Parasitol Res
DOI 10.1007/s00436-010-2128-z
ORIGINAL PAPER
In vitro antiplasmodial activity of ethanolic extracts
of mangrove plants from South East coast of India
against chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum
Sundaram Ravikumar & Samuel Jacob Inbaneson &
Palavesam Suganthi & Murugesan Gnanadesigan
Received: 27 September 2010 / Accepted: 12 October 2010
# Springer-Verlag 2010
Abstract Malaria is one of the most prevalent infectious
diseases in the world. Treatment for malaria is commonly
inadequate due to the lack of quality assured effective
drugs. The effectiveness of these drugs is declining at an
ever accelerating rate, with consequent increase in malaria
related morbidity and mortality. The newest antiplasmodial
drug from plants is needed to overcome this problem.
Numerous mangroves and mangal associates are used as
folklore medicine to treat various human diseases. The
mangrove plant species are a good source of potential
bioactive entities which exhibits many therapeutic proper-
ties. The present study was carried out to test the
antiplasmodial activity of five mangrove plant species
distributed along the South East coast of India. Bruguiera
cylindrica, Ceriops decandra, Lumnitzera racemosa,
Rhizophora apiculata, and Rhizophora mucronata man-
grove plant extracts exhibited in vitro antiplasmodial
activity against chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falcipa-
rum. Of which, the ethanolic bark extract of R. mucronata
exhibited high antiplasmodial activity (IC50 =62.18 μg.ml−1).
Statistical analysis reveals that, significant antiplasmodial
activity (P<0.05) was observed between the concentrations
and time of exposure. The chemical injury to erythrocytes
was also carried out and it shows that no morphological
differences in erythrocytes by the ethanolic extract of
mangrove plants after 48 h of incubation. The screening for
phytochemical constituents in the mangrove plants were
carried out and it reveals that, the presence of alkaloids,
S. Ravikumar (*) : S. Jacob Inbaneson : P. Suganthi :
M. Gnanadesigan
School of Marine Sciences, Department of Oceanography
and Coastal Area Studies, Alagappa University,
Thondi Campus, Thondi,
623 409 Ramanathapuram District, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: ravibiotech201321@gmail.com
triterpenes, flavonoids, tannins, catachin, anthroquinone,
phenols, sugars, and proteins. This study shows that the
mangrove plants had a source of lead compounds for the
development of new drugs for the treatment of malaria.
Introduction
Malaria is a curable and preventable disease, its prevalence
increased in the 1980s and 1990s as the parasites developed
resistance to the most frequently used antimalarial drugs
(Le Bras and Durand 2003; Basco et al. 1995; Durand et al.
1997; Parzy et al. 1997) and the vectors became resistant to
insecticides. Therefore, new drugs are urgently required
to overcome malaria (Omulokoli et al. 1997; Rasoanaivo
et al. 1992). Mangrove plants are specially adopted woody
plants found interface between land and sea (Kathiresan
and Bingham 2001) possess several biological activities
such as antibacterial (Ravi Kumar et al. 2009; Raja 2009;
Sivaperumal 2009; Muthuraja 2009), antifungal (Ravi
Kumar et al. 2009), antiviral (Padmakumar and Ayyakkannu
1997; Premanathan et al. 1996), antioxidant (Larson 1988;
Masuda et al. 1999), antitumor (Hirazumi and Furusawa
1999), and anticancer (Jongsuvat 1981). The present study
evaluated the antiplasmodial activity of five mangrove plants
against the chloroquine-sensitive Plasmodium falciparum
strain.
Materials and methods
Collection of plant materials
Fresh samples of different plant parts from Bruguiera
cylindrica, Ceriops decandra, Lumnitzera racemosa, Rhi-
 Parasitol Res

