To do

To what extent is the global system now Bipolar like the cold war? (US and Russia)
To what extent does multipolarity result in conflict and instability?
‘The EU is a unique example of regional integration.’ Discuss.
Economic integration within regions inevitably leads to political integration.’ Discuss

Approaches to Global Politics

Nation-states are no longer the most significant actors in global politics

Political Globalisation-
The WTO has 197 members and dictates how every country trades which affects the liberal view of an increase of
globalisation and interdependence.
The IMF changes laws in order for loans and sets interest rates in some countries
The increasing importance and dependence of IGO’s for some countries leads to a loss of sovereignty (pooled
sovereignty) therefore less importance for nation-states
The rise of organisations that rule laws for countries such as the EU- predicted that 60% of UK laws are dictated by the
EU.
China VETO’d economic sanctions in Zimbabwe in 2008 and Syrian intervention in 2012
Institutional liberalists agree that political globalisation has reduced state sovereignty
High commissioner created in Lisbon Treaty 2009

Economic Globalisation-
The liberal idea of interdependence economically and the rising importance of soft power, and therefore economic
power, leads to states relying on each other
Joseph Nye (1977)- Complex Interdependence - The extent of how governments are affected by issues elsewhere in
the world e.g. Globalisation, climate change, poverty reduction, human rights
Moyo- Agrees with Nye, stating it creates increased reliance on IGO’s- Western aid to Africa creates dependency
Taiwan was poorer than Kenya in the 1950’s, Taiwan integrated into the global economy, and Kenya refused, now
Taiwan is 20 times richer than Kenya
In 1970, exports were worth $500 billion, in 2016 they were worth 20 trillion
Therefore, they aren’t significant actors due to their due to actions being the consequence of other states actions
such as economic gas sanctions on Russia in 2014

However, realists would argue that states are self-interested and only trade if it benefits their nations

Cultural Globalisation-
Due to cultural globalisation, there is an increase in TNC’s who now have power within many countries
Kenichi Ohmae 1990- Hyperglobalist- Due to globalisation since the 1970s and the decrease in capital control, we live
in a 'borderless world' and rely on each other and Multi National Corporations more than ever
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
McDonalds appoints over 1.8 million people globally which has an effect on the global economy

Rise of nationalism-
There has been many countries that are calling to leave IGO’s because they want full sovereignty
Eurosceptic- Brexit, Le Pen in France, Turkish neonationalism- Justice and Development Party
Although there was a rise of supranational institutions, states are leaving these to gain back sovereignty
Bull- The system of sovereign states is not in decline but essential foundation of world order
Realists- national interest -> foreign policy goals or policy preferences
Bobbit 2002- Transformationalist- Many states 'competition' or 'entrepreneurial' states- they are integrated in
globalisation but still remain under state control. Seek competitive advantage whilst maintaining national control

Humanitarian intervention –
The state holds power due to its ability for intervention, it can also be seen as colonialism or imperialism to ensure
survival
Rosseau- Popular sovereignty makes legal authority legitimate
Colonialism or imperialism to ensure survival and power maximisation.
Dunn- The state remains the principle institutional site of political experience
The UK and US invading Syria from 2015-Present and Ukraine invaded Ukraine in 2014
The US and UK invading Iraq without the permission of the UN
It can be seen that organisations are incapable of intervention
Intervention in Kosovo in 1999 where the NATO failed to act in a quick way which led to nation-states needing to act

However, the invasions of all these countries can also be seen as undermining states sovereignty as they didn’t have
any choice within the invasion.

Realists
Machiavelli – Classical Realist -Power is the most important thing in an anarchic global state
Waltz- States can never trust each other’s intentions, they don’t trust each other which leads them to be on guard
against relative loses of power to threaten survival
The North Korea, USA conflict between the two has resulted in tensions from a lack of trust
Trump has pulled out of the 2015 Iran nuclear deal due to the lack of trust
To maximise maximum power, states constrain each other resulting in ‘balance of power’- this results in the ‘security
dilemma’
Mearsheimer - States are rational actors, they assume that status quo powers do not exist: therefore, states go on the
offensive, to expand their territory or influence
In May 2018, Trump warned Kim Jon Un that he may have to intervene in the country in order to keep it civilised

To what extent is cooperation a feature of global politics?

Liberalists-
Idealism (belief that international politics should be based on morality), therefore states use humanitarianism within
international politic
Keohane and Nye (1977) - With globalisation comes complex interdependence - international agenda is becoming
broader with greater attention to 'low politics', trade over war, therefore using international institutions such as the
UN to act multilateral to solve global problems such as climate change and poverty
UN, foreign aid budget as there has been a shift from global issues such as war and security to environment and
terrorism
Woodrow Wilson- Founder of the League of Nations- Supported more international organisations- closer to an
effective global governance system- UN general assembly, EU parliament- A Qualified Majority Vote where two thirds
majority needed. There is limited chance to VETO

However, The US and UK invading Iraq without the permission of the UN

Economic Globalisation-
The liberal idea of interdependence economically and the rising importance of soft power, and therefore economic
power, leads to states relying on each other and cooperating
Joseph Nye (1977)- Complex Interdependence - The extent of how governments are affected by issues elsewhere in
the world e.g. Globalisation, climate change, poverty reduction, human rights
Taiwan was poorer than Kenya in the 1950’s, Taiwan integrated into the global economy, and Kenya refused, now
Taiwan is 20 times richer than Kenya
In 1970, exports were worth $500 billion, in 2016 they were worth 20 trillion
Naomi Klein- The spread of commodities globally means that consumerism has followed, life satisfaction depends on
material assets therefore cultural homogenisation
Therefore, the political system is one where states need to cooperate in order to gain prosperity

However, realists would argue that states are self-interested and only trade if it benefits their nations

