Yeldari Dam •Wilson Dam

•Vaitarna Dam •Ujani Dam •Tansa

Dam •Radhanagari Dam •Pawna
Dam •Panshet Dam •Nandur
Madhmeshwar Dam •Mulshi Dam
•Mula Dam •Manair Dam •Koyna
Dam •Kolkewadi Dam
•Khadakwasla Dam •Jaikwadi Dam
•Girna Dam •Gangapur Dam
•Bhatsa Dam •Bhandardara Dam
Dams in Maharashtra are constructed on several rivers flowing across the state which
include the Mula River, Bhima River and Godavari and a number of other rivers. These
dams are erected on different rivers flowing through Maharashtra in order to cater to the
drinking water requirements of the people living in closely located towns where the
availability of pure drinking water is very scarce. Some of the dams of Maharashtra are
located amidst a suitable natural setting, thus attracting tourists from different places.
There are hydroelectric power plants located at some of the Dams in state where hydro
electricity is generated.

One of the notable dams in Maharashtra is the Mula Dam. This dam is located at a
village by the name of Baragaon Nandur. The reservoir of the Mula Dam is known as
Dnayneshwar Sagar. This dam of Maharashtra was constructed with the objective of
supplying drinking water to the closely located towns like Ahmednagar and Rahuri.
Mula Dam is one of the chief sources of water in Ahmednagar District. This dam was
erected in the year 1974 and it is the biggest dam in Ahmednagar. Mula Dam site is one
of the renowned places of attractions in the state because of its scenic surroundings.
Suitable amenities for the visiting tourists to this site like rest houses and restaurants are
abundantly available.

Another major dam in Maharashtra is the Koyna Dam. This is one of the prime dams and
is situated in Koyna Nagar. Jaikwadi Dam or the Nath Sagar is situated very close to
Paithan, which lies at a distance of about 50 kilometres from Aurangabad district. This
dam is built on Godavari River and is at a distance of around 110 kilometres from
Ahmednagar. The Jaikwadi Dam spreads over an area of about 1300 sq kms. This dam
provides water to Aurangabad and produces abundant hydroelectric power. Another
popular dam in this state is the Ujani Dam, which is built on the Bhima River. Ujani dam
is situated in the Indapur Taluka of Pune. It possesses a vast catchments area. The
backwaters of this dam cover a large area and the dam is considered as one of the
appropriate tourist destinations of Maharashtra. Another well known dam is Mulshi
Dam. It is located in Pune District. This dam is built over the Mula River. Water from
this dam in Maharashtra is used for the purpose of irrigation. The Tata Power Company
LTD operates the Mulshi Dam for producing electricity at the closely located Bhira
hydroelectric power plant. The power generated by the power station of Mulshi Dam is
mainly supplied to the capital city Mumbai.

The Kolkewadi Dam is situated in the Konkan region of Maharashtra. The Kolkewadi
Dam is a vital part of the Koyna Dam hydroelectric project. The space behind the
 Kolkewadi dam is one of the most
sparsely populated regions of
Maharashtra. Another prominent dam
of Maharashtra is the Radhanagari
Dam. It is constructed over the River
Bhogawati. The Radhanagari Dam is
nearly a century old dam, principally
used for irrigation purpose and for the
generation of electricity. Panshet
Dam is another chief dam in Maharashtra which was erected around 40 years back for
irrigation purpose. This dam is one of the major sources of water in Thane District. This
dam of Maharashtra is a multipurpose project, which helps in the irrigation of agricultural
lands and generation of hydro electricity. The height of this dam is around 89 metres and
its length is nearly 959 metres.

Another dam in Maharashtra is the Vaitarna Dam in Thane. This dam is segregated into
three parts. As per the flow of the Vaitarna River, the three parts of this dam are Upper
Vaitarna Dam, Lower Vaitarna Dam and Middle Vaitarna Dam. The Upper Vaitarna
Dam is a scenic dam site, situated at a distance of about 20 kilometres from Khodala in
Thane district. The Vaitarna Dam is regarded as the major source of water in the city of
Mumbai. Another known dam in this state is the Pawna Dam which was constructed
across the River Pawna and is situated in close proximity to Lonavala. The vicinity of the
dam is famous as one of the most renowned tourist destination and the ferry services
across the dam caters to the transportation of tourists.