zophora apiculata, and Rhizophora mucronata were col-
lected from Pichavaram mangrove forest (latitude 11° 27′ N
and longitude 79° 47′ E) and Karangkadu mangrove forest
(latitude 9° 38′ N and longitude 78° 57′ E) of South East coast
of India. All the five mangrove plant samples were deposited
in the Department of Oceanography and Coastal Area Studies,
Alagappa University and voucher specimens are also main-
tained. All the collected samples were washed thrice with tap
water and twice with distilled water to remove the adhering
salts and other associated animals. The authentication of the
plant species were done by Prof. K. Kathiresan, Centre of
Advanced Study in Marine Biology, Annamalai University,
Porto Novo, Tamil Nadu, India.
Extract preparation
Shade-dried mangrove plants samples were subjected for
percolation by soaking in ethanol and water mixture (3:1).
After complete extraction, the filtrates were concentrated
separately by rotary vacuum evaporation (>45°C) and then
freeze dried (−80°C) to obtain solid residue. The percentage
of extraction was calculated by using the following formula:
percentage of extraction=weight of the extract (g)/weight of
the plant material (g) ×100. The extracts of mangroves were
screened for the presence of phytochemical constituents by
following the method of Sofowora (1982) and Kepam (1986).
The plant extracts were dissolved in dimethyl sulphoxide
(HiMedia Laboratories Private Limited, Mumbai, India) and
filtered through Millipore sterile filters (mesh 0.20 μm,
Sartorious Stedim Biotech GmbH, Germany). The filatrate
was used for testing at different concentrations of 200, 100,
50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, and 3.125 μg.ml−1 (Ouattara et al. 2006).
Research, Bangalore, India. P. falciparum are cultivated in
human O Rh+ red blood cells using RPMI 1640 medium
(HiMedia Laboratories Private Limited, Mumbai, India)
(Moore et al. 1967) supplemented with O Rh+ serum
(10%), 5% sodium bicarbonate (HiMedia Laboratories
Private Limited, Mumbai, India) and 40 μg.ml−1 of
gentamycin sulfate (HiMedia Laboratories Private Limited,
Mumbai, India). Hematocrits were adjusted at 5% and
parasite cultures were used when they exhibited 2%
parasitemia (Trager 1987).
In vitro antiplasmodial assay
Filter sterilized extracts (200, 100, 50, 25, 12.5, 6.25, and
3.125 μg·ml−1) were incorporated in 96-well tissue culture
plate containing 200 μl of P. falciparum culture with
fresh red blood cells diluted to 2% hematocrit. Negative
control was maintained with fresh red blood cells and 2%
parasitized P. falciparum diluted to 2% hematocrit,
positive control was maintained with parasitized blood
cells culture treated with chloroquine (Azas et al. 2002).
Parasitemia was evaluated after 48 h by Giemsa stain and
the average percentage suppression of parasitemia was
calculated by the following formula: average percentage
suppression of parasitemia=average percentage parasitemia
in control−average percentage parasitemia in test/average
percentage parasitemia in control×100. The IC50 values
were calculated (concentration of extract in X-axis and
percentage of inhibition in Y-axis) using Office XP (SDAS)
software with linear regression equation.
Chemical injury to erythrocytes

Parasite cultivation To assess any chemical injury to erythrocytes that might be

attributed to the extract, 200 μl of erythrocytes were
The antiplasmodial activity of plant extracts was assessed incubated with 200 μg.ml−1 of the extract at a dose equal
against chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum obtained from to the highest used in the antiplasmodial assay. The
the Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific conditions of the experiment were maintained as in the

Table 1 Screening of mangrove

extracts against Plasmodium Mangrove species Plant part Percentage of extraction IC50 μg.ml−1
falciparum
Lumnitzera racemosa Leaf 12.35 110.93
Bruguiera cylindrica Leaf 15.84 173.75
Ceriops decandra Leaf 17.72 150.31
Rhizophora apiculata Bark 7.86 ≥200
Rhizophora mucronata Bark 12.86 62.18
Ceriops decandra Collar 7.48 ≥200
Rhizophora mucronata Collar 9.55 132.50
Rhizophora mucronata Stilt roots 11.91 119.37
Ceriops decandra Hypocotyl 6.49 123.25
Values are found significant Lumnitzera racemosa Stem 9.15 ≥200
between concentrations and time Chloroquine Control – 12.96
of exposure (P<0.05)
Parasitol Res

Anthroquinone
case of antiplasmodial assay. After 48 h of incubation, thin
blood smears were stained with Giemsa stain and observed

−
−
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
−
for morphological changes under high-power light micros-
copy. The morphological findings were compared with
those in erythrocytes that were uninfected and not exposed
to extract (Waako et al. 2007).

Tannin

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Results

Catachin

−
−
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+
The IC50 values of the mangrove extracts showed a range
of inhibitory concentrations. The bark extract of R.
mucronata (62.18 μg.ml−1) and leaf extract of L. racemosa
(110.93 μg.ml−1) showed minimum level of IC50 values at

Flavonoids
significant (P<0.05) levels. Moreover, the bark extract of

−
−
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+
R. apiculata, collar extract of C. decandra and stem
extract of L. racemosa showed IC50 values greater than
200 μg.ml−1 (Table 1).