Cultural Globalisation-
Due to cultural globalisation, there is an increase in TNC’s who now have power within many countries
Kenichi Ohmae 1990- Hyperglobalist- Due to globalisation since the 1970s and the decrease in capital control, we live
in a 'borderless world' and rely on each other and Multi-National Corporations more than ever
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
McDonalds appoints over 1.8 million people globally which has an effect on the global economy
Friedman- The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention - no two countries that are both part of the same global supply chain
will ever fight a war as long as they are each part of that supply chain
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy

Classical Realists
Classic realist state that a relative advantage is important for states within the global system and therefore
cooperation doesn’t help
Machiavelli – Classical Realist -Power is the most important thing in an anarchic global state
Hobbs- Human egoism leads to state egoism which means global politics leads to rivalry relative gains and therefore
states pursue maximum sovereignty and maximum military or security power. This leads to conflict through hard and
soft power.
Morgenthau – War will always be a feature of international politics- it is inevitable
US led intervention in Iraq in 2003 using military force to achieve their self-interest

Neo-Realists
Neo-Realists believe that the global system is anarchic and therefore states cannot trust each other
Waltz- Neo/Defensive Realist- States can never trust each other’s intentions, they don’t trust each other which leads
them to be on guard against relative loses of power to threaten survival
The North Korea, USA conflict between the two has resulted in tensions from a lack of trust
Trump has pulled out of the 2015 Iran nuclear deal due to the lack of trust
To maximise maximum power, states constrain each other resulting in ‘balance of power’- this results in the ‘security
dilemma’
Mearsheimer – Neo/Offensive Realist- States are rational actors, they assume that status quo powers do not exist:
therefore, states go on the offensive, to expand their territory or influence
In May 2018, Trump warned Kim Jon Un that he may have to intervene in the country in order to keep it civilised
Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014

Is war inevitable in global politics?

Classical Realism
Machiavelli - Classical Realist- War is inevitable in an anarchic system, Humans are ‘arrogant, violent and savage’ and
leaders gain power through the use of cunning, cruelty and manipulation
Hobbs- Human egoism leads to state egoism which means global politics leads to rivalry relative gains and therefore
states pursue maximum sovereignty and maximum military or security power. This leads to conflict through hard and
soft power.
Morgenthau – War will always be a feature of international politics- it is inevitable
US led intervention in Iraq in 2003 using military force to achieve their self-interest

Neo Realism
Waltz- States are concerned by security dilemma and are security maximisers’ and therefore gain power and rely on
‘self-help’ to avoid an attack or war- - States positions compared to one another- capabilities between them- this
leads to an arms race and ultimately that will lead to conflict
John Mearsheimer- Due to the anarchic state of the global body, states are aggressive and use hard power,
Colonialism or imperialism to ensure survival and power maximisation.
WW1 Germany and Austria Hungary- launched an offensive to maintain security
Waltz would argue it was to seek balance in power whilst Mearsheimer would argue it is to ensure power
maximisation

Marxists
Gramsci- cultural hegemony, large nations like the US control everything
Conflict is inevitable to capitalism- intervention and conflict is common amongst major powers who wish to exploit
the proletariat
Falklands War of 1982 whereby the United Kingdom fought to prolong their right to own the territory
Vietnam war was an imperial bourgeois dogma the wealthy bourgeois nation will attempt to take advantage of the
proletariat
War is inevitable as long as capitalism exists
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
Coca-Cola- sold in almost every country
This makes US more powerful and therefore in Gramsci’s eyes the rich richer.

Liberalists-
Idealism (belief that international politics should be based on morality), therefore states use humanitarianism within
international politics. With globalisation, nation states are increasingly interdependent, therefore using international
institutions such as the UN to act multilateral to solve global problems such as climate change and poverty
John Lock and Immanuel Kant- Humans are self-interested but also rational, therefore they will look to cooperate
rather than conflict. There has been a decline in inter-state wars since the cold war for this reason- This is shown
through the foreign policy.
India and Pakistan haven’t been to war since gaining nuclear weapons
the bipolar world order in the Cold War led to a balance of power which resulted in cooperation
Joshua Goldstein- States must act multilaterally to solve global problems
United Nations Millennium Development Goal – Commitment to reduce poverty
0.7% UN aid spending target - as there has been a shift from global issues such as war and security to environment
and terrorism

Neo-Liberals-
Nye and Keohane- Complex interdependence – There is a more attention to ‘low politics’, which is common causes
such as the environment
Thomas Friedman (2000) - globalization has occurred because of the global adoption of neoliberal economic policies
and things such as the IMF, the World Bank and the WTO
In post-Westphalian (Susan Strange) world we live in has increasingly permeable borders and sovereignty is outdated
the EU Schengen Area
Japan rely on oil exporting counties for oil- they rely on Japan for electronics -there is a mutual benefit for the two
trading and by declaring war, the benefit is lost

Political Globalisation
Due to the nature of institutions of a democracy, where government is accountable, nation-states will avoid going to
war- the electorate will not wish themselves to be send to war
Republican Liberalism is an theory which claims that Liberal Democracies rarely go to wa, and in that sense are more
peaceful.
Doyle- ‘Zones of peace’- regions where nation-states do not engage with one another
Fukuyama- ‘End of history’ promoted liberal-democratic principles.
There has never been a war between two democratic nations and therefore promoting development and democracy
works
Links with democratic peace thesis- there is a link between peace and democracy
77% of wars since 1980 have been inner state wars

What extent is globalisation “Americanisation in disguise”

Cultural globalisation-
Due to cultural globalisation, there is an increase in TNC’s who now have power within many countries
Kenichi Ohmae 1990- Hyperglobalist- Due to globalisation since the 1970s and the decrease in capital control, we live
in a 'borderless world' and rely on each other and Multi-National Corporations more than ever
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
McDonalds appoints over 1.8 million people globally which has an effect on the global economy
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy
McDonalds is a TNC that employs 1.8 million employees in over 190 countries