Among several dams in Maharashtra, Bhandardara Dam is one of the prominent dams
of the state. This dam is constructed over Arthur Lake in Ahmednagar District.
Bhandardara Dam was erected in 1926 and is noted for its tourism value. This dam is also
reputed as one of the oldest dams in Asia, erected at an elevation of 750 metres from
mean sea level. The major attraction is the Umbrella Falls, which offers the visitors with
a breathtaking sight. Another waterfall by the name of Randha falls is situated at a
distance of about 11 kilometres from this dam. Nandur Madhmeshwar Dam is a
continuing project by the state government of Maharashtra Government. The primary
purpose for the construction of the Nandur Madhmeshwar Dam is to provide water for
irrigation.

Yeldari Dam, constructed on the Purna River is a small hydel power station and
afterwards. The dam was renovated and developed as a gigantic reservoir and also
suitable tourist attraction of Maharashtra. Another dam by the name of the Manair Dam
is built on the River Manair. The Girna Dam in the state of Maharashtra is located in
Nasik District, which is drained by two chief rivers, the Girna and the Godavari. The
main purpose for the construction of the Girna Dam is to collect the water of the river for
irrigation purpose, especially in the rainy season. One of the notable dams in Maharashtra
is the Wilson Dam, which was constructed in the year 1910 across the Pravara River. It
is located 150 metres above sea level
Thus, the dams in Maharashtra act as the main source of water for different cities, towns
and villages in the state. These dams also hold some of the hydroelectric power plants
where electricity is genera

Periscopes are optical instruments that can afford submariners a limited though vital visual
picture outside their windowless hull. Traditionally, periscopes offered the submerged submarine
its only glimpse of the outside world. Movies have also made them the submarine's most familiar
feature.

Periscopes are still useful, despite the sonar and electronic sensors of modern submarines. They
can also be fitted with video cameras or other means of collecting permanent data. But operating
at periscope depth, just beneath the surface, submarines are relatively easy to detect. To prevent
detection, periscopes are used as infrequently and briefly as possible.

iseases of Animals, disorders affecting animals, mainly farm and pet animals, but also
laboratory animals, zoo animals, and wildlife. These diseases are of concern to humans because
of their importance economically and as regards public health.

Animal diseases may be classified, according to the causative agent, as bacterial diseases,
fungal diseases, viral diseases, parasitic diseases, hereditary diseases, and diseases caused by
environmental factors. Frequently, diseases may be brought on by a multitude of causes. A
relatively mild viral infection, for example, if favoured by hereditary susceptibility, may then
weaken the body's resistance to bacterial invasion.

Bacterial Diseases

Bacteria cause disease in several ways. Some produce powerful poisons or toxins; for example,
the botulinus bacillus, the tetanus bacillus, and the gas gangrene bacillus. Other bacteria cause
local or general death of body tissues, block the flow of blood, or cause severe irritation.
Salmonelloses, or any disease caused by Salmonella bacteria, are widespread. Pullorum
disease, caused by S. pullorum, threatened the chicken and turkey industry until brought under
control by elimination of infected birds through blood testing. Almost 2,000 other kinds of
Salmonella are known, each of which may cause disease in humans and animals. The bacterium
S. typhimurium is responsible for about half the so-called food-poisoning cases in humans, and
for many losses of poultry and other animals.

Leptospirosis, due to spiral bacteria of the genus Leptospira, causes losses in cattle, dogs, and
humans. Ponds, lakes, and other bodies of water are common sources of leptospirosis, and
rodents may carry the infection.

Tuberculosis may be caused by bacteria of the genus Mycobacterium. Monkeys and other
primates in zoos must be protected by glass walls from exposure to the bacteria from tubercular
humans. Humans must likewise be protected from tubercular cattle by periodic testing of milk
cows and by examination of meat animals at slaughter.