Triterpenes
The microscopic observation of uninfected erythrocytes

+
−
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+
incubated with the ethanolic extract of mangrove plants and
uninfected erythrocytes from the blank column of the 96-
well plate showed no morphological differences after 48 h
of incubation. The phytochemical studies reveals that the
extracts of mangrove plants have variety of phytochemical Steroids

−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
constituents, namely, alkaloids, triterpenes, flavonoids,
tannins, catachin, anthroquinone, phenols, sugars, and
proteins (Table 2), whereas some of the phytochemical
Alkaloids

constituents are restricted to certain mangrove plant species

+
−
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+
except the steroids which was not reported in all the
mangrove plant species.
Phenols

+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Discussion and conclusion
Phytochemical constituents

The present study was undertaken to evaluate the in vitro

Protein
Table 2 Phytochemical constituents in mangrove plant extracts

antiplasmodial activity of five mangrove plants. The extract

−
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

from bark of R. mucronata was shown to have maximum in

vitro antiplasmodial activity against chloroquine-sensitive
P. falciparum strains. The antiplasmodial activity exhibited
Sugars

+
+
+
−
+
+
+
+
+
+

by the bark extract of R. mucronata was due to the

synergistic activity of one or more phytochemical constituents
(Table 2). Clarkson et al. (2004) reported that the leaves and
Hypocotyl
Stilt roots
Plant part

twigs extracts of R. mucronata were showed antiplasmodial

Collar
Collar

activity against P. falciparum strain D10. In the present

Stem
Bark
Bark
Leaf
Leaf
Leaf

study, the leaf extract of L. racemosa, leaf and hypocotyl

extracts of C. decandra, collar and stilt root extracts of R.
mucronata and leaf extract of B. cylindrica were showed in
Rhizophora mucronata

Rhizophora mucronata
Rhizophora mucronata
Rhizophora apiculata
Lumnitzera racemosa

Lumnitzera racemosa

+, present; −, absent
Bruguiera cylindrica

vitro antiplasmodial activity. Moreover, the IC50 values of

Mangrove species

Ceriops decandra

Ceriops decandra

Ceriops decandra

the abovementioned extracts were showed greater than

100 μg.ml−1 concentration; according to Rasoanaivo et al.
(1992) the plant extract which shows in vitro activity more
than 100 μg.ml−1 is inactive. From the IC50 values, the bark
extract of R. mucronata was showed IC50 value less than

