Sex Differences in Mate Preferences, Jealousy, and Aggression http://www.personalityresearch.org/papers/denisiuk.

html

Evolutionary Versus Social Structural

Explanations for Sex Differences in Mate
Preferences, Jealousy, and Aggression
Jennifer S. Denisiuk
Rochester Institute of Technology

This review discusses how two theories--evolutionary psychology and social

structural theory--apply to mate preferences, jealousy, and aggression. It compares
explanations from both theories for each sex difference. Evolutionary psychology
maintains that sex differences develop biologically as people adapt to changes in the
environment. The main focus in evolutionary psychology is reproduction of future
generations. Social structural theory maintains that sex differences result from
changes in society and social roles occupied by men and women. Social structural
theory also draws upon cultural explanations.

This paper compares the perspectives of evolutionary psychology and social structural theory on
sex differences in jealousy, mate preferences, and aggression. These two theories shed somewhat
different lights on the origins of sex differences between men and women. Both theories discuss
sex differences in mate preferences, jealousy, and aggression. Explanations from the two theories
are compared and contrasted.

Explanations for Sex Differences

Evolutionary psychologists have developed a theory to explain the origins of differences between
men and women. Evolutionary psychology is the most well-developed theory explaining sex
differences (Wood & Eagly, 2002). From the evolutionary perspective, human sex differences
reflect the pressure of differing physical and social environments between females and males in
primeval times. It is believed that each sex faced different pressures and that the differing
reproductive status was the key feature in life at that time. This resulted in sex-specific evolved
mechanisms that humans carry with them--these are the causes of sex-differentiated behavior.
The two sexes developed different strategies to ensure their survival and reproductive success.
This explains why men and women differ psychologically: They tend to occupy different social
roles (Eagly & Wood, 1999). Evolutionary psychologists explain sex differences as based on
differing parental investment. Because women invest greatly in reproduction of offspring, they
have developed traits that help improve the chances that each offspring will survive. Men are less
concerned with reproduction and are less choosy about mates (Wood & Eagly, 2002).
Evolutionary psychologists view sex-evolved dispositions as psychological tendencies that have
been built in genetically. Environmental factors act as cues that interact with evolved
predispositions to yield sex-typed responses (Eagly & Wood, 1999). This explains the difference
in each sex's perspective on reproduction.

The social structural theory states that the critical cause of sex differences is social structure.
Because men and women tend to have different social roles, they become psychologically

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different to adjust to their social roles (Eagly & Wood, 1999). The differences between genders
are not based psychologically but are influenced socially. It is believed that situations faced by
each sex are variable in societies and cultures and historical periods and that there are changes
are in responses to technology, ecology, and social organization. Because men are bigger and
stronger, they are given more attention and respect in our society. Physical sex differences
influence the roles held by men and women, because one sex will accomplish certain activities
better than the other sex. Each performance by one sex determines its placement in the social
structure. With physical differences, each sex is believed to develop traits according to
placement in the social structure. Men who have roles of great power and good standing in
society show more dominant behavior, whereas women's roles are normally classified with lesser
power and status and will produce more subordinate behavior. Social structural theory views sex
differences as built-in tendencies to attempt to accommodate assignment to social roles (Eagly &
Wood, 1999). This theory emphasizes that mate selection by women is not only focused on
reproduction of childen but also on power and social status. Mate selection is women's way to
move up the social ladder.

Mate Preferences

Several considerations influences a person's selection of a suitable mate. Evolutionary

psychology indicates that characteristics that people seek in mates depend on their sex and
whether it is a short-term or a long-term mating. Women are limited in the number of children
they can have during their lifetime. Men have no restriction when it comes to reproduction. Both
men and women compete for their choice of mate. Women will seek a mate who has resources to
support their parental efforts, whereas men will seek a mate for reasons different from wanting to
be a parent. This establishes a difference in views toward mating for each gender because each
will have their own expectations (Eagly & Wood, 1999). A man has two possibilities for
multiplying copies of his genes: He can either aim for quantity or quality of offsprings. With
quantity, a man can impregnate as many women as possible without staying around to help raise
any of the children. With quality, a man can stay with one female partner and have fewer
children, but he will be present during their upbringing (VanLeuwen, 2001). Women have a limit
on how many children they can have and a time limit on when they can bear children. Because of
these limits, women are strongly motivated to ensure that the children they have will have the
physical and psychological traits necessary to survive and to be able to reproduce successfully
(Looy, 2001).

