Stirling

Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Beratende Ingenieure im Bauwesen
Contract No. JOU2-CT92-o184
Production of electrical energy from biomass by a Stirling engine with

simultaneous integration into district heating system.
Final Report
November 1996
Scientific Direction
Dipl.-Ing. J. Kern, Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Dipl.-Ing. J. Ployer, Mannesmann Anlagenbau Austria AG
Schlaich Bergermann und Partner Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Beratende Ingenieure im Bauwesen Beratende Ingenieure im Bauwesen
Contents
1. Abstract (of interim reports) _________________________ 5

7.6 Consequences from the 3rd Trial Run ______________________ 38
1.1 First interim report 01.04.1994 _____________________________ 5 7.7 4th Trial Run 12.8.1996 ___________________________________ 39
1.2 Second interim report 01.10.1994 __________________________ 5 7.8 5th Trial Run 13.8.1996 ___________________________________ 40
1.3 Third interim report 01.04.1995 _____________________________ 5 7.9 6th Trial Run 14.8.1996 ___________________________________ 41
1.4 Forth interim report 01.10.1995 _____________________________ 6 7.10 Summary of the Test Results ______________________________ 42
1.5 Fifth interim report ________________________________________ 6
8. Results and Discussion _________________________ 45

2. Introduction ____________________________________ 9
9. Conclusions and Recommendations _____________ 47

3. Objective _____________________________________ 11
10. Reference ____________________________________ 49

4. Participants and Role___________________________ 15
5. Tasks Stirling (SBP) ____________________________ 17

5.1 Basic Investigations _____________________________________ 17
5.2 Design of the hot flue air heat exchanger ___________________ 17
5.2.1 Design of the heat exchanger ___________________ 17
5.2.2 Final design of the heat exchanger _______________ 19
5.2.3 Manufacture of the flue heat exchanger ___________ 19
5.3 Design of the control system ______________________________ 21
5.3.1 General _______________________________________ 21
5.3.2 Principle of control _____________________________ 21
5.3.3 Modified electronic control ______________________ 22
5.3.4 Manufacture of the control system _______________ 22
5.4 Cavity and packaging ____________________________________ 22
5.4.1 Design of the cavity and packaging ______________ 22
5.4.2 Manufacture of the cavity and packaging _________ 22
5.5 Acceptance of the complete system _______________________ 23
6. Tasks Plant Installation (MAB) ___________________ 25
7. Start-up and Operation _________________________ 31

7.1 1st Trial Run 26.6.1996 ___________________________________ 31
7.2 Consequences from the 1st Trial Run ______________________ 33
7.3 2nd Trial Run 1.8.1996 ___________________________________ 34
7.4 Consequences from the 2nd Trial Run _____________________ 36
7.5 3rd Trial Run 8.8.1996 ____________________________________ 37
2 SBP / MAB – Production of electrical energy from biomass by a Stirling engine with simultaneous integration into district heating system SBP / MAB – Production of electrical energy from biomass by a Stirling engine with simultaneous integration into district heating system 3
1. Abstract (of interim reports)
1.1 First interim report In autumn 1993, at the beginning of the project, the original conceptions as well
01.04.1994 as the conceptions necessitated by the change of partner were executed. The
essence of the project was to integrate a Stirling engine by Schlaich Bergermann
und Partner into a biomass heating plant. In order to achieve this, wide-ranging
development activities had to be performed on the heat exchanger. The starting
point for this development work was a material study for the high-temperature
heat exchanger. This was followed by a thermal analysis, a stress analysis,
consultation of literature on hot gas flows, an optimation computation for the
cooling fins, and, for the time being, concepts for flue gas purification. At the
same time, assembly of the the components of the Stirling engine was commenced.
1.2 Second interim The first of two Striling motors to be deliveres is ready assembles and prepared
report 01.10.1994 for mounting of the new developed Heat-Exchanger. The control system of the
stirling unit was optimized for this special application with flue gas heating.
The Heat-Exchanger design is finished and the most important parameters: heat-
exchanger surface and shape as well as the deal volume in the heat-exchanger
could both be optimized. The heat exchanging surface with 68 tubes in two rows
ans heat-exchanger fins is ready fabricates. The heat-exchanger will be completed
in a final branzing cycle at the end of November 94. After this the hole system can
be completes and shipped around the end of the year and is reald for installation.
1.3 Third interim report The first of two Striling motors are ready and also the control system is also ready
01.04.1995 installed.
The combustion unit has been changed becuase the amount of the dust was to
high. We will try to take another combustion unit with less dust.
The first of two Striling motors are ready and also the control system is also ready
installed.
1.4 Forth interim report The combustion unit has changed. In the last report it was told that we are
01.10.1995 searching for a new combustion unit. The unit is in the Johanneum Resarch
institut in Graz.
1.5 Fifth interim report Preparatory work for the installation of a Stirling engine at Joanneum Research,
Institute for Energy Research, Graz, is currently under way. Following studies of
various methods of flue gas purification for their technical feasibility in consideration
of economic aspects, we have selected an arrangement where the flue gas is led
to the heat exchangers via wire screens (mesh size 0.16 mm). We expect the
conversion work to be concluded in May 1996. Immediately afterwards, a test run
of 500 hours will be started. From today’s point of view, the end of the project will
be postponed and is not to be expected before week 45, 1996.
On 1st March 1996, project management at Mannesmann Anlagenbau Austria