100 μg.ml−1 hence this can be used as an active antiplasmo-
dial drug. Previously it has been reported that several plants
including polyherbal extracts has exhibited antiplasmodial
activities (Azas et al. 2002; Sanon et al. 2003; Son et al.
2007; Moon 2007; Chung et al. 2008; Lee et al. 2009;
Gansane et al. 2010; Ravikumar et al. 2010; Chenniappan
and Kadarkarai 2010; Ramazani et al. 2010)
The mangrove plants are well known in the scientific
literature for its other biological activities. Ravi Kumar et
al. (2009) reported that the leaf, bark, seedling, and flower
extracts from R. mucronata showed higher inhibitory
activity against bacterial and fungal pathogens. Akalanka
et al. (2002), Chou et al. (1977), and Padmakumar (1988)
also reported that the leaf and bark extracts of R. mucronata
showed antibacterial compounds against human bacterial
pathogens. The R. mucronata extract showed antiviral
activity against Semliki Forest virus (Premanathan et al.
1995), Newcastle disease virus (Premanathan et al. 1993),
Encephalomyocarditis virus (Premanathan et al. 1994),
human immunodeficiency virus (Premanathan et al.
1996, 1999a, b), and vaccinia virus (Premanathan et al.
1999a). The extracts from R. mucronata of various parts
showed larvicidal activity against Culex quinquefasciatus
(Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan 1997) and Anopheles
stephensi (Subramonia Thangam and Kathiresan 1988).
Alstonia macrophylla is a mangrove-associated plant
species, exhibiting antiplasmodial activity due to an array
of alkaloids present in the plant (Keawpradub et al. 1999).
Over 100 alkaloids from higher plants were reported to
have significant antimalarial activity in studies published
from 1990 to 2000 and some of which are more potent than
chloroquine (Saxena et al. 2003). Basak et al. (1996)
reported that the extract from R. mucronata contains
alkaloids, phenols, polysaccharides, and flavanoids which
might be exerted the antiplasmodial activity against
chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum. Many of the polyphe-
nols are well documented to treat chronic diseases such as
cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, bacterial, and
parasitic infections (Murakami et al. 1994; Sherman and
Billing 1999; Scalbert 1991; Cowan 1999). Otoguro et al.
(2004) reported that, polysaccharides, polyketides, and
polysaccharide derivatives (Prumycin) are having potential
antiplasmodial activity. The polysaccharides of higher
plants possess immunostimulatory, anti-complementary,
anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, and antiviral activities
(Bandaranayake 2002).
Several classes of flavonoids play a significant role in
many physiological processes and show antioxidant and
fungicidal activity (Larson 1988). The phytochemical
constituents present in the bark extract of R. mucronata,
especially alkaloids, terpenoids, polysaccharides, flavo-
noids, and phenols might be responsible for the antiplas-
modial activity. According to Hoet et al. (2004), the
Parasitol Res
presence of alkaloids and terpenoids might be responsi-
ble for the antimalarial activity exhibited by Artemisia
maciverae and Artemisia maritima. The crude extracts
isolated from mangrove plants exhibited potent in vitro
antiplasmodial activity represent potential sources of new
antiplasmodial drugs. The new tools for the treatment of
malaria are badly needed considering the deteriorating
global malarial situation and the continuing spread of drug
resistance. This study indicates that, mangrove plants have
a high potential for the production of lead compounds for
the development of antimalarials. It is concluded by the
present study that, the ethanolic bark extract of R.
mucronata possess significant suppressive effects on in
vitro cultures of chloroquine-sensitive P. falciparum.
Further study is in progress to study the active principles
responsible for this antiplasmodial activity.
Acknowledgments The authors are thankful to the authorities of
Alagappa University for providing required facilities and also to
Indian Council of Medical Research, New Delhi for financial
assistance.
References
Akalanka D, Somasundaram ST, Manavalan R (2002) Antibacterial
activity of leaf and stem bark extract of Rhizophora mucronata
Poir. Seshaiyana 10(2):7
Azas N, Laurencin N, Delmas F, Di Giorgio C, Gasquet M, Laget M,
Timon David P (2002) Synergistic in vitro antimalarial activity of
plant extracts used as traditional herbal remedies in Mali.
Parasitol Res 88(2):165–171
Bandaranayake WM (2002) Bioactivities, bioactive compounds and