However, Held- Communications revolution has resulted in the spread of information quickly globally, so countries
are becoming more integrated with other cultures such as Chinese

Economic globalisation
Due to economic globalisation, there is an emergence of multilateral institutions such as the IMF, WB. These have had
created a liberal trading agenda globally which benefit the US. They are dominated by the USA and the structural
adjustment program makes countries shape their ideologies around the USA
Devaluation of currency makes country's goods cheaper for USA to buy and makes countries imports more expensive
restructuring foreign debts
There are non-equal voting rights, the US invests the most money so have most votes
USA has 17% of the vote share in the IMF compared to the having EU 25.7% despite the EU having double the
population

However, with most institutions such as the UN, there are VETO powers of other countries as well as a general
assembly that use democratic measures for voting

Political globalisation-
Since the end of the cold war, there has been several soviet countries copying the American political system of
capitalism as it works economically
The League of Nations established after WW1- Since then, global organisations such as the WTO, UN, and regional
organisations such as the EU have helped political globalisation
Due to the nature of institutions of a democracy, where government is accountable, nation-states will avoid conflict
with the US
A lot of peace making/democracy promoting interventions have been through American dominance
Kagen - ‘Benevolent hegemon’- US maintaining peace e.g. Iraq 1991 invasion of Kuwait
Pickering (2006) - From 1946- 1996, 16% of democratisations are through military intervention
USAID- A body for promoting democratic, accountable and effective government

However, key examples including Iraq 2001 and Vietnam 1975 ended up with America failing to implement US policy,
and the fundamentalism in Iran in 1979 is an example of democratization failing

Realists-
Believe that globalisation is a myth
Hobbes- Humans are naturally egotistical and therefore nations are egoistical, creating state-egoism, therefore
countries aren’t dictated by Americas agendas, they are acting within their best interest
In 2017, many countries voted against the US on the UN vote of Israel and Palestine
Waltz- In the anarchical system, states are all equal so they act to the logic of self-help, meaning they seek their own
interest, therefore Americanization does not occur as states will look to seek ‘self-help’

However, there is proof that globalisation occurring. With trade going from 500 billion in 1970 to 20 trillion in 2016
aswell as immigration more than doubling since then, globalisation can be seen as occurring.

Rise of nationalism-
There have been many countries that are calling to leave IGO’s because they want full sovereignty
Eurosceptic- Brexit, Le Pen in France, Turkish neonationalism- Justice and Development Party
Although there was a rise of supranational institutions, states are leaving these to gain back sovereignty
Bull- The system of sovereign states is not in decline but essential foundation of world order
Realists- national interest -> foreign policy goals or policy preferences
Bobbit 2002- Transformationalist- Many states 'competition' or 'entrepreneurial' states- they are integrated in
globalisation but still remain under state control. Seek competitive advantage whilst maintaining national control
Therefore, nations look to retain sovereignty and make sure that globalisation benefits them
However, there are many nations that want to be part of organisations that promote globalisation, for example there
are 5 nations that are negotiating EU terms

‘State Sovereignty is now an outdated concept’ Discuss

Rise of TNC’s-
Due to cultural globalisation,
Because of this it could be argued states are less sovereign when it comes to trade and if they raise their taxes, they
will lose the TNC’s which provide jobs and investment in the economy
Due to cultural globalisation, there is an increase in TNC’s who now have power within many countries and make a
global market
Apple (US company) targets many of its products in China
Kenichi Ohmae 1990- Hyperglobalist- Due to globalisation since the 1970s and the decrease in capital control, we live
in a 'borderless world' and rely on each other and Multi-National Corporations more than ever
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
McDonalds appoints over 1.8 million people globally which has an effect on the global economy
Friedman- The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention - no two countries that are both part of the same global supply chain
will ever fight a war as long as they are each part of that supply chain
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy

However, states can still raise their taxes and dictate polices, indicating that they have de facto power whilst TNC’s
have de-juro power.

Global governance-
Political globalisation has led to expanding inevitability of states to join an organisations that can be seen as
supranational
NATO, ASEAN EU
Mean they are able to pool their sovereignty if they go into an allegiance with an international organisation that takes
precedence over nation law of member states. They can be seen as being a supranational organisation
EU Supranational bodies include:
The European Commission -The European Parliament -EU Court of Justice – EU Law- Copenhagen Criteria
As a result of this they are less sovereign
Allegedly 60% of UK laws are from the EU
the EU Schengen Area - 500 million citizens

However, with most institutions such as the UN, there are VETO powers of other countries as well as a general
assembly that use democratic measures for voting and therefore it may be intergovernmental

Economic globalisation-
There is an increase of economic globalisation which means states trade more often, this means that states become,
as liberalists believe, more interdependent in one another,
Joseph Nye (1977)- Complex Interdependence - The extent of how governments are affected by issues elsewhere in
the world e.g. Globalisation, climate change, poverty reduction, human rights
According to liberalists, due to the world being borderless it is essential for nations to be in the global market
Taiwan was poorer than Kenya in the 1950’s, Taiwan integrated into the global economy, and Kenya refused, now
Taiwan is 20 times richer than Kenya
In 1970, exports were worth $500 billion, in 2016 they were worth 20 trillion
Therefore, the global system is one that needs to be in the economic market in order to gain prosperity. But nations
sometimes rely on another state or even commodity
Australia rely on China, with 34% of their exports
Venezuela- 96% of the country's exports in 2012 was oil and the prices dropped in 2014

However, realists would argue that states are self-interested and only trade if it benefits their nations