Physical appearances play a big part in mate selection. Women prefer men with more
symmetrical features; clear, unblemished skin; and white sclera of the eye, because these
features indicate good health, which also means "good" genes. Women also prefer that men have
masculine features, such as strong jaw, facial hair, broader shoulders, narrower hips, and a
muscular build, because these indicate sufficient testosterone for fertility. When it comes to age,
most women prefer older guys who are intelligent, have high social status, and have money,
because these indicate that they have enough power to obtain resources that are needed for
survival or offspring. All these things come into consideration as a woman proceeds to select a
mate, because a long-term commitment is what she has in mind.

Men have their own preferences in physical appearance of their mate. Men's main interest is to
impregnate a mate to have children. Men tend to seek relatively young woman with full lips,
breasts, and hips, and a smaller waist, because these indicate sufficient estrogen levels to
successfully birth a child. Men also look for facial symmetry, shiny hair, clear skin, and white
sclera. Men are less concerned about the social status of their chosen mate.

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Because women are often limited in social power, they will seek advancement through their
mate. They will look for a mate who has the characteristics of power, good earning capacity, and
higher education, because these will boost a woman's social standing. Men are judged on being
good providers, so when women are in a search for a mate, they tend to look for someone who
can provide what they lack. Men will seek a mate who has qualities of being nurturing, a good
cooker, and ability to perform domestic tasks (Howard, Blumstein, & Schwartz, 1987). The
marital system is based on the man being the breadwinner and the woman being a homemaker.
This favors the age gap in marriage. Wives who are younger than their husbands tend to have
lesser wages, social status, and education. With differences in age, education, and income, it is
easier to establish the power differential (Eagly & Wood, 1999). Men who marry younger
women have nothing to gain but a wife who will tend to meet his needs. When a woman marries
a man, she will gain social identity, power, economic support, and emotional support.

Jealousy

Jealousy is defined as an emotional state that is aroused by a perceived threat to a relationship or

position. It motivates behaviors that counter the threat (Buss, Larsen, Westen, & Semmelroth,
1992). Jealousy is a reaction related to fear and rage, and it makes one want to protect, maintain,
and prolong the association of love. Evolutionary psychologists believe that the cues that trigger
sexual jealousy are weighted differently in men and women. From the man's perspective, a sexual
infidelity will result in uncertainty in paternity of their children, which often leads to sexual
jealousy. Sexual infidelity acts as a cue that triggers sexual jealousy among men. For women,
their mate's sexual infidelity does not jeopardize a woman's assurance in parenthood. The child
remains hers no matter what. If her mate becomes interested in another woman, this will result in
a loss of his time, attention, energy, resources, protection, and commitment to her children. This
loss is essential to her child's survival and is a cue for sexual jealousy (Buunk, Angleitner,
Oubaid, & Buss, 1996). Women are more prone to react negatively when they or their children
are deprived of emotional support; this will trigger jealousy. Men, on the other hand, will become
angry if they suspect their wives of sexual infidelity.

Social structural theory views jealousy as threatening one's relationship with one's mate because
of physical appearance rather than reproduction. In men, jealousy is triggered by cues that may
indicate sexual infidelity. This occurs when their mate smiles at another man, especially if he is
younger, better looking, and has higher status. As a result of this jealousy, the man will engage in
behaviors that ensure that he monopolizes sexual access to his mate. Women, on the other hand,
will be more concerned about emotional infidelity, because they depend greatly on the resources
their mate makes available to them. If a woman's mate is emotionally connected to another
woman, then she will receive reduced commitment. Jealousy in women is triggered by cues
related to emotional connection or the presence of a younger and more attractive woman (Looy,
2001). There is also a double-shot hypothesis against the evolutionary perspective. In this
hypothesis, it is believed that individuals feel that emotional infidelity implies sexual infidelity.
Emotional infidelity is thus increasingly distressing (DeSteno & Salovey, 1996).

