The cultural environment

Another very important element of the international environment to be taken into

consideration when extending internationally is culture. Culture has to be studied
because buyer behaviour and consumer needs are driven by cultural norms and
cultural forces are a major factor in shaping a company’s international marketing
mix programs.
The marketing concept is focusing on the satisfaction of the consumers’ needs and
wants regardless the country they come from. But consumers’ needs and buying
behaviours are determined further by the culture they come from. In other words
people express their needs and wants differently from culture to culture. They have
similar needs and wants, but they express them differently. For instance, an
American company producing canned vegetables decided to go abroad and to start
with the canned sweet corn, considering that no flavour adjustment will be needed
to this product. The company did not need to make adjustments to the flavour, but
it had to make adjustment to the way the product was marketed because the product
was used differently in different countries: in USA (the home market) corn is used
as a side dish being hot, in France corn is used cold and added to the salad, in
Britain, corn is used as a sandwich filler and a pasta topping, in Japan, corn is used
 International Marketing

as an after school snack and in Korea, sweet corn is put on ice-cream.

Consequently, the company adapted its advertising by portraying in each country
the actual use of the canned corn 1 .
We can see that is necessary to understand the cultural similarities and differences
and to set the marketing strategies for the particular needs of each international
market. Culture influences all marketing activities, from product design,
packaging, styling to pricing, promotion and distribution and it has to be studied.
Actually markets are considered to be the result of the interaction of three aspects:
the marketer’s effort (what the company does), the economic conditions of the
country and the elements of culture of the country.

3.1 The definition of culture

Therefore, we will ask ourselves what is culture? There are an enormous number of
definitions of culture (Kroeber and Kluckhohn counted over 160 definitions of
culture 2 ). Two definitions among the most representative, are Hofstede’s and
Cateora’s. Hofstede defines culture as “the collective programming of the mind
which distinguishes the members of one group or category from those of another” 3
and Cateora et al. define culture as “the sum of total knowledge, beliefs, arts,
morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by humans as
members of society” 4 . In box no. 3.1. there are presented also other definitions
of culture.
But all those definitions have a few things in common, that actually represent the
essence of culture. The culture deals with the way a group lives and it contains the
entire social heritage of a nation, it deals with everyday life and refers to the
language, values, attitudes, behaviours, knowledge a nation has. There were
identified a number of cultural universals, that the international marketer can use
in order to standardize some of the elements of the marketing program. The
cultural universals are modes of behaviour that exist in all cultures, such as
cooking, dancing, art, aesthetics, education, etiquette, family feasting, food taboos,
language, marriage, medicine, religious rituals, status differentiation etc 5 .

1
Cateora Ph. et al., 1999, Op.Cit., p. 85.
2
Kroeber A. and Kluckhohn C., 1985, Culture: A critical Review of Concepts and Definitions, Randon House,
p.11.
3
Hofstede, G., 1999, Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind, McGraw Hill, 1991, p. 5.
4
Cateora, Ph. et.al., 1999, Op.Cit, p. 86.
5
Keegan W., 1999, Global Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, p. 61.
The cultural environment

BOX NO. 3.1 Definitions of culture

Culture is a learned, shared, compelling, interrelated set of symbols whose meanings

provide a set of orientations for members of society. These orientations, taken together,
provide solutions to problems that all societies must solve if they are to remain viable.
(Kotabe M. and Helsen K., 1998, Global Marketing Management, John Wiley and Sons,
p. 84)

Culture includes both conscious and unconscious values, ideas, attitudes and symbols that
shape human behaviour and that are transmitted from one generation to the next. (Keegan
W. Global Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, 1999, p. 59)

Culture includes the entire heritage of a society transmitted by word, literature or any other
form. It includes all traditions, habits, religion, art and language.
(Jeannet J.P. and Hennessey H.D., 2001, Global Marketing Strategies, Houghton Mifflin
Company, p. 78)

Culture is an integrated system of learned behaviour patterns that are distinguishing

characteristics of the members of any given society. It includes everything that a group
thinks, says, does, and makes, its customs, language, material artifacts and shared systems
of attitudes and feelings.
(Czinkota M. and Ronkainen I., 2001, International Marketing, Hartcourt College
Publishers, p. 61)

Culture may be defined as the ways of living built up by a group of human being
transmitted from one generation to another. Culture includes both conscious and
unconscious values, ideas, attitudes and symbols that shape human behaviour and are
transmitted from one generation to the next.
(Bradley F., 1995, International Marketing Strategy, Prentice Hall, p.133)

The common characteristics of culture that are met whatever the way it is defined
are the following:
The fact that it is learned. Culture is always learned. It is not biologically
transmitted via genes. It is cultivated by various groups (family, school, other
organizations) and it is transmitted from one generation to other, it consists of
learned behaviours in recurring situations. The sooner an individual learns these
responses, the more difficult is to change them. Tastes and preferences for food
and drink represent learned responses that are highly variable from culture to
culture and can have a major impact on consumer behaviour.
 International Marketing

• Consists of many parts, interrelated to each other. Culture is formed of

many parts, a number of elements that we are going to study further.
These parts are interrelated to one another and one part of culture, for
instance status, has an impact on another part, such as the language
that the person uses.
• It is shared by individuals as members of society. For instance, if a
person eats the sweet corn on the ice cream at home but other people
do not share this habit it means that eating sweet corn on the ice-cream
is not part of that nation’s culture.

3.2 The process of cultural analysis

In order to make easier the study of culture for both assessing the potential of
foreign markets when willing to enter the markets or for evaluating marketing
plans when the company already operates in a market, there is a cultural framework
that can be used to study culture, a framework that studies all elements of culture
and the relationships between them. See figure no. 3.1.

Figure no. 3.1 The process of cultural analysis at international level

Elements of culture

Material Social Religion Aesthetics Value

culture Language interaction Education systems

The analysis of cultures

* cultural knowledge
* cultural sensitivity
* cross-cultural comparisons

Adapt to Change the

local culture local culture
The cultural environment

The elements of culture (aspects such material culture, language, social interaction,
religion, education, value systems, etc) will be studied in order to make an analysis
of the culture. Each element will be viewed and searched separately as well as in its
interaction with other elements. In the process of culture analysis, cultural
knowledge will be gathered and cross-cultural comparisons will be done if
required, processes during which the company has to prove cultural sensitivity.
After cultures have been studied and analysed the company will make the decision
of either to adapt to the local culture or to change the local culture in order to get
acceptance for its products.

