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Concept Review with Key Terms

Chemical Bonds: A Preview—Chemical bonds form when the attractive forces between
negatively charged electrons and positively charged nuclei exceed the repulsions between the
nuclei to the maximum extent possible. The nature of the chemical bonds in a material
determines many of its properties.

The Lewis Theory of Chemical Bonding: An Overview—A Lewis symbol represents the
valence electrons of an element, shown through dots distributed about the chemical symbol of
the element. Lewis symbols of main-group elements are related to their locations in the periodic
table. In forming compounds, main-group elements generally tend to follow an octet rule, which
states that bonded atoms tend to acquire electron configurations having eight electrons in the
valence shell.

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Crystals—An ionic bond forms through the transfer of electrons from
metal to nonmetal atoms and the subsequent electrostatic attraction between the resulting ions.
An ionic crystal consists of an extended regular arrangement of ions.

Using Lewis Symbols to Represent Ionic Bonding—Ionic bonds between nonmetals and s-
block, p-block, and a few d-block metals can be represented through the Lewis symbols of the
respective anions and cations. This representation indicates the nature of electron transfer and the
basis for electrostatic attraction.

Energy Changes in Ionic Compound Formation—The net energy decrease in the formation of
an ionic crystal from its gaseous ions is the lattice energy. A Born–Haber cycle relates the
lattice energy and enthalpy of formation of an ionic compound, together with other atomic and
molecular properties.

Lewis Structures of Some Simple Molecules—A covalent bond forms when two atoms share
electrons. A Lewis structure of a molecule shows the arrangement of atoms in the molecule and
the covalent bonds between them. The Lewis structure depicts electron pairs in the molecule as
either bonding pairs or lone pairs:

Usually, each atom in a Lewis structure acquires a noble-gas electron configuration, which for
most atoms is a valence-shell octet of electrons. A covalent bond involving one electron pair is
called a single bond. A double bond involves two shared electron pairs, and a triple bond
involves three.

Polar Covalent Bonds and Electronegativity— Electronegativity (EN) is a measure of the


ability of an atom to attract the electrons of a chemical bond to itself and is related to the position
of an element in the periodic table. In a covalent bond between atoms of different EN values,
electrons are displaced toward the atom with the higher EN. Chemical bonds vary from non-
polar covalent (zero or very small ΔEN) to polar covalent to ionic (large ΔEN).
A Strategy for Writing Lewis Structures—Writing plausible Lewis structures for molecules or
polyatomic ions involves two general tasks: (1) writing the skeletal structure, which consists of
one or more central atoms bonded to a number of terminal atoms, and (2) distributing the
valence electrons among the atoms so as to (usually) follow the octet rule. The formal charge on
an atom can help determine the best Lewis structure for a molecule:

Resonance describes a phenomenon in which two or more Lewis structures have the same
skeletal structure but different distributions of electrons among the bonded atoms. The best
description of the actual structure, the resonance hybrid, is a combination of plausible
resonance structures. In a resonance hybrid, some of the bonding electrons are delocalized
over several atoms. The resonance hybrid should conform to experimental data, such as bond
lengths and/or bond energies, if these data are available.

Molecules that Do Not Follow the Octet Rule—Exceptions to the octet rule are found in odd-
electron molecules and in molecular fragments called free radicals. A few structures appear to
have too few electrons to complete the octets of all atoms in the molecule or ion. Some structures
appear to have too many. In the latter case, a central atom may have an expanded valence shell
involving five, six, or even more electron pairs.
Bond Lengths and Bond Energies—Bond length, which in some cases can be related to
atomic radii, is the internuclear distance between two bonded atoms. Bond length is greatly
affected by bond order, that is, whether the bond is single, double, or triple. Bond-dissociation
energy is the energy required to break one mole of bonds in a gaseous species; its value depends
on (1) the atoms in the bond, (2) the bond order, and (3) the particular molecule in which the
bond is found. Tabulated values are often averaged over a number of molecules containing the
same bond. Bond-dissociation energies and average bond energies can be used to estimate
enthalpy changes of reactions via the relationship

ΔH = ΔHbonds broken + ΔHbonds formed

Alkenes and Alkynes— Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more multiple bonds between
carbon atoms. Alkenes have double bonds, and alkynes have triple bonds. A characteristic
reaction of alkenes and alkynes is their ability to add atoms across the multiple bonds, thereby
converting the multiple bonds to single bonds.

Polymers— Some molecules containing multiple bonds undergo polymerization, a reaction in


which small molecules (monomers) join together in large numbers to produce a gigantic
molecule (polymer). Polymers typically are made up of long carbon chains, have high molecular
masses, and often are represented through the structure of only the repeating unit.

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