Aggression

Male aggression can be viewed as sexual jealousy and possessiveness, which arise from paternal
uncertainty (Archer, 1996). When a male is not sure if his child is indeed his, he will become
jealous, which will bring out aggressiveness in him as he tries to find out the child's paternity.
Male aggression often results into rape and violence. Archer (2000) discussed how sexual and
physical aggression are more common in men than women. Men tend to be aggressive outside of
the relationship, whereas women tend to be aggressive inside the relationship. When it comes to

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physical aggression, women are more likely to scratch their mate. Some will kick, slap, or shove
their mate in anger (Archer, 2000). It is usually supposed that the man is the one who will act
physically aggressively, but it has been shown that women are not always fearful to show
physical aggression toward a man.

Conclusion
There are indeed sex differences and explanations for the reasons behind them by both
evolutionary psychology and social structural theory. With evolutionary psychology, sex
differences are viewed as dependent on reproduction and changes that occur are biologically as
people adapt to changes in the environment. In social structural theory, sex differences are
viewed as influenced socially by roles of men and women. Social structural theory is not mainly
focused on biology but on cultural and social practices. The two theories may have different
explanations for why there are sex differences and how sex differences influence each sex, but
they agree that each difference is impacted by changes in the environment. If there is a change in
environment, then evolutionary theory maintains that people will adapt to the change
biologically, and social structural theory maintains that people will adapt culturally and socially
as their status changes. Both theories provide insight into why there are sex differences, and
knowing the explanation will enable people to understand one another better.

Peer Commentary
Published in January 28, 2005 Vancouver Sun

Is the 21st Century Man Really Careless With His Sperm?

Chelsey L. Cummings
Rochester Institute of Technology

According to the evolutionary theory of mate preferences, men have no restrictions in their
choosing of mates. Men compete for their mates and therefore strive to prove they are the "best
choice" for a woman. Evolutionary theory states that men either go for quantity or quality when
deciding their reproductive goals. Quantity refers to the fact that a man may mate with many
women indiscriminately in order to ensure that there will be a greater chance of reproductive
success. Quality refers to a man choosing the most desirable mate who will produce the most
genetically successful offspring. Going for quality also implies that the man will be around to help
raise the children and protect them, which are seen as advantageous for a society (VanLeuwen,
2001).

Men, through various theories, have been described as preferring females who appear young and
able to bear many children. Therefore, women who have full lips, breasts, and hips, and a smaller
waist are seen as more attractive, because these characteristics are associated with being able to
be healthfully impregnated. According to evolutionary theory, men also look for a woman with a
symmetrical face, clear skin, and shiny hair, because they enhance a youthful appearance. Unlike
women, however, men are less concerned with social status, because they feel they will be the
provider in the relationship.

Men in the 20th century were often described as sexually loose and free by American culture and
the media. Now, in the 21st century, however, it seems as though the perception of men is
changing. Instead of going for quantity, more men may be leaning more towards quality. With the

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current information on sexually transmitted diseases and other negative ramifications of multiple
sex partners, men are learning that more is not always better.

Youthful appearance also may not be so desirable as it is proposed by evolutionary theory. For
example, a growing trend that began in Hollywood is the "May-December romance" in which
young men, usually in their mid-twenties, are seeking women who are often double their age.
These men claim that they like a woman with experience, a woman who has seen and done things
in her life. Although many of these women may be at an age at which reproduction is not such a
successful option as when they were younger, this newer male preference disputes the
evolutionary theory, which states that men are completely motivated in mate selection by
reproduction.

The 21st century has also seen the dawning of the "metro-sexual man." This man is highly
concerned with personal looks and feelings. These men are often described in the media as being
more effeminate, not necessarily homosexual, but more in tuned with a woman's way of thinking.
This new mindset in men could affect the way men select their mates. Instead of merely
superficially basing selection on looks, more men are apt to desire a mate who is more
intellectually and spiritually stimulating.