3.2.1 Elements of culture

Let’s see now what are the elements of culture that a company should look at in a
foreign market in order to decide how to set its marketing strategies for each
foreign market.
The culture of a country means:
) material culture
) language
) social interaction
) religion
) education
) aesthetics
) value systems

Material culture. The material culture of a country comprises on the one hand
the technology, the techniques a country uses to produce goods and on the other
hand its economics.
Technology refers to the know-how possessed by that society, the techniques in
the creation of the material goods, the technical educational system and the
technical know-how possessed by the people of the society. In order to appreciate
the technological level of a country a company may look at: the production
process, the country’s infrastructure, the technical level of the consumer. The
material culture affects the level of demand and, the quality and types of products
demanded.
In the developed countries the technological level is high, the technologies used in
production processes are complex and consumers understand many technical
concepts while in many developing countries, the technological level is low
 International Marketing

and technologies used in production processes are rudimentary or simple and

population has no technological knowledge. For instance, if we talked about the
concept of preventive maintenance, this is broadly understood in developed
countries, while in many developing countries this concept does not have the same
understanding. What does this mean from the marketing point view? Consumers
will not use properly the product, they have to be instructed, more resistant
products should be designed in order to have the same product life length. For
low-technological countries, some products should be adapted and simplified
because consumer can not use them, do not know to use them if they are too
complex. Electrical appliances are sold nicely in France and Britain, but they have
less buyers in the societies (such as the African ones) where less 5% of the
population have electricity in their homes. The electrical toothbrushes are
acceptable and demanded in Western developed countries, but they are seen as a
waste of money in the countries where the income can be better used on clothing
or food 6 .
Economics is the other element of the material culture of the country, referring to
the resources a country employs in production, the distribution, consumption of
goods and services and the income obtained through the creation of goods and
services.
Societies with different levels of income, spend differently this income, use
differently resources in production processes and consumers have different
consumption patterns. In high income countries consumers buy in large quantities
and less frequently, while in low income countries consumers buy in small
quantities and more frequently, for instance.

Language is seen by some as being the mirror of a culture 7 . Language is

important in information gathering and also in the evaluation of efforts. By
knowing the foreign language the international marketer does not rely completely
on the opinions of others, but can also see and hear personally what is going on.
Language is multidimensional by nature. There are two aspects related to language
that are of interest for the international marketer:
• language as a communication tool,
• the diversity of languages spoken across borders.

6
Bradley F., 1995, International Marketing Strategy, Prentice Hall, p. 144.
7
Czinkota M. And Ronkainen I., 2001, International Marketing, Hartcourt College Publishers, p. 64.
The cultural environment

Language as a communication tool is manifested both through the verbal, the

spoken language and also through the non-verbal, the silent language.
The verbal language ensures the communication of the company with both
employees, but especially customers in the foreign markets. To be able to better
communicate with the consumers, translations are used when marketing products
across borders.
Translations not only that have to be grammatically correct, but they have to keep
the cultural meaning. The most difficult to translate are the idioms. In many cases
dictionary translation is not sufficient for an accurate translation, as the idiomatic,
interpretation is different and reflects the real meaning. Translations that do not
take into consideration this fact, not only that they loose their intended meaning but
they might suggest something completely different. For example, an American
travel company when translated its advertising message “Fly on leather” in Spanish
it came out with the meaning “Fly naked”. Another American company producing
deodorants wanted to market in Germany a product under the name of ,,Mist’’ that
in English means “boare, ceaţă” being willing to suggest a romantic atmosphere,
but in German the word “mist” means garbage and animal excrements. Box no. 3.2
presents some other international blunders related to translations and
interpretations of meanings internationally.

Another consideration related to language is its capability to convey different

shades of meaning. For instance, a one-word equivalent of the English word
“aftertaste” does not exist in many languages. To communicate the idea may
require a lengthy translation such as “the taste that remains in your mouth after you
have finished eating or drinking” 8 .

The non-verbal language refers to gestures, body language, eye contact, accepted
conversational distance (personal distance), etc.
These are things that differ from one culture to another and can cause
misunderstandings when they are not known. For instance, the sign with the finger
and the thumb forming a circle, means O.K in USA but has an obscene meaning in
Greece and in Brazil, in southern France the meaning is that the sale is worthless
and in Japan the meaning is that a little bribe is asked for 9 . In Australia, the former
USA president Bush senior gave “V for Victory” sign with his palm turned inward,
not realizing that this was equivalent to the middle finger salute in the USA 10 .

8
Ibid., p .65.
9
Ibid., p. 67.
10
Grayson L.James., 1999, ”Gestures: the DO’s and TABOO’s of Body Language Around the World”, Security
Management, March, p.122.
 International Marketing

BOX NO.3.2. Blunders at international level (meanings and translations)

Š The American Motors Corporation’s car „Matador” suggest virility and strength in
USA, but in Puerto Rico it means „killer” and this is not a favourable connotation in a
place with a high trafic fatality rate.
Š A private Egyptian airline „Misair” proved to be very unpopular with the French
nationals as the name meant in French „misery”.
Š Pepsi Cola used its ad „Come alive with Pepsi” in different countries, but the
translations came out with completely different meanings: in German the literally
translation meant „Come alive out of the grave with Pepsi” and in Asia the translation
meant „Bring your ancestors back from the dead with Pepsi”.
(Ricks D., „How to avoid business blunders abroad” in Business, April 1984).

Goldsmith collected a number of hotel signs translated into English, that are translations
errors, less harmful but funny:
9 Paris: „Please leave your values at the front desk”
9 Japan: „You are invited to take advantage of the chambermaid”
9 Zurich: „Because of the impropriety of entertaining guests of the opposite sex in the
bedroom, it is suggested that the lobby be used for this purpose”
9 Romania: „The lift is being fixed for the next day. During that time we regret that you
will be unbearable”.

(Goldsmith Charles, „Look See! Anyone Do Read This and It Will Make You Laughable”,
The Wall Street Journal, 19 November 1992, p. B1.

Americans have a big personal distance (1 m), but Latin and Arabs have a small
personal distance (0,5 m). This may cause misunderstanding when North
Americans will step back to restore the normal personal distance (for them), this
being interpreted as avoidance by the small personal distance peoples, while for
the North Americans the closeness will be an invasion of their personal space.
Arabs have an old tradition in seen as following the movement of the eye pupil
during negotiations in order to interpret reactions. That is why they look right in
your eyes when talking to you and that is why they have sun glasses in many
occasions.
For Japan it is offending to look straight into eyes for a prolonged period.
Touching while talking is very common for Latin countries and for Southern
Europe, but not common for Northern European countries.