AG was transfered from Dr. Dipl.-Ing. A. Oberhammer to Dipl.-Ing. J. Ployer.
2. Introduction
At the beginning of the decade, our involvement with biological heating stations
and our contacts with operators of such plants showed that there was a keen
interest in parallel production of electrical energy and heat. MAB-Austria considered
development of the appropriate technology an opportunity to stimulate business
in the biological heating station sector. We were looking for a process that permits
production of electricity at low operational expenditure. One such process is the
Stirling process which converts the energy contained in hot gases into mechanical
energy without requiring expensive intermediate stages that would be required in
other processes such as the steam process.
3. Objective
The driving force behind the project was the idea to search for a way of operating
biomass heating stations as independently as possible of external power sources.
Or, in more abstract terms:
The aim is to find a process and develop it ready for operation that will permit
economical production of electrical energy from biomass in future. This means
that the process must be suitable for producing electricity at low investment and
operating costs.
On principle, there is general agreement that the production of electricity from

biomass hardly makes sense in high-capacity power stations due to the low
efficiency and high transport costs. Decentralized combined heat and power is a
suitable application.
The following processes are possible for producing electricity from biomass by
way of mechanical energy:
• Combustion
• Steam process
• Heat transfer oil
• ORC-Process (Organic Rankine Cycle, similar to the steam process
on the basis of organic hydrocarbons, time-tested but has not been
executed for biomass so far. Temperature level 250°C.
• Stirling engine or hot-air turbine (Problems: flue gas/air-heat exchanger)
• Gasification
• thermal gasification
• Hot air turbine
• Gas engine
• Fuel cell
• anaerobic gasification (Biogas)
• Gas engine
From the large number of possible processes the steam process stands out as
the one whose usefulness has been proved in innumerable installations. Its
application in small, decentralized biomass plants, however, was mostly prevented
by the high investment costs and the need for continuous supervision by qualified
personnel.
The starting point for the extension of the process aimed at – erection of biomass
heating stations – led to a clear preference for combustion technologies. The
preliminary decision was made easier by the fact that the biogenic substances
that can be used for anaerobic gasification – mainly wood, but also corncobs,
shells of sunflower seeds etc. – cannot be taken into serious consideration and
because thermal gasification of these substances entails a number of unsolved

problems which are still waiting to be solved.
Among the combustion processes, the Stirling process offers some positive
aspects. It is well known that the Stirling process permits the conversion of the
energy contained in hot gases into mechanical energy without requiring costly
intermediate stages as are required by other processes such as the steam
proces. We considered a combination of a mechanical unit derived from the
series-production of two-stroke engines and a heat exchanger to be newly
developed the most promising arrangement for fulfilling the need for a simple,
robust device requiring little maintenance.
On the basis of these considerations, the title of the development project was
determined as:
Production of Electrical Energy from Biomass by a Stirling Engine with