chemical constituents of mangrove plants. Wetlands Ecol Manag
10:421–452
Basak UC, Das AB, Das P (1996) Chlorophyll, carotenoids, proteins
and secondary metabolites in leaves of 14 species of mangroves.
Bull Mar Sci 58:654–659
Basco LK, Eldin de Pecoulas P, Wilson C, Le Bras J, Mazabraud
A (1995) Point mutation in the dihydrofolate reductase gene
as the molecular basis for pyrimethamine and cycloguanil
resistance in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Biochem Parasitol
69:135–138
Chenniappan K, Kadarkarai M (2010) In vitro antimalarial activity of
traditioanlly used Western Ghats plants from India and their
interactions chloroquine against chloroquine- resistant Plasmodi-
um falciparum. Parasitol Res. doi:10.1007/s00436-010-2005-9
Chou FY, Hostettmann Kubo K, Nakamshi K (1977) Isolation of an
insect anti-feedent N-methyl flindesine and several Benz [c]
phrnantherine alkaloids from East African plants a comment on
chelethrine. Heterocyclic 7:969–977
Chung IM, Kim MY, Moon HI (2008) Antiplasmodial activity of
sesquiterpene lactone from Carpesium rosulatum in mice. Para-
sitol Res 103:341–344
Clarkson C, Maharaj VJ, Crouch NR, Grace OM, Pillay P, Matsabisa
MG, Bhagwandin N, Smith PJ, Folb PI (2004) In vitro
antiplasmodial activity of medicinal plants native to or naturalized
in South Africa. J Ethnopharmacol 92:177–191
Cowan MM (1999) Plants products as antimicrobial agents. Clin
Microbiol Rev 12:564–582
Parasitol Res
Durand R, Ramiliarisoa O, Secardin Y, Eldin de Pecoulas P, Basco
LK, Le Bras J (1997) DHFR gene point mutation as a predictor
of Plasmodium falciparum resistance to cycloguanil in malaria
cases from Africa imported to France. Trans R Soc Trop Med
Hyg 91:460–461
Gansane A, Sanon S, Ouattara LP, Traore A, Hutter S, Ollivier E,
Azas N, Traore AS, Guissou IP, Sirima SB, Nebie I (2010)
Antiplasmodial activity and toxicity of crude extracts from
alternatives parts of plants widely used for the treatment of
malaria in Burkina Faso: contribution for their preservation.
Parasitol Res 106:335–340
Hirazumi A, Furusawa E (1999) An immunomodulatory polysaccharide
rich substance from the fruit juice of Morinda citrifolio (noni) with
antitumour activity. Phytother Res 13:380–387
Hoet S, Opperdoes F, Brun R, Quetin Leclercq J (2004) Natural
products active against African trypanosomes: a step towards
new drugs. Nat Prod Rep 21:353–364
Jongsuvat Y (1981) Investigation of anticancer from Acanthus
illicifolius. MS Thesis. Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok,
Thailand
Kathiresan K, Bingham BL (2001) Biology of mangroves and
mangrove ecosystems. Adv Mar Biol 40:81–251
Keawpradub N, Kirby GC, Steele JCP, Houghton PJ (1999)
Antiplasmodial activity of extracts and alkaloids of three Alstonia
species from Thailand. Planta Med 65:690–694
Kepam W (1986) Qualitative organic analysis (Spectrochemical
techniques). Ed. II. McGraw Hill, London, pp 40–58
Larson RA (1988) The antioxidants of higher plants. Phytochemical
27:969–978
Le Bras J, Durand R (2003) The mechanisms of resistance to
antimalarial drugs in Plasmodium falciparum. Fundam Clin
Pharmacol 17:147–153
Lee SJ, Park WH, Moon HI (2009) Bioassay-guided isolation of
antiplasmodial anacardic acids derivatives from the whole plants
of Viola websteri Hemsl. Parasitol Res 104:463–466
Masuda T, Yonemori S, Oyama Y, Takeda Y, Tanaka T, Andoh T,
Shinohara A, Nakata M (1999) Evaluation of the antioxidant
activity of environmental plants: activity of the leaf extracts from
seashore plants. J Agric Food Chem 47:1749–1754
Moon HI (2007) Antiplasmodial activity of ineupatorolides A from
Carpesium rosulatum. Parasitol Res 100:1147–1149
Moore GE, Gerner RE, Frankin HA (1967) Cultures of normal human
leukocytes. J Am Med Assoc 199:519–524
Murakami A, Ohigashi H, Koshimizu K (1994) Possible anti-tumor
promoting properties of traditional Thai foods and some of their
active constituents. Asia Pac J Clin Nutr 3:185–191
Muthuraja M (2009) Effect of antibacterial bioactive compounds from
Exoecaria agallocha for the management of fish and poultry
diseases. M.Sc. Thesis, Alagappa University, Tamil Nadu, India
Omulokoli E, Khan B, Chhabra SC (1997) Antiplasmodial activity of
four Kenyan medicinal plants. J Ethnopharmacol 56:133–137
Otoguro K, Ishiyama A, Kobayashi M, Sekiguchi H, Izuhara T,
Sunazuka T, Tomoda H, Yamada H, Omura S (2004) In vitro and
in vivo antimalarial activities of a carbohydrate antibiotic,
prumycin against drug resistant strains of Plasmodia. J Antibiot
57(6):400–402
Ouattara Y, Sanon S, Traore Y, Mahiou V, Azas N, Sawadogo L
(2006) Antimalarial activity of Swartzia madagascariensis