Anthrax, caused by Bacillus anthracis, affects humans and domestic animals. Resistant spores
that are carried in the hair or hides of animals or in floodwaters explain the sudden appearance of
this bacterial disease.

Pasteurellosis, or any infection caused by bacterium of the genus Pasteurella, such as fowl
cholera caused by P. multocida, is troublesome, affecting wildlife, domestic poultry, rabbits, and
other animals.
Tiny, soft-walled bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma cause a variety of diseases in animals and
humans, including pleuropneumonia of cattle, infectious sinusitis of turkeys, and chronic
respiratory disease of chickens.

Diseases that were traditionally thought to be viral in nature, such as psittacosis, or parrot fever,
are now believed to be caused by bacteria of the genus Chlamydia. Some serious diseases that
occur in both humans and animals are in this group.

Fungal Diseases

Fungi cause many serious diseases of animals. Aspergillus fungi may cause necrosis of the
lungs, the nervous system, and other organs. These fungi may also produce toxic products in
feed components, causing mycotoxicosis in the animal ingesting such feed. A yeast-like fungus,
Candida albicans, may cause death in turkeys, ptarmigan, hummingbirds, and other animals.
Dermatophytic fungi affect the skin of animals and humans. Dust-borne fungi, such as
Coccidioides immitis and Histoplasma capsulatum, produce lung disease or generalized disease
in animals and humans.

Viral Diseases

Viral agents are multitudinous, causing equine infectious anaemia, Newcastle disease, pig
cholera, fowl pox, rabies, canine distemper, encephalitis, and a host of other diseases. Several
viral agents cause tumour formation in poultry, known as the leukosis complex, resulting in
serious economic loss. Influenza viruses cause serious problems in pigs, horses, and birds.

Some viruses spread from mother to offspring through the placenta or through the egg, and some
have very resistant forms that can survive in dust. Other viruses require intimate contact to be
contagious. Still others are spread by the bite of arthropods.

Viruses are not always limited to one species of animals or to one kind of tissue or organ. On the
other hand, the severity of some diseases may be much greater in one species or one kind of
tissue.

Parasitic Diseases

Parasites, which attack all animals, range in size from tiny protozoa to metre-long kidney worms.

Protozoan diseases include the coccidioses, of great economic importance and generally
intestinal, although rabbits are susceptible to liver coccidiosis and geese to kidney coccidiosis;
the malarias, arthropod-borne infections with Plasmodium, leucocytozoon, or Haemoproteus
protozoa, all of which afflict zoo and wild animals; flagellate infections, such as trichomoniasis,
caused by Trichomonas gallinae in birds, or by T. fetus in cattle; and trypanosomiasis, also
known by the names nagana, surra, and dourine, caused by flagellates related to the agent of
African sleeping sickness.

Worms called helminths comprise a large, heterogeneous group of parasites, which includes the
following: roundworms (nematodes), flukes (trematodes), tapeworms (cestodes), thorny-headed
worms (acanthocephala), and tongue worms (linguatulids).

Migrating larval roundworms cause considerable damage to lungs and other organs in some
animals. Capillaria worms may attack the lining of the digestive tract. Adults of the heartworm,
Dirofilaria immitis, live in the hearts of dogs and produce microscopic larval stages, which swim in
the blood. Larvae of Strongylus vulgaris cause arterial obstruction, with resultant digestive
troubles and even lameness.

Tapeworms, adults of which are commonly found in the intestines of animals, often have very
damaging larval stages in body tissues of secondary hosts. Larval dog tapeworms form large
cysts in liver, lungs, and other organs of humans and other animals; the disease is called
echinococcosis.

Flukes, with several hosts in a complex life cycle, may be very damaging in themselves, for
example, the liver flukes affecting cattle, sheep, and goats; or they may act as carriers of other
disease agents, as in the case of flukes carrying an agent poisonous to dogs that is contracted
from infested salmon or trout. Swimmer's itch in humans is caused by developmental stages of
waterfowl flukes.

Thorny-headed worms embed their heads, equipped with many stout hooks, in the intestinal wall.
They are common in the robin as well as in other birds.