Considering the diversity of languages used across nations, there are countries
were more languages are spoken, such as Canada (French, English), Switzerland
(French, German, Italian), Belgium (French, Flemish), India were there are
14 official languages and around 750 dialects.
The cultural environment

As language is considered to be the mirror of culture more languages spoken in

one country may mean more cultures in the same national territory. These are
heterogeneous markets that might require different marketing strategies in the
same national territory.
Even when the same language is spoken in more countries meanings and
expressions can differ from one country to another. Spanish is spoken in Latin
America. There were found different words for tires: cauchos in Venezuela,
cubiertas in Argentina, gomas in Porto Rico, llantas in the other countries like
Mexico, Peru, Columbia 11 .
English is spoken in North America, in Britain, in Ireland, in Australia, New
Zeeland. Accordingly, in UK you go to the toilet, in USA you go to the restroom
and in Canada you go to the washroom. Box no. 3.3. presents some more
examples of this kind.

We can see that the understanding of the language and the interpretation of the
language is very important in international marketing. What companies need when
going internationally is a cultural translator, who is a person who translates not
only among languages but also among different ways of thinking and among
different cultures.

Social interaction refers to the ways in which people, the members of a society
relate to each other, meaning the roles of men and women in society, social class,
the family, group behaviour, marriage and rituals and so on. All these aspects
affect marketing as each of them influences the pattern of social behaviour on
overall, the value system and the social hierarchy, and consequently the buying
and consumer behaviour.
Family is the most crucial expression of social interaction in a society. In Europe
and most of the Western countries, the family unit is the nuclear family (parents
and children). In other countries (Asia, Latin America), the family unit is the
extended family (parents and children, grandparents, aunts, uncles and other
family members). In some African countries cousins and uncles are called
brothers.

11
Hani D.A, Ryan J.K and Vernon I.R., 1995, „Coordinating International Advertising”, Journal of International
Marketing, vol. 3, no. 2, p.56.
 International Marketing

BOX NO. 3.3 The same language spoken in different countries

English:
Britain - petrol and USA - gasoline; Britain - biscuits and USA- cookies; Britain -
pavement and USA - sidewalk
(Chee H. And Harris R., Global Marketing Strategy, Financial Times Professional, 1998,
p. 145)
During negotiations, the expression „tabling a proposal” means for the USA negociators
to postpone, to delay the decision, while for the British negociators means to make the
decision immediately and to take action right away.
(Ricks D., Big Business Blunders, Homewood Il.: Irwin, 1983, p. 4)

Romanian:
Romania – sufragerie and Moldova – sală
Romania – castraveţi and Moldova – pepeni
Romania – roşii and Moldova – pătlăgele
Romania – salam and Moldova – cârnaţ
Romania – batistă and Moldova – basma
Romania – borcane and Moldova – bănci
Romania – fraier and Moldova – şmecher
Romania – încălţăminte and Moldova – papuci
(Collected by the author)

Family units (either the nuclear or the extended families) play many roles in
society including the economic and the psychological support roles. For instance,
in Asian countries the responsibility for old persons stays with the children, old
people have no material means, they have no pension and they depend on their
children. Companies adapt to this economic role of the extended families. For
instance, in Sri Lanka banks promote saving programs that allow participants to
build up savings to support their parents when they will retire. In Hong Kong
when paying income-tax, the income used to support a parent or grandparent is
free of tax, the expense is deducted from the sum for which the income tax will be
paid. Other companies that do not adapt to the form the families are organized,
make mistakes. In Los Angeles a radio contest aimed at Hispanic families offered
two tickets to Disneyland. The contest failed mainly because it asked Hispanics to
pick two members out of their extended families 12 .
The role members of families play in the family are also important for international
marketers as they influence buying and consumption patterns. For instance, the
husband has a dominant role in many Latin American countries
12
Kotabe M. et al. , Op. Cit., p. 88.
The cultural environment

and Arabic countries and therefore delegate less authority to their wives when
acquiring goods such as automobiles, life insurances and even products such as
furniture or major home appliances (fridges, cookers, washing machines, etc.). In
other countries, most of the developed ones, decisions are taken jointly.
Men and women may adopt different roles in the family and in society. In the
advanced industrial societies, gender roles are becoming more blurred and less
predictable, increasingly women are competing with men at the work place. In the
developing countries women and men still play different and usually
complementary roles.
In many societies there is a social hierarchy and a class system. In the class system
members of a society are generally ranked according to a number of criteria based
on income, power, religion, wealth. Social classes tend to have quite different
consumption patterns that affect the purchasing of different goods. In some
societies only a small number of distinct social classes (Scandinavian countries)
can be identified, whereas in others (USA, India) there are many different social
classes and each of them has its own wants and goods. Upper classes in almost all
countries are more similar to each other than they are to the rest of their own
society. Lower classes tend to be more culture bound, they are less aware of other
cultures, whereas “middle classes” are more prone to participate in the process of
“cultural borrowing”. Therefore, the larger the upper and the middle classes are,
the more likely a market is to buy products and services that are not culturally
bound 13 .
In the Hindu India the social system is formed of „castes”. In the caste system, the
classes are ranked according to purity, spiritual quality and power and is defined by
birth. Understanding this social stratification system, help marketers to segment the
markets and to position their products effectively. Promoting a product as a sign of
upward mobility would not work in the Indian market 14 .

Religion plays a major role in many societies as it refers to the belief system of a
society. Religion refers to a community’s set of beliefs that relate to a reality that
cannot be verified empirically 15 . Religion influences people’s buying motives,
customs, practices, understanding, habits. In one word religion influences the value
systems of a society and the value systems of a society affect marketing, as they

13
Bradley F., Op. Cit., p. 142-143.
14
Idem, p. 147.
15
Terpstra V. and David K.., 1991, The Cultural Environment of International Business, South-Western
Publishing Co, p.73.
 International Marketing

influence: the products people buy, the way they buy them, the reasons for buying,
the newspapers they read etc.
The major religions of the world in terms of number of adherents are Christianity,
Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Box no. 3.4 presents these
religions shortly.
Religion taboos often force companies to adapt their products and their other
marketing mix programs. Certain types of food, clothes and behaviours are
accepted or rejected by different religions and what might be innocent and
acceptable in one country is unacceptable and offending in another country. This is
how a French shipment of perfumes was rejected by the Saudi Arabian customs
because the bottle cap was in the shape of a naked woman. Religious taboos often
force companies to adapt their marketing mix programs, as McDonald’s did in
India by not selling hamburgers that contain beef and in the Arab countries by not
including pork on the menu.
Superstitions are also to be known as they affect people’s behaviours and belief
system. In USA, there is not numbered the 13th floor in any building as it has bad
luck, breaking a mirror brings bad luck, too; in Romania the black cat crossing
your way brings bad luck and spilling the salt means quarelling with someone; in
China the “feng shui” the belief of a harmonious environment influences the
position of buildings and the way houses and offices are furnished.
Even within the same religion sometimes traditions are celebrated differently. For
many Christian countries, during the celebration of Christmas, there are presents
offered on 24-25 of December. In Holland, the presents are given on 6th of
December with the occasion of St. Nicholas. In some countries, there are presents
offered on 6th of December (usually smaller presents) and also for Christmas on
24-25 December. Romania is one of them, and also France, where 6th of December
is also called ”the little Christmas” 16 . Consequently international marketers have
to be aware of differences between religions, but also within the same religion in
different countries.