simultaneous Integration into District Heating System
Some elements of the title already imply elements of our aim:
1. Production of electrical energy from biomass. The specific problems caused

by residues from biomass are the centre of attention.
2. Economical in combination with a district heating system – electricity

production serves to cover station-auxiliary power requirements (circulation
pumps, drives for heating station assemblies) only. This implies the following
limitations:
• The problem of supplying power to the grid at marginal costs need not
be considered. The marginal value for an economically efficient
electricity price is therefore defined in accordance with costs for
electricity provided by public utilities.
• The electrical output to be achieved is low as compared with the
thermal output of the heating station.
3. Operational reliability. Operational reliability is a precondition for commercial

application. At first, we aimed at a 5000-hour operation. In the course of the
project, these expectations were reduced to an operating time of 500 hours
after the original aims had proved unrealistic with regard to the time available.
4. Participants and Role
The initiative for the project came from a plant construction company -
Mannesmann Anlagenbau. It was natural for a plant construction company to look
for a partner who is experienced in the production and operation of Stirling
engines.
The partner we found originally was Stirling Motors Europe. We intended to erect
a pilot plant at the biological heating station Göttlesbrunn / Österreich which was
equipped with a new type of combustor and which was under construction at that
time. Stirling Motors Europe were to provide a stable Stirling engine. MAB-Austria
was responsible for cleaning the flue gas to such a degree that the function of the
heat exchanger operating directly in the flue gas flow would not be impaired.
Implementation of the project was seriously delayed - Stirling Motors Europe

experienced problems with the engine’s service life and finally stopped activities
altogether.
A new partner was found in Schlaich Bergermann und Partner (SBP), who have
gained experience with their Stirling engines based on Solo standard engines in
connection with solar power stations.
SBP’s responsibility was to develop a heat exchanger designed for flue gas for
the Stirling engine that was mechanically fully developed and had been time-
tested in solar energy plants.
Mannesmann Anlagenbau was responsible for erecting and operating the pilot
installation. This included the development of flue gas purification facilities.
5. Tasks Stirling (SBP)
5.1 Basic Investigations Basic investigation at the ‘Institut für Technische Wärmelehre’ of the Technical
University of Vienna were made in the field of cleaning of the hot air flue and dust
separation deAssembly of the Stirling engines
5.2 Design of the hot flue air heat exchanger
5.2.1 Design of the heat There are two alternative positions of the heater in a biomass combustion. One
exchanger position is in the biomass itself, the other position is in the flow of the flue gases.
The temperature is nearly the same, but there is a difference in the heat transfer
rate. If the heater position is in the biomass bed, there is, additional to convective
and radiant heat transfer, another part, namely heat transfer by pushing and
chemical reactive particles. On the other hand, the wear and tear is much higher.
For this reason, the heater was designed for the use in the flow of the flue gases.
The calculation of the necessary heat transfer surface was based on the formulas
of cross flow heat exchangers. It turned out that it was necessary to use fins.
A huge number of varieties were investigated, using the expected power and
performance with empirical and analytical procedures. For the finally design it
was also necessary to make a compromise between many contrary requirements:
• The tube diameter should be very small, to cause a good heat transfer (high
working gas flow speed in the tube)
• The dead volume of the heater should be very small (needs small heat
transfer area and a small tube diameter)
• The surface of the heat exchanger should be very big in the interest of the
best possible utilisation of the flue gas.
• The losses of flow friction should be minimised (need huge tube diameters)
• The manufacturing effort should be reduce (need small numbers of similar
tubes)
The geometry of the heat exchanger has to fulfil the uses of the flue air inlet.
The following Tab. 1 shows the possible heater-designs for 3 and 4 rows of tubes,
with different numbers of fins, depending on the used thickness.
Tab. 1 possible
j}{}}|} L K three rows are different, the heat stretching also is. That’s why only tubes of the
heater designs same row are connected with fins. To get economical fins, each time 6 tubes are
flue gas temperature [°C] 850 fixed together with one fin. Depending on the used thickness of fins, there are up
cooling [°C] 750 to 110, the middle distance between the fins is 2mm. Fig. 5.6-1 shows a sketch of
mass flow [kg/s] 0,236 the heater with 72 tubes in 3 rows.
volume flow [m³/h] 2536