Tongue worms have a complex life history, passing through stages, one of which has legs, in the
internal organs of one host; they then develop into adulthood in the respiratory passages of
another species of host. Arthropods, generally external parasites, have some species with some
or all stages inside the body of the host. They damage animals by feeding on body tissues,
producing toxic substances and sensitizing substances, and transmitting disease agents.

Insects, among the arthropods, include those that are bloodsuckers as adults, for example,
mosquitoes, gnats, some flies, fleas, and some lice; those that are bloodsuckers in larval stages,
such as ear maggots, Protocalliphora, of hawk nestlings; and those that eat tissue, including
some larval flies and some lice. Great damage to the meat and hides of cattle is caused by larval
flies such as ox warbles, which migrate through the tissues and, after boring breathing holes
through the skin, leave the body to pupate. Bloodsucking Diptera often transmit blood protozoa
and arboviruses. A wingless fly, the sheep ked, is often mistakenly called a sheep tick.

Lice are of two types, those with chewing mouthparts and those with sucking mouthparts. Lice
cause irritation, carry disease agents, and may cause anaemia.

Fleas are all bloodsuckers. They may carry larval tapeworms, may transmit filarial worms, and
may carry other disease agents. The sticktight flea may kill young birds by excessive
bloodsucking.

Acarine parasites include mites and ticks. Mites may be external bloodsuckers, such as the red
mite of birds, which can also affect humans and other animals; or they may be internal parasites,
such as the Sternostoma mites of the lungs and air passages of canaries and other birds. Ticks,
larger than mites, suck blood and transmit disease agents in the forms of protozoa, viruses, and
bacteria. Ticks may have several hosts during their life cycle.

Hereditary Diseases

Heredity plays a large part in animal disease, either in directly causing skeletal, skin, or endocrine
defects, or by making the animal more susceptible to other disease agents. Although animals
may be bred for resistance to specific disease agents, breeders must be alert, however, for
unwanted characteristics that may accompany desirable ones in the genetic apparatus.

Environmental Factors
Heat is an important factor environmentally, especially in young animals whose protective coats
or physiological mechanisms have not yet developed. Chilling or overheating can cause death,
and male sterility may develop from relatively slight overheating. Electricity, in the form of
lightning or of feed-intake-inhibiting shocks from mechanical feeders, is always a hazard to
animals. High-frequency radiation may also cause serious trouble. Poorly pigmented animals may
be harmed by ultraviolet light, and even radar waves, at close range, can kill animals. X-rays and
atomic radiation may damage blood-forming tissues, reproductive cells, and other tissues.
Ordinary physical injuries from objects or other animals are always a matter of concern because
they can lead to bacterial infection.

Poisonous plants may cause serious losses, usually in particular locations or at particular times,
such as early spring, when non-poisonous forage plants are not readily available. Some plants
are poisonous only at certain times, for example, Sudan grass, which is poisonous only when
wilted or frozen. Other plants, such as white snakeroot (see Milkwort), are always poisonous.

Pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and other subtances used in pest control and
weed control cause sickness and death if improperly used. Pesticides are, however, often
wrongly blamed for animal losses actually due to undetected viral or bacterial disease.

Drugs used excessively or otherwise improperly kill many animals. Broad-spectrum antibiotics in
guinea-pig feeds are often lethal and excess salt may kill pigs and chickens.

Water is essential to most body functions. If it is lacking death results. Overeating, especially of
unusual feeds, causes digestive disorders. Starvation may result if feed is not readily available to
an animal or if it is socially dominated by other animals.

Nutritional requirements and complexities of animals, despite many years of intensive research,
are still imperfectly understood. Each species, as well as each breed or strain within a species,
varies in its needs. A Great Dane puppy, for example, will develop rickets on a diet adequate for a
terrier pup. The young of pheasants and turkeys require much more protein than do chickens.
Certain feeds may also predispose animals to disease. Thus, hummingbirds develop candidiasis
on honey feeding but not on sucrose syrup. Feeds may also contain antivitamins that produce
deficiency diseases.