Classical Realists
Classic realist state that a relative advantage is important for states within the global system and therefore pooling
sovereignty and cooperating doesn’t help states
Machiavelli – Classical Realist -Power is the most important thing in an anarchic global state
Hobbs- Human egoism leads to state egoism which means global politics leads to rivalry relative gains and therefore
states pursue maximum sovereignty and maximum military or security power. This leads to conflict through hard and
soft power.
Similar to Realpolitik ideas- In order for force can be used in pursuit of national interests/sovereignty, morality is not
important,
Donald Trump Paris Agreement
Trump has pulled out of the 2015 Iran nuclear deal due to the lack of trust – eliminates disadvantage in developing
weapons

However, at times it may be in the interest of nations to pool sovereignty to economic globalisation - Taiwan was
poorer than Kenya in the 1950’s, Taiwan integrated into the global economy, and Kenya refused, now Taiwan is 20
times richer than Kenya

Neo-Realists
Neo-Realists believe that the global system is anarchic and therefore states cannot trust each other, and seek
sovereignty
Waltz- Neo/Defensive Realist- States can never trust each other’s intentions, they don’t trust each other which leads
them to be on guard against relative loses of power to threaten survival
To maximise maximum power, states constrain each other resulting in ‘balance of power’- this results in the ‘security
dilemma’
Mearsheimer – Neo/Offensive Realist- States are rational actors, they assume that status quo powers do not exist:
therefore, states go on the offensive, to expand their territory or influence
US led intervention in Iraq in 2003 using military force to achieve their self-interest
Carl Schmitt - American motivations for invasion of Iraq was not entirely humanitarian
Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014

However, with the increase of international courts such as the ICJ and organisations such as the UN, it is harder to
apply Mearsheimer’s concept in modern society

World Order + Power

To what extent is the global system now multipolar? / Does the USA remain a global hegemon?

USA dominates many Inter-Governmental Organizations –

It can be seen that the US dominated institutions and puts American interest’s firms which can be seen as using these
for American Imperialism.
Hobbs - human nature is self-interested, creates human egoism which creates state egoism and therefore the US has
power over these institutions for self-benefit
The US has a big impact on the UN vote with a VETO right in the Security Council
16% vote in the World Bank and IMF
Structural adjustment program helps trade with the US- lowers exchange rate compared to dollar in order for cheaper
imports
US veto power in IMF

USA military power-

Militarily the US dominates globally
Clausewitz- War is an extension of politics
Therefore, the US can be seen to have increased power in the global system and the ability to use hard power
50% of the global defence spend on the US.
The USA have 7200 bombs compared to Chinas 260 and
Spend more on military than next 8 nations combined
$600 billion in 2015 4x more than China
Largest arsenal on the globe, unmatched global power projection, largest navy, 662 overseas bases
China spending $52 billion in 2001 and $225 in 2016

However, Pentagon is expected to find $1t trillion savings on defence within the next decade
US military spending is 3.3% of GDP in 2016 compared to 10% in 1950’s
RAND think tank- US would struggle to defeat China nearby Taiwan

Cultural Globalisation-
Due to cultural globalisation, there is an increase in TNC’s who now have power within many countries and are US
dominated
Kenichi Ohmae 1990- Hyperglobalist- Due to globalisation since the 1970s and the decrease in capital control, we live
in a 'borderless world' and rely on each other and Multi National Corporations more than ever
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
McDonalds appoints over 1.8 million people globally which has an effect on the global economy

Uprising of Organisations-
An up rise of organisations that advocate global and political globalisation mean that countries are becoming
increasingly more interdependent and global governance means that there is no main power.
Keohane and Nye 1977- Complex interdependence – Countries are relying on each other more due to globalisation
and giving more attention to low politics which is common causes such as the environment. Therefore, international
institutions such as the UN are gaining power.
The WTO makes trading easier for most countries.
There are 193 members of the UN, 189 in the IMF and 164 in the WTO
The EU has a combined GDP of 17 trillion
EU has a seat at WTO, G8, G20 and votes together at UN
Trading blocs such as Mercosur, ASEAN and African Union

Between 2004 and 2014, Russia doubled its military spending to $84 billion - 20% of GDP in 2017
Increased collective security – NATO
Increased guerrilla attacks

To what extent has China become a superpower?

China Growth –
Economically due to the idea of comparative advantages, China’s economy has boosted ever since
Economically China is predicted to be the biggest economy by 2020- this could overtake the US or equal them for
economic power.
Relative to 2005, it can be seen that the US power is declining, with China GDP 2005 – 2 trillion and US GDP 2005 – 13
trillion
1st for PPP GDP growth and 2nd for GDP nominal.
World’s fastest growing economy and consumer market + largest importer of goods.
Chinese economy is estimated to be 1.5 times as large as the U.S. by 2030.
60% of the increase in world trade since 2004 has been as a result of China's industrialisation.
China has foreign trade worth $851 billion

However, GDP per capita. China and the U.S. make up almost 40 percent of the world economy. China debt is 160% of
GDP.

Investment –
China is one of the biggest investors, with increasing investment causing long term power within countries and adds
to mobility
$60 billion investment plan, roughly 20% of Pakistan’s economic output, create 2 million jobs and add 2% to economic
growth
China FDI raised 10 percent to 121 billion dollars in 2017 and now hold close to 11 percent of all FDI assets globally.
Can be seen to create a dependency within countries globally which is an attribute of being a global superpower
many countries relying on it in all continents such as Australia with 34% of their exports
China, 19% exports
China has some of the most technologically advanced companies and are less dependent on TNCs therefore more
money is theirs which creates them to be a global player

Military Power –
With a population of 1.4 billion compared to 350 million of the USA, China has the largest population in the world
More battle ranks, more total artillery than the USA and an influence on many countries from different continents
China has influence in the WTO and G-20
Has resource links with Africa, Australia, some of the Middle East and Latin America