log. Temperature fall [K] 130
tube diameter inside [mm] 2
tube diameter outside [mm] 3
5.2.2 Final design of the heat From the way things stood at our last design, a heater with three rows of tubes
number of tubes 4x18=72 3x24=72 exchanger was favoured. After consultations with an external adviser, the heater design has
tube division a=4,7 ; b=2 a=3,67 ; b=2 changed to a more bendend heater with only two rows (see Fig. 5.6-2). This is due
to the adviser’s opinion, the tubes of the old heater design are not enough
length of manifold [mm] 252 264
bended to stand low cycle fatigue stress.
length of tubes [mm] 280
height of fins [mm] 3 Cause now the tubes are longer two rows of 34 tubes each are enough to get the
same heat transfer surface. The thinner manifolds are an advantage to reduce
distance between fins [mm] 2
dead volume, also that now only two different lengths of tubes are necessary is
thickness of fins [mm] 0,5 0,8 1,0 0,5 0,8 1,0 positive for the costs of the heater. The distance between the tubes in one row is
number of fins 110 98 90 110 98 90 now 10mm,. , the distance between the rows is 8 mm. Each time two tubes of the
same row are connected with a fin. The fins of the second row in the smoke gas
free cross-section [m²] 0,0372 0,03255 0,03025 0,0354 0,0309 0,0287
direction are connected with a fin. The fins of the fins of the second row in flue gas
receiver surface [m²] 0,8 0,77 0,72 0,8 0,77 0,72 flow direction are longer because the temperature of the flue gases is lower. The
max. flue gas speed [m/s] 18,9 21,6 23,3 19,9 22,8 24,5 thickness of the fins is 0.mm, the distance between the fins is 0.6, so there are 309
fins on each tube.
transferred heat flow [kW] 30,1 31,7 30,4 29,7 31,2 29,9
Fig. 5.2-2 Final receiver design The total heat exchanger surface (tubes & fins) was extended to the 4times size of
the regular heat exchanger of the Stirlingmotor
Because of the thinner manifolds, decision was made for the heater with 3 rows.
Which thickness of fins finally will be
used, depends on the production
engineering.
The distance between two neighboured
tubes is 8 mm, between the rows 3 mm. 5.2.3 Manufacture of the flue The heat exchanger surface with 68 tubes in two rows and heat exchanger fins
Because of this free cross-section for heat exchanger are already fabricated. The heat exchanger has been completed in a final brazing
the flue gases is relatively high and cycle at the end of November 94. The following ig. 5.10-1 to Fig. 5.10-8 are
there is enough space between the illustrating very detailed the steps of the assembling procedure of the high
tubes for the fins. temperature heat exchanger
To minimise the heat stress the tubes