desv. (leguminosae), combretum glutinosum guill. and perr.
(combretaceae) and Tinospora bakis miers. (menispermaceae),
burkina faso medicinal plants. Afr J Tradit Complement Altern
Med 3(1):75–81
Padmakumar K (1988) Bioactive substances from marine algae and
mangroves. Ph. D. Thesis, Annamalai University, Tamil Nadu, India
Padmakumar K, Ayyakkannu K (1997) Antiviral activity of marine
plants. Indian J Virol 13:33–36
Parzy D, Doerig C, Pradines B, Rico A, Fusai T, Doury JC (1997)
Proguanil resistance in Plasmodium falciparum African iso-
lates: assessment by mutation-specific polymerase chain reac-
tion and in vitro susceptibility testing. Am J Trop Med Hyg
57:646–650
Premanathan M, Kathiresan K, Chandra K, Bajpai SK (1993)
Antiviral activity of marine plants against Newcastle disease
virus. Trop Biomed 10:31–33
Premanathan M, Kathiresan K, Chandra K (1994) Antiviral activity
of marine and coastal plants from India. Int J Pharm 32
(4):330–336
Premanathan M, Kathiresan K, Chandra K (1995) Antiviral evaluation
of some marine plants against Semliki forest virus. Int J Pharm
33(1):75–77
Premanathan M, Nakashima H, Kathiresan K, Rajendran N,
Yamamoto N (1996) In vitro anti-human immunodeficiency
virus activity of mangrove plants. Indian J Med Res 103:278–
281
Premanathan M, Arakaki R, Izumi H, Kathiresan K, Nakano M,
Yamamoto N, Nakashima H (1999a) Antiviral properties of a
mangrove plant, Rhizophora apiculata Blume, against immuno-
deficiency virus. Antivir Res 44:113–122
Premanathan M, Kathiresan K, Yamamoto N, Nakashima H
(1999b) In vitro anti-human immunodeficiency virus activity
of polysaccharide from Rhizophora mucronata Poir. Biosci
Biotechnol Biochem 63(7):1187–1191
Raja M (2009) Isolation of chemical characterization of bioactive
compounds from chosen mangrove plants and their antimicrobial
potential against some bacterial pathogens. Ph. D. Thesis,
Alagappa University, Tamil Nadu, India
Ramazani A, Sardari S, Zakeri S, Vaziri B (2010) In vitro
antiplasmodial and phytochemical study of five Artemisia species
from Iran and in vivo activity of two species. Parasitol Res
107:593–599
Rasoanaivo P, Ratsimamanga Urverg S, Ramanitrhasimbola D,
Rafatro H, Rakoto Ratsimamanga A (1992) Criblage d’extraits
de plantes de Madagascar pour recherche d’activite antipaludique
et d’effet potentialisateur de la chloroquine. J Ethnopharmacol
64:117–126
Ravi Kumar S, Ramanathan G, Subhakaran M, Jacob Inbaneson S
(2009) Antimicrobial compounds from marine halophytes for
silkworm disease treatment. Int J Med Sci 1(5):184–191
Ravikumar S, Ramanathan G, Jacob Inbaneson S, Ramu A (2010)
Antiplasmodial activity of two marine polyherbal preparations
from Cheatomorpha antennina and Aegiceras corniculatum
against Plasmodium falciparum. Parasitol Res. doi:10.1007/
s00436-010-2041-5
Sanon S, Azas N, Gasquet M, Ollivier E, Mahiou V, Barro N, Cuzin
Ouattara N, Traore AS, Esposito BG, Timon David P (2003)
Antiplasmodial activity of alkaloid extracts from Pavetta
crassipes (K. Schum) and Acanthospermum hispidum (DC),
two plants used in traditional medicine in Burkina Faso.
Parasitol Res 90:314–317
Saxena S, Pant N, Jain DC, Bhaluni RS (2003) Antimalarial agents
from plant sources. Curr Sci 85:1314–1329
Scalbert A (1991) Antimicrobial properties of tannins. Phytochemical
30:3875–3883
Sherman PW, Billing J (1999) Darwinian gastronomy: why we use
spices. Bioscience 49:453–463
Sivaperumal P (2009) Antibacterial sensitivity of active compounds
from Exoecaria agallocha against antibiotic resistant human
bacterial pathogens. M.Sc. Thesis, Alagappa University, Tamil
Nadu, India
Sofowora A (1982) Medicinal plants and traditional medicine
in Africa. John Wiley and Sons Ltd. Chichester, United
Kingdom

Son IH, Chung IM, Lee SJ, Moon HI (2007) Antiplasmodial activity
of novel stilbene derivatives isolated from Parthenocissus
tricuspidata from South Korea. Parasitol Res 101:237–241
Subramonia Thangam T, Kathiresan K (1988) Toxic effect of
mangrove plant extracts on mosquito larvae Anopheles stephensi
L. Curr Sci 57(16):914–915
Subramonia Thangam T, Kathiresan K (1997) Mosquito Larvicidal
activity of mangrove plant extracts and synergistic activity of
Parasitol Res
Rhizophora apiculata with pyrethrum against Culex quinque-
fasciatus. Int J Pharm 35(1):69–71
Trager W (1987) The cultivation of Plasmodium falciparum:
applications in basic and applied research in malaria. Ann Trop
Med Parasitol 82:511–529
Waako PJ, Katuura E, Smith P, Folb P (2007) East African medicinal
plants as a source of lead compounds for the development of new
antimalarial drugs. Afr J Ecol 45(1):102–106