However, China plays a limited geopolitical control in the world compared to Russia and the USA. China fails to control
the Asian continent as Russia has a lot of influence such as North Korea

To what extent is the global system now Bipolar like the cold war? (US and Russia)

Offensive Realism
Mearsheimer – Neo/Offensive Realist- States are rational actors, they assume that status quo powers do not exist:
therefore, states go on the offensive, to expand their territory or influence
In May 2018, Trump warned Kim Jon Un that he may have to intervene in the country in order to keep it civilised
Russia invaded Ukraine in 2014

Military Power-
Russia has an army that competes with all nations and is know for using hard power
Russia is the one of the only capable country of nuclear bombing the US
Between 2004 and 2014, Russia doubled its military spending to $84 billion - 20% of GDP in 2017
7 500 warheads
Realpolitik – Force should be used regardless of morality
Russia adopts this approach in politics, therefore can be seen as a threat and consequently a superpower

Is military/hard power dominant global politics?

Liberal 'Trade not war'

Nation states trade with other states, which means they will be less likely to declare war with each other.
Nye- Complex interdependence – There is a more attention to ‘low politics’, which involves cooperation and the use
of soft, economic power
Japan rely on oil exporting counties for oil- they rely on Japan for electronics -there is a mutual benefit for the two
trading and by declaring war, the benefit is lost
Friedman - The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention - no two countries that are both part of the same global supply
chain will ever fight a war as long as they are each part of that supply chain
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
Coca-Cola- sold in almost every country (ways in which western culture is assimilated).
This makes countries reliant of the US for TNC’s and therefore do not go to war
Therefore, military power is becoming more redundant because trade is now a vital source that interconnects states,
meaning they are less likely to use war to gain their position economically, politically and culturally.

The new nature of war-

Due to nuclear proliferation, there is a guaranteed mass destruction if states go to war with one another
There is a higher threat of mutually assured destruction (MAD)
During the cold war, there was a certainty that the US and Russia could wipe each other out and damage each other
Liberal idea - that states will not go to war if they have calculated that their chances of winning are very slim
Guerrilla tactics are often used in wars
Vietnamese set bamboo traps on the Americans.
Afghan troops hid in mountains.
This means that military power is becoming more redundant because nation states know what the dangers of war are,
as they have been through it before.
Therefore, these nation states especially, will prefer to use soft power, such as diplomacy and the media, to resolve
conflict.

Political globalisation-
Immanuel Kant- Democratic peace thesis
This has enabled the spread the democracy, through the rise of technology and the media.
This has made military power obsolete because it has transformed authoritarian states into democratic states; the
more democratic, the less likely to declare war
Democracy recently spread to the Middle East, through the widening of technology and media-
Arab Spring 2011, which was a revolution where civilians had protest against their authoritarian leaders, to gain a
more liberal democracy, which resulted from Qatar News and Al Jazeera.
Fukuyama- ‘End of history’ promoted the accepted of liberal-democratic principles
The fact there has never been a war between two democratic nation-states is evidence for liberals as well as the zones of peace in
Europe
The establishment of free and fair elections in Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco has increased the use of democratic peace
thesis, where democracy links with harmony and less likelihood of war.
The more democratic states, the less authoritarian states there are to compete with.

Increasing military expenditure-
States are increasing their military force because they want to become more military powerful, to rise a superpower
The USA is seen as a superpower because they have the largest military force in the world
50% of the global defence spend on the US, spend more on military than next 8 nations combined
Other countries are trying to either maintain or expand their power
The UK government pledge to renew Trident- maintain its power
From 2004 - 2014, Russia doubled its military spending to $84 billion - 20% of GDP in 2017 which is an attempt of
gaining power
This means that hard power has become more favourable than soft power
Therefore, nation states are increasingly using military power as a means of a deterrent, and to be feared amongst
other states.

However, China have taken the route of soft/economic power, being predicted to be the biggest economy by 2020
which has given them more room to be a global superpower, the US have also seen a change in hard to soft power
over the past 70 years - US military spending is 3.3% of GDP in 2016 compared to 10% in 1950’s

Security threats-
New security challenges, such as international terrorism has made it difficult to fight against this with soft power,
Realpolitik -Rather than an ethnical approach such as diplomacy, force should be used and morality should be taken
away
ISIS has been using more military force, such as the use of bombs and guns, to spread their ideology (a borderless
Islamic State)
ISIS were responsible for attacks in Paris, Brussels and London notably
Nation states react to attacks like these, by trying to oppress terrorism
Darfur in 2003,
France in Mali in 2013
Kosovo in 1999
Intervention using military means prevented abuses of human rights
Military power is still used today as a way to stop terrorism, whilst terrorist organisations have also used military force
to spread their ideology, instead of using soft power (the media)
Diplomacy has been used to attempt to resolve conflict
Clausewitz – War is merely the continuation of politics by other means
'Arab spring' - instead of seeking foreign aid, Syria received military intervention by the USA
Despite humanitarian aid being sent to Syria by the UN, these humanitarian convoys have been bombed allegedly by
Russia
This illustrates that military power is not redundant because it has been used more than soft power (diplomacy), to
help countries under dictatorship, who try to overthrow this, to gain democracy, by using military power

Offensive/Defensive Realism-
Waltz- States are concerned by security dilemma and are security maximisers’ and therefore gain power and rely on
‘self-help’ to avoid an attack or war- - States positions compared to one another- capabilities between them- this
leads to an arms race and ultimately that will lead to conflict
2018- CIA director– North Korea could trigger an arms race with the USA- example of defensive realism
Thomas Hobbes- Humans are driven by power
Waltz would argue it was to seek balance in power
WW1 Germany and Austria Hungary- launched an offensive to maintain security
John Mearsheimer would argue it is to ensure power maximisation- due to the anarchic state of the global body,
states are aggressive and use hard power, Colonialism or imperialism to ensure survival and power maximisation.