are bended. Because an s-like bending
of the tubes will result in an uneven
flowing through the finned heater, the
manifolds are turned similar to the
circle-angle the tubes are describing.
Fig. 5.1-2 Receiver design Because the length of the tubes in the
Fig. 5.2.3-6 Inner hot gas duct Fig. 5.2.3-7 Complete unit
Fig. 5.2.3-1 Bent tubes, bent in a Fig. 5.2.3-2 Tubes assemblies with assembled in other housing
special tool. Stamped fins before and after manifold assembled and EB (electron
assembling on tubes beam) welded. A special EB welding
procedure is machined and prepared for
TIP welding (Tungsten inert gas)
5.3 Design of the control system
5.3.1 General Integrated in the Stirling engine unit is an electronic control that monitors engine
operation by means of sensors. The sensors feed information back to a
microprocessor. If any of the sensors should detect an abnormal function, the unit
is switched off automatically by the stop program. The Stirling engine will be
automatically started after turning the working switch to “start” position. The flue
gas flap opens and the generator will be connected to the power supply system.
On “stop”-position the procedure will run the other way round. Therefor the
electronic control is switching the relay for the flue gas flap, the coolant pump and
the switch relay of the generator.
Fig. 5.2.3-3 Finished heater unit with Fig. 5.2.3-4 Detail for the hot gas duct Fig. 5.2.3-5 Heater unit assembled in
welded cylinders, vacuum brazed fins and the hot gas inlet duct
pressure tested
5.3.2 Principle of control The control of the engine occurs by controlling the temperature of the working
gas. If the supplied heat is larger than the sum of the leaded heat (in the cooling
water) and the mechanical work, the temperature of the working gas rises. In this
case the mass of working gas in the engine has to be increased. In the contrasting
case the mass of the working gas has to be reduced. For that the engine is
connected with an external Helium bottle.
5.3.3 Modified electronic Cause the dynamic response of the valves and the gas volume in the engine is an 5.5 Acceptance of the complete system
control integral response, the reaction of the engine is a proportional plus integral
controller. That means that if the temperature of the working gas falls below the The whole system has been completed and was shipped around the end of the
required temperature and working gas is discharged through the discharge valve year 1995.
the external Helium bottle, the temperature of the working gas rises above the
required temperature. It is not possible to prevent this oscillation, it is only Cause the engines have still prototype character, it was necessary to run the unit
possible to reduce the amplitude. Therefore the required temperate is set in three for a longer time on a test stand. If there is a Helium leak, it usually appears after
steps: 2-4 weeks with interrupted operation.
• 2 minutes on level 1 (580°C)
• 1 minutes on level 2 (620°C) For the purpose of a secure operation of the unit a new box with displays, which
• required temperature (650°C) monitors the most important data (working gas temperature, working gas pressure,
Helium tank pressure) was build.
If the temperature of the working gas falls below 400°C, the controller is charged
back to level2, if the temperature falls below 300°C, the controller is changed
back to level 1. The regulation procedure continues at this level.
5.3.4 Manufacture of the The control system of the Stirling unit was optimised for this special application
control system with flue gas heating.
5.4 Cavity and packaging To make sure that the flue gas flows through the heater, it is necessary to install a
fade with a bypass, that allows to regulate the flow through the heater.
5.4.1 Design of the cavity and

packaging
5.4.2 Manufacture of the cavity To integrate the heat exchanger into the flue gas flow, an insulating cavity was
and packaging manufactured.
6. Tasks Plant Installation (MAB)
As the original site at Göttlesbrunn could no longer be used and the search for
suitable heat sources pruved difficult, the beginning of the tests, which had
originally been scheduled for 1995, was deöayed. Finally, we found a combustor
which fulfilled the requirements at the IEF, Joanneum Institute for Energy Rese-
arch, Graz. Furthermore, the institute had run a project for the development of
Stirling engines before and therefore possessed perfectly suitable infrastructure
and was well experienced in the subject.
As time was now limited, the intended duration of the test was reduced to 500
hours of operation as opposed to 5000 hours planned originally.
Examination of exhaust gas purification facilities which are both technologically

suitable and ecologically justifiably had to include investigations concerning the
effects of the comparatively high flue gas temperatures of approximately 1100°C
on the materials. For this reason we seriously considered filters made of ceramics
and dry powdered metal. The high costs and long delivery periods of several
months, however, caused us to decide against applying these materials.
It was then decided to use wire meshes of mesh size 0.16 mm. This decision was
based on the following arguments:
• The fins of the heat exchanger are situated at a distance of approx. 0.3 mm.
A close-meshed screens reduces probability of clogging the free cross-
section with larger particles considerably.
• The risk of caking arising on the heat exchanger’s fins was rated very low. A
Stirling engine had been connected to the combustion unit at Graz before -
however, with smooth heat exchanger surfaces - and caking did not occur.
• It was planned to provide a compressed-air cleaning facility at the screens
at a later stage.
Fig. 6-1 Characteristic curve exhaust fan
1200 After the decision on the type of filter had been taken in principle, the components
wer installed according to the following pattern:
1000
The flue gas flows from the combustor (shown on the right) burning waste wood to
u
y

s

800
a duct. This duct leads directly to a heat exchanger in which the thermal energy of

y

}
the flue gas is transferred to cooling water. An exhaust fan, type Heinisch LMA 28
n