Control of Disease

In the past government programmes eradicated such devastating diseases as dourine and
glanders of horses, and pleuropneumonia and foot-and-mouth disease of cattle, and have
brought under control such diseases as brucellosis, or undulant fever and pig cholera. Control
measures in present-day programmes include quarantine of imported animals; cooperation of
agencies in the study and control of animal diseases; inspection of red meat and poultry to
minimize the danger of spread of animal disease to human beings; and the inspection and
evaluation of vaccines and other pharmaceutical and biological products as to purity, efficacy,
and safety. Universities and other research institutions conduct studies on the many disease
problems that affect animals of all kinds.

his site provides detailed information on the Pollution Control Measures. It also focuses
on other factors that governs the Petrochemical Industry and addresses Environmental
concerns.
 The Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals, GOI are the concerned
highest authority to deal with Pollution Control Measures. TheIndian Pollution
Control Measures related issues are well addressed. TheIndian Pollution Control
Measures for the protection of environment is at par with world standard.

The Pollution Control Measures undertaken by the government ofIndia are:

• Adoption of cost effective cleaner technologies should be encouraged

• Implementation of waste minimization techniques and adoption of appropriate
pollution control measures
• Discard and discourage technologies which do not conform to the quality of
products
• Spreading awareness messages through programs for the prospective and existing
entrepreneurs on usage of cleaner technologies and pollution control
• Waste minimization for improvement of productivity and creation of Waste
minimization circle
• Assistance for sustainable development to be facilitated by the Government
ofIndia through fiscal incentives, technology, trainings etc
• An additional system of taxation to be introduced based on concentration of waste
• Encourage industry to regard 'pollution' as an economic problem
• To decide the cost of water, power, fuel, etc through market instruments
• Tax exemption on waste selling, resource recovery and reuse to be introduced
• Incentives may be introduced on waste selling, resource recovery, reuse, etc
• Scattered business units to follow stringent pollution control regulations
• Allowance for capital investment and cleaner technology from foreign and private
players
• Simplification of Environmental clearance procedures for the industries located in
industrial estates
• Encourage Common Effluent Treatment Plant
• Encourage common captive power plant and steam generation unit
• During relocation of units detailed action plan to be prepared based on
• environmental risk assessment
• change of technology
• waste minimization
• Small industries to get assistance from government
• Further Research and development of cleaner technologies is propose

ollution control is necessary due to two reasons:

• Polluted air and water are harmful to life. Air pollution creates problems for
healthy living beings, plants and also material. Water pollution also creates
problems for all living beings, agriculture, water bodies, all plants and animals
living in water, land fertility etc. Thus, one’s consciousness should always
attempt to generate means to control pollution of any type.
• Most of the governments all over the world have laws by which no one is
suppose to exceed creating pollution in air or water beyond prescribed limits.
Law breakers often face punishments to the tune of heavy fines and even
stoppage of work.
Bhopal, India gas tragedy is the best example to explain the necessity to take
adequate measures to control pollution. Thousands of people were affested due to
lack of adequate measures. The managing director of the company Union carbide,
India was arrested and a warrant issued against the name of Union carbide USA till
he lived.

Another example is the BSES plant at Dahanu, India. While preparation of the
feasibility report, plant designers had not considered the low sulphonation plant
while starting the unit. With more than 10 years of litigation, it has surfaced now
that the court had to order stoppage of work or take necessary steps.

The above examples should be enough to make one understand the need to take
measures to control pollution. Steps taken initially, would benefit in the long run.
This is the reason we say ‘Pollution Control Pays Back – Earn while you Clean’

Main causes of Industrial Air Pollution

In factories and industrial plants, the main culprit is the process adopted to
manufacture chemicals etc. Manufacturing an item is required, but equally necessary
is the necessity to control the pollutants created during this manufacturing process
as byproducts.
If a system is well designed to produce, chances of pollution are remote. However,
many of the plant designers do not have the concept of pollution control in their
minds while designing plants. They normally have the objective to design to
manufacture the right product at low capital and power costs. Pollution is considered
as optional.
Due to this approach, most of the industrial plants generate large quantities of
pollutants in air, mostly in form of gases.
Another reason of this is the dearth of pollution control consultants. Each and every
unit has to be doubly checked with in-house consultants to ensure that problems do
not arise later.