Global Governance
Has the United Nations achieved its aims?

Yes-
UN can work together with these bodies. Important to attain a consensus amongst great powers to maintain stability
(end of American unipolarity).
Keohane and Nye- Neo-Liberalist- Due to complex interdependence, states should give greater attention to ‘low’
politics (not state interests) such as contributing towards the UN for peace
Congo – UN set up framework for the government without changing too much
Rice- every $1 spend on US military, it would cost the UN $0.12
UN is impartial- In 2011 NATO left a civil war in Libya which cannot be seen as justifiable compared to a thought out,
multilateral intervention from the UN

However, the theory of Realpolitik states that force should be used regardless of morality, and therefore a consensus
amongst nations is useless and a waste of time

Yes-
Multiple conflicts in which the UN has intervened in, and other means of promoting peace and security. Under the
international anarchy, the UN does well, the world is more peaceful
1999 Congo – brought an end to the civil war
Research by Page Fortna shows that UN peacekeeping missions have contributed to a diminishment of war between
55-85%
Economist Paul Collier – The value of the benefits of the UN is four times the cost
Took control of Cambodia as part of an effort to maintain peace

However, neo-realists argue that a bipolar system will create the most peace and security, with a balance of terror, as
seen in the cold war, and two nations

Yes-
The UN has succeeded in many places through development and human rights
1992- Agenda for Peace
Peacebuilding commission in 2005
El Salvador – ceasefire through negotiation – state of Guerrilla warfare then organised its first democratic election
Fukuyama- ‘End of history’ promoted liberal-democratic principles. there has never been a war between two
democratic nations and therefore promoting development and democracy works
Links with Immanuel Kant- democratic peace thesis- there is a link between peace and democracy

However, there are still 49 dictatorships currently in power, and 49 “LDC” least developed countries that are not
developed.
No –
The UN has failed to intervene
Each security council member gets a VETO, which cancels any effort of improving peace and security
Realists- With all states having different interests, and focusing on relative gains within the anarchical system, states
block actions of the UN to intervene
Russia and China blocked any action in Syria, Russia blocked action on Ukraine and US blocked action on the
Israel/Palestine conflict
Cold war – realist argue the UN would be slow as great power ignore resolutions of the UN due to no army and
therefore power.

However, there have only been 242 Vetos’ out of 2410 resolutions within the security council, which proves that most
of the time there is a consensus amongst the five nations

No-
UN’s failings in those conflicts in which it has intervened
The UN is as strong as its member states allow it to be which according to realists are weak - lacks its own army
UN’s failure in Rwanda, 800,000 people were killed- UN were involved but didn’t have enough to fight the rebels.
1995 Bosnia massacre– 8,000 murdered by Bosnian Serbs- UN peacekeeping didn’t do anything

However, it can be argued that the UN limited the number of deaths in Rwanda by the UNAMIR II project, which
sought stability and provided aid for 4 million people within Rwanda

No-
The UN relies on bureaucracy, impartiality & legitimacy as Thomas Aquinas states in his Just War theory and Michael
Walzer said in his ‘ethics are as important as war’.
Regional organisations such as NATO or powerful states like the US would be better at intervention
Britain’s success in Serra Leone – stopped violence and conflict by military intervention
NATO success in Kosovo 1999
The UN would’ve been restricted by VETO, e.g. Russia blocking action against Servia
Robert Kagen ‘Benevolent hegemon’- US maintaining peace e.g. Iraq 1991 invasion of Kuwait
Clausewitz- War is a continuation of politics

However, Hobbs would argue that human nature is self-interested, creates human egoism which creates state egoism
and therefore single states cannot be relied on to cause peace and security
To what extent has globalisation reshaped international politics?

Economic Globalisation-
The liberal idea of interdependence economically and the rising importance of soft power, and therefore economic
power, leads to states relying on each other
Joseph Nye (1977)- Complex Interdependence - The extent of how governments are affected by issues elsewhere in
the world e.g. Globalisation, climate change, poverty reduction, human rights
Moyo- Agrees with Nye, stating it creates increased reliance on IGO’s- Western aid to Africa creates dependency
Taiwan was poorer than Kenya in the 1950’s, Taiwan integrated into the global economy, and Kenya refused, now
Taiwan is 20 times richer than Kenya
In 1970, exports were worth $500 billion, in 2016 they were worth 20 trillion
Therefore, they aren’t significant actors due to their due to actions being the consequence of other states actions
such as economic gas sanctions on Russia in 2014

However, realists would argue that states are self-interested and only trade if it benefits their nations

Political Globalisation-
The WTO has 197 members and dictates how every country trade which affects the liberal view of an increase of
globalisation and interdependence.
The IMF changes laws in order for loans and sets interest rates in some countries
The increasing importance and dependence of IGO’s for some countries leads to a loss of sovereignty (pooled
sovereignty) therefore less importance for nation-states
The rise of organisations that rule laws for countries such as the EU- predicted that 60% of UK laws are dictated by the
EU.
China VETO’d economic sanctions in Zimbabwe in 2008 and Syrian intervention in 2012
High commissioner created in Lisbon Treaty 2009

Cultural Globalisation-
Due to cultural globalisation, there is an increase in TNC’s who now have power within many countries
Kenichi Ohmae 1990- Hyperglobalist- Due to globalisation since the 1970s and the decrease in capital control, we live
in a 'borderless world' and rely on each other and Multi-National Corporations more than ever
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy
Stiglitz –Americanisation- the idea of spreading American values through cultural globalisation
McDonalds appoints over 1.8 million people globally which has an effect on the global economy