Therefore, evolutionary theory may need to be changed to reflect the evolution of the times.
Whereas men were once thought of as careless sexual individuals, purely motivated by the desire
to reproduce, they may now have a deeper side in which the drives behind mate selection are not
so simplified. Hence the question is posed: Is the 21st man really careless with his sperm?

Peer Commentary

Sex Differences May Be Anomalous

Kory Sinha
Rochester Institute of Technology

People choose to mate with a certain others for many reasons; current theories attempt to explain
these reasons. As discussed in Jennifer S. Denisiuk's paper, two major theories arise from
evolutionary psychology and social structural theory, both of which attempt to explain mate
selection and gender differences.

Although evolutionary psychology and parental investment theory provide robust ideas for
gender differences in mate selection, there are a great many anomalies in terms of both
individuals' sexual motivations and techniques of mate selection. In modern western society and
other cultures around the world, some aspects of our past evolutionary adaptations may not be so
relevant anymore. Sex drive strength has been shown to be much greater in men (Baumeister,
Catanese, & Vohs, 2001), but the reasons why are not entirely clear and may not necessarily be
attributable to evolution. Mere sex drive and reproduction may not even be the same construct.
Evolutionary psychology focuses on reproduction of genes. There currently seem to be an
increasing number of people in society who do not even want to reproduce or perhaps cannot
reproduce naturally. With current technology and other means of child acquisition, people can
have children when they otherwise could not.

Some individuals do not even wish to bear or raise children but merely wish to mate due to pure
sexual drive. If the primary goal were reproduction and survival of one's genes, then sex without

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conception seems useless. Especially with current contraception, casual sex without
consequences for child rearing is more feasible. Given that men are presumably less concerned
with their offspring, they are supposed to be more apt to have more casual sex partners, at least
openly. This finding could result from evolutionary reasons and potential ability to mate with
many partners, but could also be due to societal pressures against women's admitting having too
many partners--that is, if the truth were known, both men and women may be promiscuous. On
the other hand, Pedersen, Miller, Putcha-Bhagavatula, and Yang (2002) found that both men and
women desire to settle down at some point in their lives and that continuous short-term mating is
atypical. Due to societal factors and other factors such as diseases, there may be a higher
likelihood of the majority of people settling down with one mate.

Denisiuk's paper also discussed gender differences in jealousy, with the evolutionary viewpoint
being that men are more concerned with sexual infidelity and woman with emotional infidelity,
whereas social structural theory relates jealousy more to physical appearance. Sex differences in
jealousy regarding fidelity may, however, be a methodological artifact. DeSteno, Barlett,
Braverman, and Salovey (2002) suggested that women are not necessarily more concerned with
emotional fidelity per se, but that emotion fidelity serves as a cue to sexual infidelity, which
equally concerns both sexes. Therefore, social structural theory perhaps provides a better
explanation than evolutionary psychology for sex differences in jealousy.

Peer Commentary

The Importance of Sex Differences in Aggression

Mari M. Taylor
Rochester Institute of Technology

Throughout history, many psychologist and other theorists have tried to explain the differences
between males and females. One important difference involves aggression and why it occurs.
Evolutionary psychologists believe that aggression is linked through genes and has been
maintained biologically as people have adapted to a changing environment. Social structural
theorists believe that sex differences in aggression are due to the influence of society and its
social structure. In Denisiuk's paper, "Evolutionary Versus Social Structural Explanations for Sex
Differences in Mate Preferences, Jealous, and Aggression," the topic of aggression was briefly
discussed, but the area of aggression and the sex differences related to aggression need to be
explained in a more detail.