The main products polluting air are acid vapors, sulphur-di-oxide, chlorine, carbon
monoxide, hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, particulates, benzene byproducts etc.
These products are not supposed to be released in the atmosphere. Also, as these
products are expensive, prevention of these products also provides the owner some
gains.
Faulty pipes, duct joint openings are the main source from which these products
escape.

Steps to prevent Industrial Air Pollution

For existing plants, thorough study should be made to locate the sources. Pressures,
Temperatures etc. should be adjusted so that the leakages are minimum. At a level
when reduction is not possible, steps should be taken to collect the same and then
provide treatment.
Plants designed 10 years or before or by lowly equipped designs are sure cases for
detailed study.
For prevention generous use of scrubbers & filters will be necessary.
It is said that a routine check will reduce 10%, a minor modification will reduce 15-
20% and a thorough overhauling of the system will reduce more than 30% of power
consumption and pollution creation.

Industrial Water Pollution

When various byproducts are released in drains they travel to the common drains.
The washing of the equipment also adds water to this. These are the main causes of
contamination of water.
At present all the chemicals and water are collected at one place. This is subjected to
effluent treatment. This is a compulsion for all units. Due to the running costs,
medium and small scale unit owners try to circumvent this without realizing the folly.
A restudy by an experienced pollution control advisor can reduce the costs
substantially.

Vehicle emissions control is the study and practice of reducing the motor vehicle
emissions -- emissions produced by motor vehicles, especially internal combustion
engines.

Emissions of many air pollutants have been shown to have variety of negative effects on
public health and the natural environment. Emissions that are principal pollutants of
concern include:

• Hydrocarbons - A class of burned or partially burned fuel, hydrocarbons are

toxins and are a major contributor to smog, which can be a major problem in
urban areas. Prolonged exposure to hydrocarbons contributes to asthma, liver
disease, and cancer. Regulations governing hydrocarbons vary according to type
of engine and jurisdiction; in some cases, "non-methane hydrocarbons" are
regulated, while in other cases, "total hydrocarbons" are regulated. Technology
for one application (to meet a non-methane hydrocarbon standard) may not be
suitable for use in an application that has to meet a total hydrocarbon standard.
Methane is not toxic, but is more difficult to break down in a catalytic converter,
so in effect a "non-methane hydrocarbon" standard can be considered to be looser.
 Since methane is a greenhouse gas, interest is rising in how to eliminate emissions
of it.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) - A product of incomplete combustion, carbon monoxide
reduces the blood's ability to carry oxygen; overexposure (carbon monoxide
poisoning) may be fatal.
• Nitrogen oxides (NOx) - Generated when nitrogen in the air reacts with oxygen at
the high temperature and pressure inside the engine. NOx is a precursor to smog
and acid rain. NOx is a mixture of NO and NO2. NO2 destroys resistance to
respiratory infection. For dogs most of the nitrogen dioxide is removed in the
nasal cavity. Jumbo vehicles and delivery trucks blow hot exhaust, containing life
dangerous quantities of NO2 into the atmosphere.
• Particulate matter – Soot or smoke made up of particles in the micrometre size
range: Particulate matter causes negative health effects, including but not limited
to respiratory disease.
• Sulfur oxide (SOx) - A general term for oxides of sulphur, which are emitted from
motor vehicles burning fuel containing a high concentration of sulphur.
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) - Organic compounds which typically have
a boiling point less than or equal to 250 °C; for example Chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) and Formaldehyde.

crossbreed or crossbred usually refers to an animal with purebred parents of two

different breeds, varieties, or populations. Crossbreeding refers to the process of breeding
such an animal, often with the intention to create offspring that share the traits of both
parent lineages, or producing an animal with hybrid vigor. While crossbreeding is used to
maintain health and viability of animals, irresponsible crossbreeding can also produce
animals of inferior[clarification needed] quality or dilute a purebred gene pool to the point of
extinction of a given breed of animal.

