence,
Disadvantages of Expert Systems, Expert System, Knowledge
Based System

Types of problems solved by expert systems

Organizations with highly experienced expertise which the
knowledge cannot easily be transferred to other members would
value expert system the most. The expert system can be design to
carry the intelligence and information found in the experts
knowledge and provide such kinds of knowledge for other
members of the organization for problem solving purposes.

Most of the problems which require expert system might

seem easy to be solved by a professional. Generally expert
systems are used for problems for which there is no single
"correct" solution which can be encoded in a predictable
algorithm. One would not write an expert system to find shortest
paths through graphs, or sort data, as there are simply easier ways
to do these tasks.

Simple systems use simple true/false logic to evaluate their

data, but more sophisticated systems are capable of performing at
least some evaluation by taking into account real-world
uncertainties.

Taking an Example in predicting the weather forecast might

seem a simple task to do. The probability your answer stays
correct would be very small compared to the sophisticated
systems which take every data into consideration and provide a
higher chance of success.

Introduction
 An Expert system is a type of application program that
makes decisions or solves problems in a particular field by using
knowledge and analytical rules defined by experts in that field. A
Knowledge-Based System is a system that uses the knowledge
provided with to solve problems in a specific domain. Books and
manuals have a tremendous amount of knowledge but a human has
to read and interpret the knowledge for it to be used. Taking this
into consideration it can be said that a human cannot perform a
complex problem because of the different disadvantages he/she
might be facing. The disadvantage of being unreliable, speed, and
not enough memory capacity would cause a human to make a
mistake or be inefficient. For this case Humans can design Expert
systems providing the human intelligence and knowledge of
solving a specified problem.

These Expert systems and knowledge based systems have

underlying rules which they are bound to helping them in solving
complex problems. Enough information must be fed to the expert
system to make it able to accomplish the different tasks the human
would want it to do. Knowledge-based systems collect the small
fragments of human know-how into a knowledge-base which is
used to reason through a problem, using the knowledge that is
appropriate. The ability of these expert systems to explain the
reasoning process through which they carry is a feature which they
can not do.