16
Jeannet J.P. et. al, Op. Cit, p. 84.
The cultural environment

BOX NO. 3.4 Religions in the world

Christianity has more than 2 billion followers. It is based on the Old and the New
Testament and it has as its founder Jesus Christ. In the year 1054 the Catholicism has
separated from Orthodoxism. The Catholicism recognizes the supremacy of the Pope and
his strength as far as faith is concerned. Later, on the Protestantism has siplified the
Catholicism by proclaiming that more important is the power of the faith of the
individual, not the following of religious rituals. The attitude towards making money is
different in Catholicism and Protestantism. While the first is questioning it, the second
emphasizes the importance of work and of accumulation of wealth.
Islam has 1.2 billion adherents in the world who spread from the West coast of Africa to
the Philippines, including Tanzania, central Asia, western China, India and Malaysia. The
main fundamental islamic concepts are:
- unity = the concept of centrality, oneness of God, harmony in life
- legitimacy and equality of people = fair dealings, reasonable level of profits
- zakaat = 2.5% per year compulsory tax to all those classified as not being „poor”
- usury = charging interest on loans is not possible
- supremacy of human life = compared to other forms of life objects, human life is of
supreme importance
- community = pilgrimage to Mecca is required at least once in their lifetime if they are
able to do so
- abstinence = during the month of Ramadan Muslims are required to fast without food
and drink from the dawn to sunset; consumption of alcohool and pork as well as the
gambling are forbidden.
Hinduism has 860 million followers mainly in India, Nepal, Malaysia, Guyana, Suriname
and Sri Lanka. In addition of being a religion is also a way of life, based on the caste or
class in which you were born. The followers place value on spiritual rather than
materialistic achievement. The family is an important element in the Hindu society, with
the caste system being the norm.
Buddhism has 360 million followers and is spread from Asia to Sri Lanka and Japan. It is
a newer version of Hinduism, but it has no caste system. The emphasis is on spiritual
achievement, with achieving nirvana, a state marked by an absence of desire.
Confucianism has over 150 million followers in Asia, mainly among Chinese. It is more a
code of conduct than a religion, stressing loyalty to central authority and placing the
group before the individual.
(Czinkota R.M and Ronkainen I.A., 2001, International Marketing, Hartcourt College Publishers,
p. 67-69; Kotabe M and Helsen K., 1998, Global Marketing Management, John Wiley and Sons,
p. 90-92; Sasu C., Marketing Internaţional, 1998, Editura Polirom, Iaşi, p.73-77.
 International Marketing

Education is a means of transmitting culture from one generation to another.

Education, formal and informal plays a major role in passing on and sharing
culture. Education shapes the wishes and the motivations of people. The level of
education in a country has an impact over the receptivity of consumers from that
country to foreign marketing methods. An educated consumer is easier to be
instructed about how to use a new product. The level and the quality of education
is influencing the potential consumers of a country, but also the potential
employees of companies, the types of employees and managers that can be hired in
that country. Usually societies with a low level of education, have low incomes
and consequently the consumption potential is also low.
Both quantitative and qualitative aspects related to education have to be taken into
consideration when analysing the environment of a foreign country. Consequently
when studying the education in a foreign country, the company should be
interested in:
1. The type of educational system. There are different types of educational
systems in the world that may result in different way of thinking of consumers
around the world. The educational systems can take many forms and it is important
to the marketer to understand the differences because it can indicate the type of
consumer market available. For instance, the traditional European system
emphasizes accumulation of knowledge while the American education system
emphasizes on the development of analytical and problem solving abilities. Japan
and Korea emphasize the sciences, especially engineering to a greater extent than
some Western countries do 17 . People who go through different educational systems
develop different ways of thinking and different aptitudes and they are valuable for
the international company.
2. The level of education and the enrolment levels. The following
indicators should be of interest in order to evaluate the level of education in a
foreign country:
ª number of years of compulsory education (four classes in Mexico,
eight classes everywhere, twelve classes in Romania before 1990). The
level of education and participation of young people in educational
systems drives a country’s level of literacy and knowledge.
ª the education forms (full-time day, part time evening, distance
learning) and number of hours allocated. For instance, there are
differences in the number of hours spent by high school pupils on core
subjects such as mathematics, science and history in different

17
Czinkota M. and Ronkainen I., Op. Cit., p. 78.
The cultural environment

countries: 1460 hours per year in USA, 3170 hours per year in Japan,
3280 hours per year in France, 3528 hours per year in Germany 18 .
ª the access of women to education. In Muslim countries education is
largely preserved to males and often males are better educated in such
societies than females.
Table no. 3.1 presents countries that have the degree of illiteracy above 50%.

Table no. 3.1 Selected economies with illiteracy rates of 50% and over, 2001

Illiteracy rate
both male
% Male % Female %
and female –
country, 2001
Niger 83.5 Niger 75.6 Niger 91.1
Burkina Faso 75.2 Burkina Faso 65.1 Burkina Faso 85.1
Mali 73.6 Mali 63.3 Mali 83.4
Gambia 62.2 Gambia 55 Iraq 76.3
Senegal 61.7 Ethiopia 51.9 Benin 75.4
Iraq 60.3 Senegal 51.9 Guinea Bissau 75.3
Ethiopia 59.7 Bangladesh 50.1 Nepal 74.8
Bangladesh 59.4 Yemen 73.1
Mauritania 59.3 Senegal 71.2
Nepal 57.1 Pakistan 71.2
Pakistan 56 Mozambique 70
Mozambique 54.8 Bangladesh 69.2
Yemen 52.3 Morocco 62.8
Burundi 50.8 Egypt 55.2
Morocco 50.2 India 53.6
Sudan 52.3
Haiti 51.1
Source: www.uis.unesco.org,

3. The literacy rate it is also of interest for the international marketer. A

high level of illiteracy will suggest he use of visual aids rather than printing
materials in advertising. For instance, in some African countries a baby-food
company found out that one reason for its low sales in the region was the fact that

18
Jeannet J. P. and Hennessey H. , Op. Cit. p. 92-93.
 International Marketing

the picture on the label showing a baby, was interpreted by locals (due to their low
level of education) as containing babies 19 .
Education is important as it can influence the marketing activities of the company
in a country. For instance:
¾ a high level of illiteracy especially for women means that products
have to be modified, simplified and packaging and labelling have also
to be adapted; promotion has to be adapted: no written ads will be used
and the message will be simple and explanatory.
¾ a high level of illiteracy affects marketing research as communication
with consumers is difficult and qualified researchers and operators are
difficult to find.
¾ the cooperation with the members of the distribution channels depends
on their level of education.
¾ the nature and quality of marketing support services (such as
advertising agencies) depends on the way the educational system of
the country trained people for such occupation.