600

{
(Pv 1,8 kW, Pm 2,2 kW, 3000 U/min, pt=9,5 mbar) is situated downstream of the

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}

heat exchanger and leads the gas, that has been cooled down to 150°C to a
m 400
chimney.
teilweise offen
200
voll offen
A mechanically driven damper is situated in the duct and operated alternately
0
with another damper situated immediately upstream of the Stirling engine.
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
n}säGu
Furthermore, the duct can be sealed off by way of a gat valve operated manually.
the helium temperature and pressures

A branch is situated between combustor and damper, which leads the combustion inside the bottle and the engine are
gases via a steel compensator and the damper mentioned to the engine’s heat recorded. Finally, the engine rating is
exchanger. The engine itself is flexibly mounted on the floor. The engine is registered. Readings of absolute
coupled to a generator which feeds the excess energy into the public grid. pressures at various points inside the
Having passed the heat exchanger, the flue gas is cooled down and flows via flue gas ducts and pressure differences
another compensator and another duct branch back to the main duct and, can be taken from purely optical
therfore, to the heat exchanger. displays.
The flue gas ducts are rectangular ducts of galvanized sheet metal of an internal
section of 300 x 300 mm. Such ducts are usually installed in ventilation plants. The
Fig. 6-2 General view of the test arrange- ducts are fitted with internal installations in order to protect them from excessive
ment: The flue gas flows from the com-
temperature loads.
bustion chamber (shown on the far right) Fig. 6-5 Fuel
Fig. 6-3 Flue gas screen with internal
via the main duct to a heat exchanger in
The screen situated directly at the branch of this parallel duct serves to protect supporting structure
which the remaining heat is fed to the
cooling water. Alternatively, the flue gas is the Stirling engines from large particles contained in the flue gas. As time was
led via a branch containing a screen, via limited, we decided to insert a sieve mesh of customary material (1.4301) via the
the Stirling engine and back to the main supporting structure made of material 1.4841 in order to gain initial experience.
duct. The Stirling engine is connected to
the duct by way of 2 steel compensators. A
Various measuring devices enable us to read and record the flue gas temperatures
generator which feeds the excess energy
at the intake to the flue gas duct as well as immediately upstream and downstream
into the public power network is coupled to
the engine. The helium interim storage tank of the Stirling engine. Furthermore, the cooling water temperatures before and
can be seen situated vertically in front of after admission to the cooler as well as the coolign water flow rate are measured.
the generator. Based on these three data, the cooling water rating can be computed. In addition,
Fig. 6--6 Flame image during firing. At an

air condition of λ = 1.5 a flue gas mass flow
of 0.03 - 0.05 kg/s arises, the dust content
is 50 – 300 mg/Nm³, the thermal output 40 –
Fig. 6-4 Flue gas screen installed in

internally insulated sheet metal duct
Fig. 6-7 The test stand permits display and