The oldest and probably best-known explanation for human aggression is the view that human
beings are somehow "programmed" for violence by their basic nature. Such explanations suggest
that human violence stems from built-in tendencies to aggress against others. The most famous
proponent of this theory was Sigmund Freud, who held that aggression stems mainly from a
powerful death wish (thanatos) possessed by all persons. This instinct is initially aimed at
self-destruction but is soon redirected outward, toward others. A related view suggests that
aggression springs mainly from an inherited fighting instinct that human beings share with other
species (Lorenz, 1974). In the past, males seeking desirable mates found it necessary to compete
with other males. One way of eliminating competition was through successful aggression, which
drove rivals away or even eliminated them through fatal conflict. Because males who were adept
at such behavior were more successful in securing mates and in transmitting their genes to
offspring, this may have led to the development of a genetically influenced tendency for males to
aggress against other males. Males would not be expected to aggress against females, because

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females view males who engage in such behavior as too dangerous to themselves and potential
future children, resulting in rejection of them as potential mates. For this reason, males have
weaker tendencies to aggress against females than against other males. In contrast, females might
aggress equally against males and females, or even more frequently against males than other
females (Hilton, Harris, & Rice, 2000).

Social structural theory rejects the instinct views of aggression, but has its own alternative view.
This view is that aggression stems mainly from an externally elicited drive to harm others. This
approach is reflected in several different drive theories of aggression. These theories propose that
external conditions cause a strong motive to harm others. The aggressive drive then leads to overt
acts of aggression (Berkowitz, 1989). Social structural theory maintains that there is a sex
difference in type of aggression. For example, men are more likely to show hostile aggression, in
which the primary objective is inflicting some kind of harm on the victim. Women are more likely
to show instrumental aggression, in which the primary goal is not to harm the victim but
attainment of some other goal, such as access to valued resources. Therefore, females are more
likely to engage in various forms of indirect aggression, which makes it difficult for the victim to
know that they have been the target of intentional harm-doing. Such actions include spreading
vicious rumors about the target person, gossiping behind this person's back, telling others not to
associate with the intended victim, or even making up stories about that person (Strube, 1984). In
addition, research indicates that gender difference with respect to indirect aggression are present
among children as young as 8 years old and increase through age 15, and they seem to persist
into adulthood (Bjorkqvist, Lagerspetz, & Kaukiainen, 1992). Men and women also differ with
respect to one other kind of aggression: sexual coercion. Such behavior involves words and deeds
designed to overcome a partner's objections to engaging in sexual behavior, and it can range from
verbal tactics such as false proclamations of love to threats of harm and actual physical force
(Mussweiler & Foster, 2000). Some social structural theorists believe that this difference arises in
part because males show greater acceptance than females of the idea that aggression is a
legitimate and acceptable form of behavior (Hogben, 2001).

When investigating sex differences, aggression is a complex topic that should be discussed in
detail. Evolutionary psychologists and social structural theorists have offered many important
theories that explain why males and females are different from each other and in what context
differences exist. It is hoped that this peer commentary will add to the discussion of aggression in
Denisiuk's paper.

Peer Commentary

Sex Differences: A Universal Perspective

Loreen A. Thompson
Rochester Institute of Technology

As I read the paper "Evolutionary Versus Social Structural Explanations for Sex Differences in
Mate Preferences, Jealousy, and Aggression" by Jennifer S. Denisiuk, I thought of how the paper
related to my life. I tried to draw the parallels and prove or disprove the arguments on differences
between men and women based on my own experiences. I believe that the paper covered a range
of subjects that are very common in the everyday scenarios of male and female interactions.

The paper progressed from a discussion of evolutionary psychologists' view of the origins of
differences between men and women to the social structural theory. Both theories seem to

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complement each other, although for purposes of the paper they were placed in opposition. The
paper shed light on aspects of male and female differences that produce results such as "invisible
fathers," male aggression, and female jealousy. It was clearly noted how the differences came
about and the impacts those differences have on male and female interactions. The paper
generalized male and female behaviors into groups of common behaviors. What is not clear to me
is to what extent is this generalization true. Does it cross cultural and racial boundaries, existing
in varying demographics?