Realists
Machiavelli – Classical Realist -Power is the most important thing in an anarchic global state
Waltz- States can never trust each other’s intentions, which leads to ‘self-help’ to ensure their own survival and to
pursue their own goals, to do this they develop military capabilities, creates a security dilemma
The North Korea, USA conflict between the two has resulted in tensions from a lack of trust
Trump has pulled out of the 2015 Iran nuclear deal due to the lack of trust
To maximise maximum power, states constrain each other resulting in ‘balance of power’- this results in the ‘security
dilemma’
Mearsheimer - States are rational actors, they assume that status quo powers do not exist: therefore, states go on the
offensive, to expand their territory or influence
In May 2018, Trump warned Kim Jon Un that he may have to intervene in the country in order to keep it civilised
Therefore, countries cannot cooperate with one another

Economic activity within national boundaries –

Hirst and Thompson 1999- that globalisation hasn’t affected state sovereignty because overwhelming bulk of
economic activity still takes place within national boundaries
Only a tiny proportion of states (‘weak’ or ‘failed’ states) are unable to control what happens within their borders.
Intergovernmental institutions remain weak
States therefore remain the principal actors on the world stage

Rise of nationalism-
Eurosceptic- Brexit, Le Pen in France, Turkish neonationalism- Justice and Development Party
Although there was a rise of supranational institutions, states are leaving these to gain back sovereignty
Realists- national interest -> foreign policy goals or policy preferences
Bobbit 2002- Transformationalist- Many states 'competition' or 'entrepreneurial' states- they are integrated in
globalisation but still remain under state control. Seek competitive advantage whilst maintaining national control

‘Economic Globalisation benefits the few rather than the many’ Discuss

Economist Ha-Joon Chang-

Developing countries “kick away the ladder” they used – ladder being Protectionism
Domestic firms are exposed to international competition that cannot be competed with (TNC’s better technology and
economies of scale)
From 2008-2016 (WTO) G20 economies have introduced 1,600 new trade restricting measures and removed just 400
America has the highest tariffs in the world in the 19th century and was the largest economy in 1890
The African states that are described as the ‘peripheral states’ are stuck with providing cheap labour to benefit the
TNC’s, therefore it is a form of neo-colonisation

TNC’s-
Workers constantly face lower pay, rights and conditions
As there is an increased competition for investment of TNC’s amongst developing states, governments in developing
states lessen tax and work regulations which leads to a degradation of the environment so workers suffer, whilst
TNC’s get richer.
The spread of commodities globally means that consumerism has followed, life satisfaction depends on material
assets therefore cultural homogenisation has benefited the few rather than the many
Stiglitz- Americanisation- The spreading of American values through cultural globalisation
Walmart has become the 10th largest economic power bigger than Norway and Israel
Coca-Cola exists in 195 states globally, impacting every economy

However, In 1991-2007 total foreign direct investment was over 2 trillion pounds in developing states in 2015 India
received an FDI of 25 billion pounds which coincided with a growth rate of 7%, higher than when it had protectionist
policies

Naomi Klein-
Economic globalisation means a shift of jobs from developed states to developing as developed states cannot offer
the cheap labour developing nations can. For developing states there is a ‘race to the bottom’, where they compete
for international labour through worsened pay, working conditions and worker rights
Some part of China has a minimum wage of £1.22 an hour
6 million manufacturing jobs have been lost in the US since 2000
From 1994-2011, labour rights index fell by 20% from an already low level
The environmental damage from TNC’s was found by the UN to be worth more than 1.4 trillion pounds

However, children in work fell by half in the 2000’s, direct investment provides capital, technology and jobs.

Thomas Friedman-
Economic globalisation benefits the many as well as the few
It allows the comparative advantage- States specialise in a particular commodity more efficiently in relation to
domestic goods that another state can produce- there is a more efficient distribution of economic resources
Taiwan was poorer than Kenya in the 1950’s, Taiwan integrated into the global economy with free trade, and Kenya
refused, now Taiwan is 20 times richer than Kenya. Absolute poverty has fallen by half between 1990 to 2010.
In 2012, oil sales accounted for 96% of Venezuela’s exports which led to a thriving economy
The Dell Theory of Conflict Prevention - no two countries that are both part of the same global supply chain will ever
fight a war as long as they are each part of that supply chain
Since McDonalds have expanded in many nations, there has been close to 0 wars in the countries they expanded in

However, comparative advantage leads to reliance on a commodity and a country buying it, this could negatively
impact a country as seen in Venezuela’s economy after the drop-in oil prices

Jobs
When referring to the ‘few’, jobs have transferred to developing countries which has benefitted these economies
massively
India- British speaking labour force has led to a ‘call centre revolution’
China- lifting millions out of poverty as they take advantage of the global jobs market as shown by the fact they have
the 2nd largest sustained growth in the recent year

However, these jobs, described as the ‘McJobs’ offer weak protection and poor working conditions. 100 million
people in China earn $1.25 per day

EU and Regionalism
The EU lacks global significance and influence

Political-
Different national interests amongst the 28-member states
Machiavelli - Classical Realist -Humans are ‘arrogant, violent and savage’ and leaders rule through cunning, cruelty
and manipulation
Despite being all liberal and democratic- they have differing interest- there is a divide within the EU over blocking
trade with Russia as member states are dependent on gas & money
40% of German gas imports supplied by Russia- but EU disagrees with Russia’s dealings with the Ukraine.
UK- Brexit
France- immigration- disagrees with free movement of people
Germany- trade-exports to the rest of Europe-in their interests to promote tariff-free trade
Therefore, this has caused disputes

