Causes

The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,

biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, udies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient deficiencies[15]

and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in either case, it is
difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other variables might be
at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less exercise, and both are
associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17] and worse sleep are
associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
onin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with neuroscientists and
psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression have emerged and
gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more
precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depr
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
h of its credibility with neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological
theories of depression have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of
neuroinflammation,[11] neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]),
hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm
abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
udies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient deficiencies[15] and seasonal
decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in either case, it is difficult to
assess whether these links are causal because other variables might be at play. For
instance, less sunlight is associated with less exercise, and both are associated
with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17] and worse sleep are associated
with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
udies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient deficiencies[15] and seasonal
decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in either case, it is difficult to
assess whether these links are causal because other variables might be at play. For
instance, less sunlight is associated with less exercise, and both are associated
with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17] and worse sleep are associated
with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
udies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient deficiencies[15] and seasonal
decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in either case, it is difficult to
assess whether these links are causal because other variables might be at play. For
instance, less sunlight is associated with less exercise, and both are associated
with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17] and worse sleep are associated
with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
udies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient deficiencies[15] and seasonal
decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in either case, it is difficult to
assess whether these links are causal because other variables might be at play. For
instance, less sunlight is associated with less exercise, and both are associated
with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17] and worse sleep are associated
with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient deficiencies[15]
and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in either case, it is
difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other variables might be
at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less exercise, and both are
associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17] and worse sleep are
associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

This has led some researchers to s

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.
Aches and pains
uggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms other than upping serotonin, such as
increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a molecule associated with
brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels have been proposed as a better
observable variable than serotonin levels to indicate the efficacy of
antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear to occur uniformly across
all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps
Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.
Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue
This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps
Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]
Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]
Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient
deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine
grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine
grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest research

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth
analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.
Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps
Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine
grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine
grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest research

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth
analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.
Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps
Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine
grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine
grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest research

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth
analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.
Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps
Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

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Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine
grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine
grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest research

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth
analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.
Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps
Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine
grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine
grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest researchCauses

The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca
grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin DCauses
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.
Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.
Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or
the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

 Human Effect Matrix
Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine
grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest research

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth
analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.
Study Deep Dives
Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as aCauses
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness
Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron
grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine
Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.
Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.
If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link
Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium
grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine
grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest research

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth
analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue
Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]
According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.

You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

Already a member? Log in now to access.

grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine
grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

Stay on top of the latest resCauses

The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue

Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.
Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]

According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

Link

Follow

Print version
Easily stay on top of the latest nutrition research
Become an Examine Member to get access to the latest research. Get 150+ studies
summarized for you across 25 different categories every month.

Members also have access to the Examine research database of 400+ supplements and
their effects on 600+ health outcomes, as well as in-depth research analyses.

Already a Member? Click here to log in.

Human Effect Matrix

Unlocked for Examine Members
The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
Become an Examine member — free to try for 14 days — to view this information.
You can currently view 3 supplements as a non-member — becoming a member will give
you access to 46 total supplements on depression.

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grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine

grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD
grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine
Causes
The causes of depression are complex: brain dysfunction, genetics, environment,
biology, age, and psychological factors can all play a role.

One of the first major theories was that depression was caused by low levels of
serotonin, a neurotransmitter that notably helps regulate mood.[5] However, more
recent studies have contradicted this theory.[6] Some showed that selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs), a type of antidepressant drug, increased
serotonin levels instantly, but improvements in patients with depression took
weeks.[7] Others showed that using drugs to deplete serotonin in healthy
individuals simply caused irritation or temporary insomnia, not depression.[8]

This has led some researchers to suggest that antidepressants work by mechanisms
other than upping serotonin, such as increasing brain-derived neurotrophic factor
(BDNF), a molecule associated with brain growth.[9] Because of this, BDNF levels
have been proposed as a better observable variable than serotonin levels to
indicate the efficacy of antidepressants. But changes in BDNF levels don’t appear
to occur uniformly across all antidepressants.[10]

Today, the serotonin hypothesis has lost much of its credibility with
neuroscientists and psychiatrists. Several new biological theories of depression
have emerged and gained traction, exploring the roles of neuroinflammation,[11]
neurotoxicity (more precisely, excitotoxicity[12]), hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal
(HPA) axis dysfunction,[13] and circadian-rhythm abnormalities.[14]

Additionally, observational studies have linked depressive symptoms to nutrient

deficiencies[15] and seasonal decreases in sunlight exposure. Unfortunately, in
either case, it is difficult to assess whether these links are causal because other
variables might be at play. For instance, less sunlight is associated with less
exercise, and both are associated with worse sleep.[16] In turn, less exercise[17]
and worse sleep are associated with lower mood.[18][19][20]

Symptoms
Symptoms of depression can vary. Below are some of the more common ones. As you can
see, diagnosing depression can be tricky, because opposite symptoms can manifest in
different people, such as sleeping too much for one and the inability to sleep for
another.