I disagree with the view of evolutionary psychologists who see "sex-evolved dispositions as
psychological tendencies that have been built in genetically." Based on my knowledge of
anthropology, the evolutionary theory fails to explain why, if the disposition toward sex
differences is based on genetics, different cultures around the world have women in charge, who
have what are perceived to be "males tendencies" (e.g., being aggressors) in the eyes of western
society and are the bread-winners of the household. Around the world one can find differences in
the way men and women chose their mates. In our society, mate prefernces may be based on
looks and the like, but in other societies things are quite different. There appears to be a thin line
between the social and evolutionary theories. I find the theories lacking, because they do not
support a universal view. In other words, for these theories to hold up, they would have to apply
globally, across the board.

The author should have included the socialization theory, which is one theory on the
determinants of sex differences. The socialization theory sates that boys and girls become
different because boys a reinforced by parents, teachers, and the media for being masculine and
girls for being feminine." Boys and girls are treated differently across cultures--different
expectations are placed on them, which impact their choice of mates.

I feel that cultural socialization weights heavily on people's preferences in mate selection. In my
opinion, the author neglected to discuss a very large aspect of what creates differences between
men and women. Several other theories provide alternative explanations for why sex differences
occur, such as hormonal and adaptive problems; these theories would have provided a larger
subject area for comparison and contrast.

Author Response

Are Both Theories Outdated?

Jennifer S. Denisiuk
Rochester Insitute of Technology

All four commentaries I received shed a light into how outdated were two existing theories
discussed in my paper. These commentaries went into depth on how evolutionary theory is
outdated in terms of its perspective toward male reproduction. Evolutionary theory states that
men either decide to have many children with several different women or to settle down with one
particular woman and have a certain number of children. Men strive for success in having
numerous children. Evolutionary theory also maintains that men tend not to be present in the
children's lives but that act like an absent father and that not much concern is put into raising a
child. Now that we are in the 21st century, are things any different? Are contemporary men more
concerned about reproduction, and do they want to be present in their child's life?

Cummings discussed how men of the 21st century are no longer careless about reproduction and

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how they are leaning more toward staying with one woman, having children with her, and being
present in the childhood experience. Her commentary states that because of the presence of
sexually transmitted diseases and other negative possible consequences of being promiscuous,
more men are interested in limiting their sexual activity to one particular partner and in raising a
family. Mate selection has also been changing, because not many women are entirely family-
oriented. More men in our time are marrying women not entirely for reproductive purposes but
because they genuinely want to be with their mates, and having children is not always the
primary reason for marriage. Because things have changed, existing evolutionary theory is
outdated and needs revision. This definitely sheds light on how outdated the theory may be and
how men of our century are dramatically different from men in the previous century.

Sinha went into depth about how the reasons for sex drive and reproduction may not be
attributable to evolution. He explained that evolution may not play a part in reproduction. Not
everyone marries for the sole reason of reproduction. Some may not even want to bear children,
and some who were not able to bear children are now able to become parents thanks to our
current technology. Sex drive is not present entirely for the reason of having children, but casual
sex with protection is common for the mere enjoyment of sexual intercourse or intimacy with a
partner, without the goal of having a child.

Taylor discussed how the reasons for aggression need to be explained in depth. She discussed
theories that state that humans are programmed to be violent as basic human nature rather than
something that is triggered by circumstance. Freud went into detail about how aggression is a
built-in tendency and how we are born to be violent toward others when threatened. This
commentary went into detail about how aggression is explained by each theory, and it added an
in-depth explanation about aggression that was lacking from my paper.

Thompson explained how both theories may explain common differences in men and women but
how they may not clearly explain if the differences are applicable in different racial groups or
different cultures. Evolutionary psychology explains that genetics is the source of built-in
tendencies in men and women. Thompson explained that women in different cultures may have
male tendencies because of their specified culture and that the evolutionary theory would not be
applicable at all. The existing theories according to Thompson are found to be lacking, because
they do not support a universal view. For these theories to be authenticated, they would have to
apply globally. This commentary stated that cultural socialization theory should had been
explained in the paper, because cultural influence has a huge impact on sex differences in men
and women. This may be a better explanation for sex differences than the two existing theories
discussed in the paper.

All the commentaries have shed light on areas of my paper that may be found lacking or
outdated. These commentaries are somewhat more modernized and are backed up by current
theories that may better explain sex differences.

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