Aesthetics refers to the ideas of a culture about beauty and good taste that are
expressed through art, music, dance, colours, shapes. Such things are very
important in international marketing because they show how each culture
interprets symbols, colours and what are the beauty standards of a culture.
Colours are often used as a way to identify brands and to differentiate products.
Colours have different connotation and symbolic value in international markets.
While in Europe black is the symbol of death in some countries of Asia (Japan)
white is the symbol of mourning for the deceased. Green is the symbol of illness in
Malaysia and symbolizes death in Singapore. Red is a good luck colour in many
Oriental countries, while in African countries has a negative connotation. Colours
have different meanings in different countries and international marketers have to
know the symbols of colours in different countries before using them.
Customers everywhere respond to images and myths that help them to define their
personal and national identities. If these are not taken into consideration, mistakes
can take place. In 1997 the shoemaker Nike had to recall one model from the
international market because it had a logo intend to represent flames but that was
resembling the Arabic script of the word ”Allah”. Muslim leaders complained as

19
Kotabe M. and Helsen K., Op. Cit., pp. 94-95.
The cultural environment

finding offending the logo and the company withdraw the shoes from the world
market 20 .
Standards of beauty also differ from one country to another: what is beautiful for
some countries might be ugly for others. Imagine an ad for a Chinese product that
is done in Romania using Chinese music. The international marketer has to know
what are the aesthetic standards in a country in order to design the product styling,
the packaging and the adverts.

The value systems shape people’s norms and standards and they vary a lot across
cultures. They have their origin in history and cannot be changed in a short time.
Most of the human behaviour depends on values and attitudes. Values and
attitudes help us to determine what we think is right and wrong and what is
important and desirable and what is not. Both consumption and business behaviour
are directly related to values. And international marketers have to understand
them. Social norms represent models of behaviour and the accepted roles and
standards in a society. A belief is a person’s opinion about something and may be
based on a real fact, subjective opinion or faith 21 . For instance, someone can
believe that Dove soap is a very smooth and creamy soap. Marketers should be
interested in people’s beliefs, as they act according to these beliefs. An attitude is a
person’s point of view towards something and usually involves liking or
disliking 22 . Someone may think that the German products are the best quality
products and this will lead to a certain behaviour towards German products.
Attitudes are usually difficult to change and marketers can try to fit their products
into existing attitudes rather than trying to change them. Values are shared beliefs
or group norms 23 . They are important to be known in order to communicate
effectively with the consumers.

People’s attitude towards time vary across cultures and consequently will affect the
operation of the company in a foreign market. Edward Hall defines two time
systems 24 that can be found in different cultures: the monochronic time and the
polychronic time. In the societies that are based on the monochromic time
(M-time) people do one thing at a time, people are very punctual, they have an
organized agenda, they do not waste time, they are the “time is money” type

20
Cateora Ph. and Graham J., 2002, Op. Cit., p. 106.
21
Chee H. and Harris R., 1998, Global Marketing Strategy, Financial Times Pitman Publishing, p. 147.
22
Ibidem.
23
Ibid.
24
Hall. E. T., 1976, Beyond Culture, Anchor Press, New York.
 International Marketing

of people. These are North Americans, Swiss, Germans, Scandinavians. In the

societies that are based on the polychronic time (P-time), people have a completely
different concept of time: people do several things at a time, they are less
organized, they are less punctual, they are less rigid regarding the schedule, for
them business is a way of socializing, not the other way around, people allow for
relationships to be built. These are Latin American peoples.
Most cultures represent a mixture of M-time with P-time, but they have a tendency
to be either M-time or P-time. An example is Japan, where people arrive at
meetings on M-time but allow for P-time once the meeting begins. Recently most
business-people from P-time cultures are adapting to M-time.

Formality also differs from country to country and is important to be known as it

affects the communication between people. For instance, in USA and UK people
talk on their first name even in business environment (there is only one form of
addressing in English); in Germany, France and Romania people should use the
polite form in the business environment (these languages have two forms of
addressing); in Japan there are three forms of addressing/greeting according to the
social status and the hierarchical level (superior, equal, inferior).

Attitudes towards achievement differ from one society to another. In Western

societies achievement is well rewarded and this motivate people to work more and
to accumulate more, by acquiring goods and services. In other societies, such as
some Asian societies, achievement does not motivate people and spiritual
rewarding is more important.

Attitudes towards change can also differ from one country to another. There are
countries more resistant to change than others, where innovations and new products
are accepted more slowly and with higher difficulty. Japan is seen as a conservative
country, more resistant to change, while Scandinavian countries are more
innovative and more open to change.

Attitudes towards foreign cultures will affect activities such as positioning in

marketing. At the beginning of 1990’s American cigarettes were promoted in
Romania using the theme of the American dream, as it was a positive image of this
country in Romania. Later on, the well known slogan ”We don’t sell our country!”
influenced more the acquisition of Romanian companies by foreign investors,
rather than the acquisition of foreign products by Romanian consumers.
The cultural environment

The Japanese raise a huge wall against foreigners (gaijin) and many middle aged
bureaucrats and company officials think that buying foreign products is
unpatriotic. The Chinese think that one should build relationship (guanxi) first and
if that is successful the transaction will follow 25 .

Social behaviours are also important as they might have different meanings in
different countries. In most countries is impolite to make noises when eating and
to belch. In China it is polite to belch at the end of the meal as a sign of
satisfaction with the food. In UK is polite to eat all what is placed on the plate,
while in China if you eat all on the plate it is considered that the food was not
enough and you receive more food.
In Saudi Arabia it is an insult to question a host about the health of his spouse or to
show the soles of your shoes. In Korea you should use your both hands when you
hand in an object to another person. In Indonesia it is considered rude to point a
finger at another person. 26

3.2.2 The analysis of cultures

The cultural analysis implies gathering cultural knowledge that should be

interpreted by showing cultural sensitivity in order to make cross-cultural
comparisons.