Aches and pains

Anxiety

Cramps

Digestive problems

Fatigue
Guilt

Headaches

Hopelessness

Inability to sleep

Irritability

Loss of appetite

Loss of interest in favorite activities

Overeating

Sadness or emptiness

Sleeping too much

Thoughts of death or suicide

Personality can factor in also. Some people may become withdrawn and hesitant to
socialize, having feelings of guilt and worthlessness, while some may be
excessively irritable and hostile. The common thread, again, isn't necessarily
sadness but may be mild anhedonia — a diminished ability to feel pleasure.

Diagnosis
⚠️ Caution: Don’t self-diagnose
Though diagnosing depression often involves patient-completed questionnaires, it is
a much more involved process than our summary may suggest, so don’t self-diagnose.
If you suspect you’re depressed, get the opinion of a mental health clinician or
your primary care doctor.

By far, the most common way to measure depression is with questionnaires designed
to rate the severity of known symptoms of depression. There are other approaches,
such as behavioral assessments and neuroimaging, but those are much less common in
research.

Mood disorders are difficult to diagnose, notably because they cannot be assessed
objectively. To diagnose depression, doctors need to weigh subjective symptoms,
such as anxiety, fatigue, insomnia, and low appetite.

Not only are those symptoms subjective, but not everyone living with depression
will have them all, and the severity will also differ from person to person.[21]
One person with depression may suffer from narcolepsy, serious fatigue, loss of
interest, and some anxiety, while another may suffer from serious anxiety, very
little fatigue, and insomnia.

Different depression assessment questionnaires can be completed by the patient or

the clinician.

Common patient-completed questionnaires include the Beck Depression Inventory-II

(BDI-II)[23] and the self-reported 30-item Inventory of Depressive Symptomatology
(IDS-SR30).[23]

Common clinician-completed questionnaires include the Hamilton Depression Rating

Scale (HDRS)[24] and the Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS).[25]
According to the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM–5), the main types of depressive disorders are:

Depressive disorder due to another medical condition

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Major depressive disorder, including major depressive episode)

Other specified depressive disorder

Persistent depressive disorder (dysthymia)

Premenstrual dysphoric disorder

Substance/medication-induced depressive disorder

Unspecified depressive disorder

These may be further classified by “specifiers”, such as peripartum onset (e.g.,

postpartum depression), seasonal pattern (e.g., seasonal affective disorder),
melancholic features, mood-congruent or mood-incongruent psychotic features,
anxious distress, and catatonia (e.g., abnormal movement).

Treatments
Depression is a complex mental disorder, and there are several barriers to
measuring and treating it. Taming it may require long-term work with a trained
professional who has good judgment and tries various interventions to see what
works best for you.

The subjectivity and variability of depression symptoms from person to person make
it hard to establish robust, generalized theories and find treatments that work for
everyone. In this section, we will cover some treatments that have shown the most
promise as treatment options.

Supplements
The table below displays an analysis of human studies and indicates how supplements
may affect depression.

If you are using an antidepressant, consult your physician before taking any
supplement, especially a methylation agent, such as S-adenosyl methionine (SAMe),
L-methylfolate, trimethylglycine (betaine), or choline.

Diets & foods

Some trends have emerged across trials investigating dietary interventions’ effects
on depressive symptoms. Several align with a Mediterranean-type diet.

Increases in fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, and fish appear to be
beneficial.[26] Decreases in processed meats, refined carbohydrates, and other
highly processed foods have also been associated with greater mental well-being.
[27]

Exercise
Exercise seems to perform at least comparably with the current medical standard of
care for mild-to-moderate depression,[28][29] but further work is needed to clarify
which types of exercise are most effective.

Observational evidence has indicated that those who meet the Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention’s (CDC) guidelines for both aerobic and muscle-strengthening
exercise[30] had the lowest prevalence of depressive symptom severity.[31]

The CDC recommends:

75–150 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity aerobic physical activity, or an

equivalent combination of moderate- and vigorous-intensity aerobic activity

2 or more days a week of muscle-strengthening activities

Therapy
The primary treatment for depression is cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT),[32]
which has shown consistent benefits in many trials.[33] There is still much
uncertainty about the extent of its effects, however, and it can be inaccessible to
many people due to cost and lack of information.[34]

Drugs
Today, antidepressants (chiefly SSRIs) are still the first-line treatment for
depression, even though they’ve been controversial since becoming available.