The term is also used at times to refer to a domestic animal of unknown ancestry where
the breed status of only one parent or grandparent is known, though the term "mixed
breeding" is technically more accurate. The term outcross is used to describe a type of
crossbreeding used within a purebred breed to increase the genetic diversity within the
breed, particularly when there is a need to avoid inbreeding.

In general use, the term hybrid is commonly used to refer to plant breeding, such as that
of maize, though "hybrid" is also used to describe crosses between animals of the same
genus but different subspecies, such as the mule. "Crossbred" is more often used to refer
to animal breeding within a single species.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Crossbreeds in specific animals

o 1.1 Cattle
o 1.2 Sheep
 o 1.3 Llamas
o 1.4 Dogs
o 1.5 Horses
• 2 Hybrid animals
• 3 Mixed Breeds
• 4 See also

• 5 References

[edit] Crossbreeds in specific animals

[edit] Cattle

In cattle, there are systems of crossbreeding. One is used when the purebred females are
particularly adapted to a specific environment, and are crossed with purebred bulls from
another environment to produce a generation having traits of both parents.[1]

[edit] Sheep

The large number of breeds of sheep, which vary greatly, creates an opportunity for cross
breeding to be used to tailor production of lambs to the goal of the individual stockman.[2]

[edit] Llamas

Results of crossbreeding classic and woolly breeds of llama are unpredictable. The
resulting offspring displays physical characteristics of either parent, or a mix of
characteristics from both, periodically producing a fleeced llama. The results are
increasingly unpredictable when both parents are crossbreeds, with possibility of the
offspring displaying characteristics of a grandparent, not obvious in either parent. [3]

[edit] Dogs

Main article: Dog hybrid

A crossbred or hybrid dog is a cross between two (sometimes more) known breeds, and
is usually distinguished from a mixed-breed dog, which has ancestry from many sources,
some of which may not be known. Crossbreeds are popular, due to the belief that they
have increased hybrid vigor without loss of attractiveness of the dog. Certain planned
cross-breeding between purebred dogs of different breeds can produce puppies worth
more than their purebred parents, due to a high demand.[citation needed]

[edit] Horses
The National Show Horse was developed from crossbreeding programs in the 1970s and
1980s that blended Arabian horse and American Saddlebred bloodlines

Crossbreeding in horses is often done with the intent of ultimately creating a new breed
of horse. One type of modern crossbreeding in horses is used to create many of the
warmblood breeds. Warmbloods are a type of horse used in the sport horse disciplines,
usually registered in an open stud book by a studbook selection procedure that evaluates
conformation, pedigree and, in some animals, a training or performance standard. Most
warmblood breeds began as a cross of draft horse breeds on Thoroughbreds, but have, in
some cases, developed over the past century to the point where they are considered to be
a true-breeding population and have a closed stud book. Other types of recognized
crossbreeding include that within the American Quarter Horse, which will register horses
with one Thoroughbred parent and one registered Quarter Horse parent in the "Appendix"
registry, and allow such animals full breed registration status as Quarter Horses if they
meet a certain performance standard. Another well-known crossbred horse is the Anglo-
Arabian, which may be produced by a purebred Arabian horse crossed on a
Thoroughbred, or by various crosses of Anglo-Arabians with other Anglo-Arabians, as
long as the ensuing animal never has more than 75% or less than 25% of each breed
represented in its pedigree.

[edit] Hybrid animals

Main article: Hybrid (biology)

A hybrid animal is one with parentage of two separate species, differentiating it from
crossbred animals, which have parentage of the same species. Hybrids are usually, but
not always, sterile.[4]

One of the most ancient types of hybrid animal is the mule, a cross between a female
horse and a male donkey or ass. The liger is a hybrid cross between a male lion and
female tiger. The yattle is a cross between a cow and a yak. Other crosses include the
tigon (between a female lion and male tiger) and yakalo (between a yak and buffalo). The
Incas recognized that hybrids of Lama glama (llama) and Lama pacos (alpaca) resulted in
a hybrid with none of the advantages of either parent.[5]
At one time it was thought that dogs and wolves were separate species, and the crosses
between dogs and wolves were called wolf hybrids. Today wolves and dogs are both
recognized as Canis lupus, but the old term "wolf hybrid" is still used.