3.2.2.1 Cultural knowledge

When analysing the culture of a country the marketer will gather information in
order to get knowledge about that country’s culture. There are two types of
cultural knowledge relevant to the international marketer, the factual knowledge
and the interpretive knowledge.
The factual knowledge refers to straightforward information about a cultural
environment, the facts that a marketer can study and understand, it is usually obvious
and it has to be learned. Such factual knowledge can be the meanings attached to
different colours and tastes, or statistics about a country’s population etc.

25
Czinkota M. and Ronkainen I., Op. Cit., p. 69.
26
Keegan K., Op. Cit., p. 67.
 International Marketing

The interpretive knowledge about culture refers to the ability to understand and
appreciate the nuances of different cultural patterns and traits. This type of
knowledge requires a degree of insight that may be described as a feeling and goes
beyond factual knowledge.
The international marketer has to have both types of knowledge: the factual
knowledge and the interpretive knowledge.
For example, factual knowledge is the fact that 98% of the Mexican population is
Catholic, but what it actually means this? What is the interpretation of this
information? Do they have the same traditions like other Catholics around the
world or do they have different traditions? 27
The interpretive knowledge is also known as experiential knowledge as it is
usually acquired based on experience in that particular cultural environment. In
case that experience does not exist in a particular country, it is advisable to work
with locals in order to be able to identify and use the interpretive knowledge.

3.2.2.2 Cultural sensitivity

When analysing culture, the international marketer has to show cultural sensitivity
or cultural empathy. They should try to get rid of the self reference criterion
(SRC), they should stop judging other cultures based on their own experience, and
based on the belief that one’s culture is superior to another culture.
James Lee was the one who has introduced the concept of self-reference criterion
(discussed in chapter no. 1) as being the root to most international business
problems. He also proposed a four steps analytical approach in order to reduce the
influence of one’s own cultural values 28 :
1. Define the problem or goal in terms of domestic cultural traits, habits
and norms.
2. Define the problem or goal in terms of foreign cultural traits, habits or
norms. Make no value judgments.
3. Isolate the self-reference criterion in the problem and see how it
complicates the problem.
4. Redefine the problem without the self-reference criterion influence and
solve for optimal the goal situation.

27
Cateora Ph. and Graham J., 2002, Op. Cit, p. 108.
28
Lee James A., 1966, „Cultural Analysis in Overseas Operations”, Harvard Business Review, no. 44,
March - April, p. 106-114.
The cultural environment

Cultural sensitivity or cultural empathy means that international marketers have to

admit from the very beginning that there are no right or wrong cultures, there are
simply different cultures. Marketers should accept that cultures are different but
equal. Just because a culture is different does not make it wrong. The belief that
one’s own culture is better just because it is his own depicts the philosophy of
ethnocentrism, one of the main dangers for the international marketer.
If there is no cultural empathy, tolerance and flexibility, conflict and
miscommunication arises.

Another important aspect when going internationally is the feeling of people, going
to work abroad. Business people moving to another culture usually experience
stress and tension, that is known as the cultural shock. An individual who enters a
new different culture has to learn how to cope with the new cultural values, as well
as to identify which ones of the old ones do not work in the new environment.
Harris and Moran presented ten tips in order to deflate the stress and the tension of
cultural shock 29 :
1. Be culturally prepared.
2. Learn local communication complexities.
3. Mix with the host and nationals.
4. Be creative and experimental.
5. Be culturally sensitive.
6. Recognize complexities in host cultures.
7. Perceive oneself as a culture bearer.
8. Be patient, understanding and accepting of oneself and one’s hosts.
9. Be most realistic in expectations.
10. Accept the challenge of intercultural experiences.

Also in order to diminish the cultural shock when going internationally and also to
foster cultural sensitivity and acceptance of new ways of doing things, training and
educational programs are needed. Czinkota and Ronkainen present a few cultural
training methods 30 :
1. Area studies programs through which is provided factual information
about a particular country. It is of little use to the international manager, but should
be the prerequisite for other training programs.

29
Harris Ph. and Moran R., 1987, Managing Cultural Differences, Gulf Publishing,, p. 212-215.
30
Czinkota M and Ronkainen I., Op. Cit., p. 86-89.
 International Marketing

2. The cultural assimilator is a program in which trainees must respond

to scenarios of specific situations in a particular country. The results are evaluated
by a panel of judges and the program is usually used to assess the suitability of
assigning a new manager abroad on a very short notice.
3. Sensitivity training programs focus on enhancing a manager’s
flexibility in situations that are quite different from those in the home country.
4. On-line training based on detailed scenarios, on relevant exercises
and on-line discussions that are delivered gradually and based on a set of support
materials.
5. Field experience that consists of sending the manager in to the
different cultural environment for a limited period of time.

3.2.2.3 Cross cultural comparisons

The analysis of culture in order to understand the environment of a country and

also to make cross-cultural comparisons envisages both macro analysis and micro
analysis.
The macro-analysis of the cultural environment includes an examination of the
variability, complexity, cultural hostility, heterogeneity and degree of
interdependence of a country’s culture. The macro-analysis is trying to identify the
climate in a country and its attitude towards business and products. The micro-
analysis focuses on the cultural impact on the target market or segment. It tries to
identify how cultural influences affect individuals in the market place. Aspects
discussed under cultural values are relevant for micro-analysis. Further we will be
discussing a few aspects relevant to micro-analysis of cultures.
From the point of view of complexity, cultures were divided by Hall in low-context
cultures and high-context cultures 31 :
The low-context cultures are those in which words carry most of information
(message), they depend on explicit verbally expressed communication, what is
meant is what is said, the context in which things are said does not matter.
Countries with low context cultures are USA, Germany, Switzerland, the
Scandinavian countries.
The high context countries are those in which communication depends on context
and non-verbal language, less information is contained in the verbal part of the

31
Hall E. T., 1976, Beyond Culture, Anchor Press, New York.
The cultural environment

message, a lot is implicit. Countries with high context cultures, or implicit cultures
are Japan, China, Asian countries, Arab countries, Latin American countries.
To know the contextual background of countries is important for communication in
business between people from different contextual backgrounds as well as for
planning marketing activities. For instance, if we talk about distribution based on
personal selling, in low-context cultures like USA sales people are rotated across
territories. In high context cultures where trust and friendship and social relationship
play an important role in business they are not rotated. See also table no. 3.2.
Although countries can be classified as high or low context in their overall
tendency, there are exceptions to the general tendency in a country and these
exceptions are found in subcultures. For instance, in USA that is a low-context
culture, there is Mafia that has a high context culture that is based on language,
ritual and a strong sense of distinct identity 32 .