A 2008 meta-analysis concluded that although antidepressants were statistically

more effective than a placebo in reducing symptoms of depression, their benefits
were not clinically meaningful, because the size of the reduction did not meet the
guidelines set by researchers.[35]

In 2018 the largest meta-analysis of antidepressants to date combined 522

controlled trials and found that antidepressants led to a small reduction in
symptoms of depression. But they were also associated with higher study dropout
rates as a result of adverse events.[36]

Some authors have disputed these results,[37] suggesting the benefits are smaller
and the risks higher, due to many of the analyzed trials suffering from poor study
design, poor choice of statistical analysis methods, and potential publication
bias[38] (meaning studies with positive results, considered more interesting, are
more likely to be published).

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Human Effect Matrix

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The Human Effect Matrix looks at human studies to tell you what supplements affect
Depression.

Full details on all Depression supplements are available to Examine Members.

GRADE LEVEL OF EVIDENCE[show legend]
LEVEL OF EVIDENCE? SUPPLEMENT MAGNITUDE OF EFFECT? CONSISTENCY OF RESEARCH
RESULTS? NOTES
grade-a
Fish Oil
Notable Very High
See all 28 studies
Fish oil supplementation has been noted to be comparable to pharmaceutical drugs
(fluoxetine) in majorly depressed persons, but this may be the only cohort that
experiences a reduction of depression....
See more
grade-a
Saffron
Notable Very High
See all 9 studies
30mg saffron daily (both petals and stigma) appear to be effective in reducing
depressive symptoms in persons with major depressive disorder, and the potency has
been noted to be comparable to refere...
See more
grade-b
Curcumin
Notable Very High
See all 8 studies
Curcumin seems to be more effective than placebo in reducing symptoms of
depression. It may take 2-3 months to see any outcomes. Skepticism is warranted
though, as the studies comparing curcumin to p...
See more
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grade-b
Zinc

grade-b
Chromium

grade-b
Folic Acid

grade-b
Inositol

grade-b
Cannabis

grade-c
Creatine

grade-c
L-Carnitine

grade-c
Red Clover Extract

grade-c
S-Adenosyl Methionine
grade-c
Ashwagandha

grade-c
Bacopa monnieri

grade-c
Centella asiatica

grade-c
Ganoderma lucidum

grade-c
Kava

grade-c
Lion's Mane

grade-c
Maca

grade-c
Panax ginseng

grade-c
Rhodiola Rosea

grade-c
Vitex agnus-castus

grade-c
Dehydroepiandrosterone

grade-c
Ginkgo biloba

grade-c
L-Tyrosine

grade-c
N-Acetylcysteine

grade-c
Nefiracetam

grade-c
Nicotine

grade-c
Vitamin C

grade-d
Agmatine

grade-d
Grape juice

grade-d
Holy Basil

grade-d
Iron

grade-d
Lavender

grade-d
Magnesium

grade-d
Phenylpiracetam

grade-d
Royal Jelly

grade-d
Uridine

grade-d
Vitamin E

grade-d
CBD

grade-d
Calcium

grade-d
Coenzyme Q10

grade-d
Melissa officinalis

grade-d
Theanine

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

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Study Deep Dives

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 Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
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Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
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depression"
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help you sleep better.
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earch
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analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
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 Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.

Better mood with healthy food?

Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.

grade-d
Vitamin B₁₂

grade-d
Vitamin D

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NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
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Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
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help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.
n adjunct therapy
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the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.

Stay on top of the latest research

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analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.

Become an Examine Member to access everything Examine has to offer: in-depth

analysis on the latest nutrition research, monthly studies summaries across 25
health categories, a full research database, and more.

Study Deep Dives

Better mood with healthy food?
Mediating depression through the Mediterranean Diet
Some TLC from ALC in depression
NERD Mini: Nutrient supplements for mental health disorders
Spicing up depression: curcumin as an adjunct therapy
SHOW MORE
Click here to subscribe to Nutrition Examination Research Digest to stay on top of
the latest research.
Frequently Asked Questions and Articles on Depression
I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and depression
Mix a few beneficial probiotic strains, take daily, lower your chances of
depression?
Read full answer to "I get by with a little help from my friends: probiotics and
depression"
How eating better can make you happier
Food and supplements that can help fight stress, fatigue, anxiety, depression, and
help you sleep better.
Read full answer to "How eating better can make you happier"
Click here to see all 37 references.