Military-
Member states have their own militaries- EU cannot be a global actor that is as significant as USA because it has no
army
despite membership of NATO- shows that member states are not united when it comes to hard power
EU's inability to act over Kosovo in the late 1999- NATO prevented ethnic cleansing from occurring in Kosovo
Hobbs- Human egoism leads to state egoism- states in the EU will fight for their own self interests
Member states’ military budgets are not the largest- USA/china are:
UK- 5th largest, France- 7th largest, Germany- 9th largest
Not all member states of the EU are part of NATO
This means that not all member states are directly protected by NATO
Sweden, Austria, Bulgaria, Finland, Cyprus, Ireland & Malta are members of the EU- not NATO

Economical-
The EU has been seen as a weak global player through the Eurozone crisis:
Member states who had adopted the euro (EU’s main currency) suffered badly from the global economic crisis
EU Global GDP - 31% 2004 vs 23% 2018
Reducing state sovereignty:
State sovereignty has been eroded by the EU as member states must adopt and abide by EU law to be able to join it-
those who do not do this are prosecuted by the European court of justice
Brexit- where the people voted to leave the EU- to regain sovereignty
EU countries waiting to join combined GDP of nearly 1 trillion- although UK GDP is 2.5 trillion

Economically –
The EU contributes to many countries economy
Largest trading bloc in the world
Largest supplier of development and technical assistance in the world
When together in consensus, the EU holds the largest soft power globally-
The EU has the combined GDP higher than any nation in the world
The EU contributes to the most trade in the world
The EU has the largest single market in the world
More than 50 countries rely on the EU as its biggest importer/exporter
Therefore, it can be seen that it is a significant if not the most significant global player
EU is also represented at the WTO

Political-
The EU is the most successful international organisation of its kind- It has achieved more than the IMF, World Bank &
the UN.
EU law- the other institutions have not established their own legislation that much be abided by member states
EU has the ability to enforce nation states to change their systems in order to become a member state
This is where member states must adopt liberalism in order to become part of the EU-
Adopting human rights, EU law, and liberal democracy (political globalisation)
the EU Schengen Area
Serbia had to change its laws on prosecuting crimes committed during the 1990s Balkan war, in order to join the EU-
before, Serbia passed a law claiming jurisdiction over war crimes committed on the entire territory of the former Yugo
Slovakia.
Croatia also had to change to join the EU and is why Turkey cannot join the EU.
EU is able to mould global opinions on environmental issues-
Influential in the Paris & Kyoto conferences.

Military influence-
EU & NATO cooperate on issues of common interests,
crisis management, capability development, cyber defence & political consultations
Strategic partnership made official by the 2002 NATO-EU declaration on a European security & defence policy-
Gave EU assured access to NATO’s planning capabilities for its own military operations
European External Action Service formed a military instrument for early & rapid responses when necessary because
the EU, as a global actor, finally became ready to share its responsibility for global security- 2007.
Berlin group - Group of foreign ministers from 11-member states have called for an EU army- this would increase the
EU’s structural power- make it even more significance.
Rapid reaction force- Only recommended if NATO is not engaged as a whole.
French troops were successful in countering Islamic fighters in Mali

Does the advance of regionalism threaten global order and stability?

Regional egoism –
Power politics within a regional system; human nature has not changed. The anarchical character of the global system
must be secured through regional action and could lead to hegemonic regionalism
EU is seen as one entity and looking to expand even more after 2004

Cultural conflict –
Inter-regional conflict is cultural difference expressed through the ‘clash of civilizations’
Implies suspicion and hostility towards, regions of the world with different values, cultures and traditions.
A world of regions is a world of rival value systems and incompatible understandings such as the rise of nationalism in
the UK

Ever-deepening integration –
Regional bodies are increasingly inward looking and conflict-ridden
Neofunctionalist spill over will inevitably turn economic integration into political integration
Which will create a widening gulf between the regionalized elite and increasingly marginalized general public, this gulf
will fuel political extremism

Nationalism trumps regionalism –

Regionalism complements, rather than transcends, the state system. States are the principal actors on the world
stage, the nation-state’s capacity to generate political allegiance and civic identity. Supranational regionalism has
failed to materialize; regional bodies operate more like political spaces within which states cooperate on matters of
mutual interest.

The global dominates the regional –

Cooperation must extend beyond the region and encompass inter-regional and even global cooperation e.g. climate
change, free trade, development disparities and international security cannot only be addressed at a regional level,
which forces regional bodies to be outward-looking, acting as stepping-stones to higher levels of cooperation.

Limits of regionalism –
It is difficult to create democratically accountable regional organizations, and the harmonization of economic rules
and arrangements can only be taken so far e.g. the difficulty of establishing common or single markets. This level of
harmonization leads to over-rigid economic arrangements that are, doomed to collapse.

Regional governance has taken over the significance of Nation-States

Rise of nationalism-
There has been many countries that are calling to leave IGO’s because they want full sovereignty.
Eurosceptic- Brexit, Turkish neonationalism- Justice and Development Party. Denmark 21% (12% 2001) – Danish
Peoples Party. Netherlands 13% (5% 2006) – Freedom Party. France 34% (17% in 2002) - National Front. Hungary 21%
(2% 2006) – Jobbik Party. Austria 26% (10% 2002) - Freedom Party

Military Power –
The state still hold military power as there is no regional government that acts as one army and the state has an ability
to intervene using hard power, it can also be seen as colonialism or imperialism to ensure survival which is backed up
by Mearsheimer and Offensive Realists - Due to the anarchic state of the global body, states are aggressive and use
hard power, Colonialism or imperialism to ensure survival and power maximisation.

The UK and US humanitarian intervention in Iraq from 2014-Present and the Sierra Leone invasion
Both can be seen to benefit the states that are invading through advocating similar political systems (democracy)
which will enable peace
EU's inability to act over Kosovo in the late 1999- NATO prevented ethnic cleansing from occurring in Kosovo

Economic Globalisation-
The liberal idea of interdependence economically and the rising importance of soft power, and therefore economic
power, leads to states relying on each other rather than themselves. going there. This increases the reliance on IGO’s