Table no. 3.2 Dimensions of the high and low-context cultures

Dimensions High context Low context

Lawyers Less important Very important
A person’s word Is his or her bond Is not to be relied on; “get
it in writing”
Responsibility for Taken by highest level Pushed to lowest level
organizational error
Space People breathe on each other People maintain a bubble
of private space and resent
intrusions
Time Polychronic – everything in Monochronic – time is
life must be dealt with in its own money. Linear – one thing
time at a time
Negotiations Are lengthy – a major Proceed quickly
purpose is to allow the
parties to get to know
each other
Competitive biding Infrequent Common
Source: Keegan W., 1999, Global Marketing Management, Prentice Hall, p. 64.

Cultural homogeneity/heterogeneity refers to the degree to which separate cultures

are similar or dissimilar. This is another aspect based on which one can make
32
Keegan W., Op. Cit., p.63.
 International Marketing

cross-cultural comparisons. There are countries that have homogenous cultures and
there are countries that have more heterogeneous cultures. In the countries with
homogenous cultures people speak the same language, they have the same religion
and they have the same believes. Such countries are Japan, Korea, Scandinavian
countries. New products diffuse more rapidly in homogenous countries.
Heterogeneous cultures usually have more religions and people’s beliefs differ.
One such example is China, where each province it is a culture in itself. India is
another example with its 14 official languages and the 750 dialects. For countries
with heterogeneous cultures differentiated marketing strategies are needed.

Cultural hostility refers to the degree to which conditions in a culture are

threatening to organizational goals. The extent of hostility depends upon the
perceived acceptability and legitimacy of the firm. Hostility means that the firm
will be less able to acquire raw materials, capital, personnel, information.
Goodwill, political favours and other resources. Hostility may also reduce a firm’s
ability to dispose of its products and services 33 .

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions are also used to make cross-cultural comparisons.

The Dutch professor Hofstede made a research in 66 IBM subsidiaries worldwide
and based on this, identified four cultural dimensions that were used to classify
countries into groups according to the way they respond to business and market
context. It was noticed that there is a close link between consumer behaviour
patterns and the four cultural dimensions identified by Hofstede.
The four dimensions identified by Hofstede are: individualism/collectivism, power
distance, uncertainty avoidance and masculinity/femininity.
A. Individualism/collectivism refers to the degree to which people prefer
to act as individuals rather than group members, the view they have about
themselves.
There are individualist societies (the “me” societies) where people have an
independent view of themselves, individual initiative is accepted and rewarded, ties
between individuals are loose, everybody is expected to look after himself and his
immediate family. Such countries are USA, UK, Germany, France.
There are collectivist societies (the “we” societies) where people have an
interdependent view of themselves, they are willing to connect with others, people
are integrated into strong, cohesive groups and these groups protect people during
their life’s in exchange of unquestioning loyalty. Such countries are Asian
countries, Arab countries and some Latin countries.

33
Bradley F., 1995, International Marketing Strategy, Prentice Hall, p. 147.
The cultural environment

B. Power distance refers to the degree to which social inequality is

tolerated in a society, to the authority orientation of a society.
There are countries that score high on power distance meaning that: they see as
acceptable a high inequality between members of the society, these societies are
hierarchical and force and manipulation are used as sources of power. Such
countries are Arab countries, Latin America, West Africa.
There are countries that score low on power distance: they value equality between
members of society, they use knowledge as a source of power. Such countries are
USA, UK, Germany, Netherlands.
C. Uncertainly avoidance refers to the degree to which uncertainty is
accepted or avoided in a society, to the willingness of a society to take risks or not.
There are countries that score high on uncertainly avoidance, that try to avoid
uncertainty, are not willing to take risks, they are intolerant to ambiguity, they are
distrustful to new ideas and behaviours, they prefer structured situations and clear
rules. These societies are more rigid, they stick to historically tested patterns of
behaviour and they do not like and do not take risks, they look for the absolute
truth. Examples of such countries are Japan, Mexico, France.
There are countries with low uncertainly avoidance. These countries tolerate and
accept uncertainty, they are willing to take risks, people are more easy going in
these countries, they take a more empirical approach to understanding and
knowledge. Such countries are USA, UK, Hong Kong.
D. Masculinity/femininity refers to the importance given by society to
either male values (assertiveness, competition, success, acquisition of money, not
caring about others) or female values (quality of life, human relationships,
solidarity, respect for others).
There are masculine societies that score high on masculinity where male values
prevail, these values are dominant in the society. Such societies are Japan, Mexico,
Germany.
There are feminine societies that score low on masculinity where female values are
dominant. Such countries are Netherlands, France, Scandinavian countries.
Follow up research of Hofstede’s work in Asia led to a fifth dimension, long-
termism. There are societies with a long term orientation, where people have
values that centre around the future (such as perseverance) and there are countries
that score low on long-termism and are short term oriented where values are based
on the past and the present (such as respect for tradition).
Table no. 3.3 shows the differences in the family, at school and at the work place
according to Hofstede’s dimensions.
 International Marketing

Table no. 3.3 Differences according to Hofstede’s dimensions

A. Differences according to individualism/collectivism
Collectivist societies Individualist societies
In the family: In the family:
Education towards “we” consciousness Education towards “I” consciousness
Opinions pre-determined by group Private opinion respected
Obligations to family or group Obligations to self (self-interest, self-
(harmony, respect, shame) actualisation, guilt)
At school: At school:
Learning is for young only Permanent education
Learn how to do Learn how to learn
At workplace: At workplace:
Values standards differ for in-group Same value standards apply to all
and out-group (universalism)
Relationship prevails over task Task prevails over relationship
Moral model of employers-employee Calculative model of employer-employee
relationship relationship
B. Differences according to power distance
Small power distance Large power distance
In the family: In the family:
Children encouraged to have a will of Children educated towards obedience to
their own parents
Parents treated as equals Parents treated as superiors
At school: At school:
Student-centred education Teacher-centred education (order)
At workplace: At workplace:
Subordinates expect to be consulted Subordinates expect to be told what to do
Ideal boss is resourceful democrat Ideal boss is benevolent autocrat
C. Differences according to uncertainty avoidance
Weak uncertainty avoidance Strong uncertainty avoidance
In the family: In the family:
What is different is ridiculous or curious What is different is dangerous
Ease, indolence, low stress Higher anxiety and stress
Aggression and emotions not shown Showing aggression and emotions accepted
At school: At school:
Students comfortable with unstructured Students comfortable with structured
learning situations, vague objectives, learning situations, precise objectives,
broad assignments, no time tables detailed assignments, strict time tables
Teachers may say “I do not know” Teachers should have all the answers
At workplace: At workplace:
Dislike of rules – written or unwritten Emotional need for rules – written or
Less formalisation and standardisation unwritten
More formalisation and standardisation
The cultural environment

D. Differences according to femininity/masculinity

Feminine societies Masculine societies
In the family: In the family:
Stress on relationships Stress on achievement
Solidarity Competition
Resolution of conflicts by compromise Resolution of conflicts by fighting them
and negotiations out
At school: At school:
Average student is norm Best students are norm
System rewards students’ social System rewards students’ academic
adaptation performance
Student’s failure at school is relatively Student’s failure at school is disaster
minor accident
At the workplace: At the workplace:
Assertiveness ridiculed Assertiveness appreciated
Undersell yourself Oversell yourself
Stress on life quality Stress on careers
Intuition Decisiveness
Source: Chee H. and Harris R., 1998, Global Marketing Strategy, Financial Times Pitman
Publishing, p. 153-154.