[edit] Mixed Breeds

A mixed breed animal is defined as having undocumented or unknown parentage, while a
crossbreed, as a rule has known, usually purebred parents of two distinct breeds or
varieties. A dog of unknown parentage is often called a mixed-breed dog, "mutt" or
"mongrel." A cat of unknown parentage is often referred to as a moggy. A horse of
unknown bloodlines is a grade horse.

[edit] See also

What is Tissue Culture ?
The propagation of a plant by using a plant part or single cell or group cell in a test tube
under very controlled and hygienic conditions is called "Tissue Culture".

Status in India
Banana is a globally important fruit crop with 97.5 million tones of production. In India it
supports livelihood of million of people. With total annual production of 16.91 million
tones from 490.70 thousand ha., with national average of 33.5 T/ha. Maharashtra ranks
first in production with 60 T/ha. Banana contributes 37% to total fruit production in
India.

Banana is one of the major and economically important fruit crop of Maharashtra.
Banana occupy 20% area among the total area under crop in India. Maharashtra ranks
second in area and first in productivity in India. Jalgaon is a major Banana growing
district in Maharashtra which occupy 50,000 hectares area under Banana. But most of
Banana is grown by planting suckers. The technology development in agriculture is very
fast, it results in developing Tissue Culture Technique.

Agro Climate
Banana is basically a tropical crop, grows well in temperature range of 13ºC – 38ºC with
RH regime of 75-85%. In India this crop is being cultivated in climate ranging from
humid tropical to dry mild subtropics through selection of appropriate varieties like
Grandnaine. Chilling injury occurs at temperatures below 12ºC. The normal growth of
the banana begins at 18ºC, reaches optimum at 27ºC, then declines and comes to a halt at
38ºC. Higher temperature causes sun scorching. High velocity wind which exceeds 80
km phrs damages the crop.
Soil
Soil for banana should have good drainage, adequate fertility and moisture. Deep, rich
loamy soil with pH between 6-7.5 are most preferred for banana cultivation. Ill drained,
poorly aerated and nutritionally deficient soils are not suitable for banana. Saline solid,
calcareous soil are not suitable for Banana cultivation. Avoided soil of low laying areas,
very sandy & heavy black cotton with ill drainage.

A soil that is not too acidic & not too alkaline, rich in organic material with high nitrogen
content, adequate phosphorus level and plenty of potash are good for banana.

Varieties
In India banana is grown under diverse conditions and production systems. Selection of
varieties, therefore is based on a large number of varieties catering to various kinds of
needs and situations. However, around 20 cultivars viz. Dwarf Cavendish, Robusta,
Monthan, Poovan, Nendran, Red banana, Nyali, Safed Velchi, Basarai, Ardhapuri,
Rasthali, Karpurvalli, Karthali and Grandnaine etc..

Grandnaine is gaining popularity and may soon be the most preferred variety due to its
tolerance to biotic stresses and good quality bunches. Bunches have well spaced hands
with straight orientation of figures, bigger in size. Fruit develops attractive uniform
yellow colour with better self life & quality than other cultivars.

Land Preparation
Prior to planting banana, grow the green manuring crop like daincha, cowpea etc. and
burry it in the soil. The land can be ploughed 2-4 times and leveled. Use ratovator or
harrow to break the clod and bring the soil to a fine tilt. During soil preparation basal
dose of FYM is added and thoroughly mixed into the soil.

A pit size of 45cm x 45cm x 45cm is normally required. The pits are to be refilled with
topsoil mixed with 10 kg of FYM (well decomposed), 250 gm of Neem cake and 20 gm
of conbofuron. Prepared pits are left to solar radiation helps in killing the harmful insects,
is effective against soil borne diseases and aids aeration. In saline alkali soil where PH is
above 8 Pit mixture is to be modified to incorporate organic matter.

Addition of organic matter helps in reducing salinity while addition of purlite improves,
porosity and aeration. Alternative to planting in pits is planting in furrows. Depnding on
soil strata one can choose appropriate method as well as spacing and depth at which plant
is required to be planted.