Hofstede supports the view that management practices in a country are culturally
dependent, leading to the conclusion that what works in one country might not
work in another. The dimensions can be also extended to marketing practices. A
high masculine society can mean preference for “high performance” products and
the use of the “successful achiever” theme in advertising. A strong uncertainty
avoidance may require strategies for reducing the perceived risk in product
purchase and use, such as emphasizing the functionality of the product. A low
uncertainty avoidance means a weak resistance to new products and a strong desire
of the consumer for novelty and variety, ensuring a faster spread of new products.
A feminine society will have consumers preoccupied by “environmentally
friendly” products and will accept socially conscious firms.
 International Marketing

3.2.3 Strategies related to the cultural environment

in foreign countries

After analysing the culture of a country, the company that wishes to enter that
market may decide either to adapt to that culture or to change the local culture.

3.2.3.1 Cultural adaptation

In terms of marketing, cultural adaptation is based on cultural congruence. The

strategy of cultural congruence involves selling products that are similar to those
that exist on the local market, products that correspond to the local cultural norms,
by trying to decrease in this way resistance of locals. The cultural adaptation of
products is recommended for the traditional societies, resistant and reluctant to
novelty, such as Asian cultures (Japan). For instance, Mc Donald’s in Japan started
initially with a USA style menu. The company realized that if it wants to go further
it has to adapt its menu to the Japanese culture. It introduced McChao a Chinese
fried rice, as 90% of the population eat rice daily. The result showed up
immediately as, sales increased 30%. It was noticed that 70% of the McChao sales
have been in the form of take out food bought by single businesspeople 34 .
The process of acculturation, of adjusting and adapting to a specific culture other
than one’s own, is one of the keys to success in international operations.
In terms of business customs a company entering a foreign market has to adapt
locally. Adaptation means to be aware of local customs and to be willing to
accommodate those differences that can cause misunderstanding, to be aware of the
self-reference criterion (SRC) and to avoid it. Business customs have been grouped
by Cateora and Graham in three categories 35 :
1. Cultural imperatives are business customs that must be known and
conformed to or avoided. For instance: in China you are not allowed to raise your
voice, you have to avoid to make your partner to “lose face”. In Japan prolonged
eye contact is considered offensive and therefore imperative to avoid. In Latin
America if you do not make a strong eye contact you risk to be considered evasive
or not to be trusted. This shows that it can happen that what is imperative to avoid
in one culture, it is imperative to do in another.

34
Jeannet J.P. and Hennessey H.D., Op. Cit., p. 108.
35
Cateora Ph. And Graham J., 2002, Op. Cit, p. 128-131.
The cultural environment

2. Cultural adiaphora are business customs and behaviours that foreigners

may conform to or participate if they wish, but they are not required. For example,
to eat and drink local specific food and, to bow your head in Japan as they do. Most
of the customs fit into this category. A symbolic attempt to participate in adiaphora
customs it is always welcomed as it helps to establish a rapport with the foreign
person. The marketer has to pay attention because what is considered adiaphora in
one culture may be perceived as an imperative in another. In China, during
negotiations, large quantities of alcohol are consumed and numerous toasts are
made. It is imperative to participate in the toasts and raise your glass but to drink is
optional. Arabs offer coffee during negotiations and a person has to accept it even
if he does not drink it all.
3. Cultural exclusives are those customs or behaviours that are reserved for
locals, from which foreigners are excluded. For instance, praying like a Muslim
when you are not one, is not acceptable, to criticize a country’s politics and morals,
is not advisable either. There are few cultural customs that are reserved exclusively
for locals.
There are not many imperatives or exclusives but most offensive behaviour results
from not recognizing them.

3.2.3.2 Cultural change

Culture has two contradictory characteristics, it is both conservative as it resists

change and is also dynamic because it changes continuously. The changing
character of culture is the one that is of interest for the international marketer, when
he is willing to try to change the local culture. Change is a result of the society
seeking ways to solve its problems. In many occasions societies have found
answers by looking to other cultures from which they borrow ideas. Cultural
borrowing is common to all cultures.
Cultural borrowing is the process through which cultural ways are borrowed from
other cultures in order to find better solutions to a society’s particular problems.
Cultures are unique but they are the result of borrowing from other cultures, the
behaviours they borrow are combined in an unique manner that becomes typical for
that society. Once a particular behaviour is seen as acceptable by the society, it
becomes approved way and becomes part of the society’s culture. The process of
cultural borrowing is the one that helps the company when, after analysing the
culture it decides that wishes to change the culture, not to adapt to it.
 International Marketing

The process of cultural change can take two forms:

1. The process of unplanned cultural change, when the company
introduces the new product to a country and hopes for the best. In this case only the
fact that the company introduced a new product whose acceptance requires a
change in consumer behaviour even if it does nothing else, initiates the process of
cultural change in that country. An innovation that offers advantages but it requires
a culture to change in order to benefit of those advantages establishes the bases for
cultural change. For instance, USA occupation forces introduced milk, bread and
steak to the Japanese culture during the second World War.
2. The process of planned cultural change takes place when the company
deliberately acts to change those aspects of the cultures that are resistant to the
company’s marketing goals. Through the planned cultural change the process is
accelerated by the company that acts as a change agent. The company acts as agent
of change when designs a strategy to change certain aspects of the culture in order
to overcome resistance to an innovative product. For example, an American
company producing frozen vegetables, in order to overcome the resistance of Asian
women to frozen vegetable had to convince Asian mom’s (who were proud of the
time spent to cook for the family- this was a sign of love and care for them) that by
using frozen vegetables they will have the opportunity to cook more often the
favourite meals for the family.
When a strategy of planned change is implemented the company has the
responsibility for the consequences of introducing that innovation. If dysfunctional
results happen as a result of marketing efforts, even if they are intentional or not,
the company is responsible.