registration of the individual measurement
data on computer
7. Start-up and Operation
7.1 1st Trial Run The first trial runs during which measurements were not recorded served to check
26.6.1996 the control system and the function of the individual components. These trial runs
showed that it was not possible to recirculate helium from the machine to the
interim storage tank at the planned rate. When the filters and non-return valves in
the helium recirculating pumping system were cleaned some rust deposits were
found and removed. This improved the situation slightly but did not lead to a
satisfactory solution. Exchange of individual subassemblies between the engine
installed and the standby unit helped to narrow down the fault. Nevertheless, it
was impossible to remove the fault completely. As this malfunction did not
seriously impair operation but merely resulted in the helium pressure requiring
manual adjustment during start-up, fault diagnosis was interrupted temporarily.
Afterwards, a trial run of approx. two hours was performed in order to check the
function of the flue gas screen and take initial measurements.
• The output measurement showed that the rated output of 10 kW was not
achieved. Possible causes:
• The induced draft creates too little underpressure to overcome the
flow resistances in the ducts, in the screen and in the engine at the
mass flow required.
• Thermal stresses inside the ducts cause distortions which permit the
admission of leakage air, resulting in a temperature drop of approx.
150 K.
• Pressure measurements showed that the underpressure before admission
Fig. 7.1-1 The high flue gas temperatures at to the heat exchanger was 6.7 mbar. At the beginning of the trial runs the
the inlet to the Stirling engine’s heat filter contributed to the overall loss with 4 mbar and the engine’s heat
exchanger make the material glow bright
exchanger with 2.7 mbar. Later this ratio reversed. The filter loss was
red
reduced to 1.4 mbar, the engine loss increased to 4.7 mbar.
Additional sealing measures at the ducts as well as an increase of the flue gas
temperature up to 1150 °C resulted in a brief increase in output up to 5 kW.
Towards the end of the trial period, however, the output dropped to approx. 2 kW.
After a registered running time of approx. 2 hours (approx. 2.5 h running time
altogether) and approx. 4 hrs. burning time, the trials were interrupted. The filter
housing as well as the engine were opened in order to gain information on any
deposits.
It was found that the wire screen was completely scaled and had practically lost
all firmness. More than a quarter of the sectional area was completely destroyed.
The remaining parts of the filter showed no recognisable coating. Particles could
therefore pass this free section of the filter and travel unhindered to the Stirling
engine’s receiver where they formed a layer of 1 – 2 mm. These deposits were
1200 6
7.2 Consequences from The trial run showed that the method chosen is certainly promising. The pressure
the 1st Trial Run loss, which is high compared to the fan rating, is not a fundamental problem as it
can easily be reduced by increasing the duct cross sections and filter dimensions.
The deposits on the filter itself are loose so that we have reason to assume that
1000 5
they will easily be removed during operation by pressurized air surges.
In future, the emphasis will be on optimising the wire screen. The following
800 4 measures have been planned:
• Selection of material
• Variation of mesh size and wire size
• Mounting of flow baffles
600 3
The material envisaged for future trial runs is high-temperature-resistant steel
1.4841. The criteria for determination is loss of scale. Loss of scale increases
T vor WT distinctly with the increase of temperature. In the relevant temperature range,
400 T nach WT 2 erosion doubles with every 100°C temperature increase. It is planned to limit the
kWh
flue gas temperature to 1,000°C.
By reducing the wire size, the mass-surface-ratio varies linearly in favour of the
200 1
surface. Therefore, if the wire diameter is reduced, the screen life is reduced in
proportion to the modification of diameter.
0 0
We shall therefore try to find a compromise between the screen life – which is
essentially determined by the wire size – and the extraction capacity. For this
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purpose, we have ordered screens of different mesh sizes. In order to keep the
mechanical stress on the screen material low, a coarse-meshed screen with a
mesh size of 2 mm and a wire size of 1 mm will be placed over the supporting
easily removed. The situation established was a perfect explanation for the Fig. 7.2-1 Limitation of the the screen structure to serve as a support for the fine-meshed grid. Thus, the bending stress
Fig. 7.1-2 Temperature curves upstream
and downstream of the engine as well as reversal of pressure drops registered at the filter and the heat exchanger as well material’s life due to scaling of material of the 0.1 mm wire subjected to a differencial pressure of 10 mbar will be reduced
the power output curve. A maximum output as for the shape of the output curve. 1.4841. Life expectancy is reduced in to approx. 1 N/mm² – a value distinctly below the 1000 h-1% creep limit of 4 N/
is shown at approx. 11:10 hrs which is relationship to smaller wire sizes and higher mm². Nevertheless, we have to bear in mind that in normal operation the grid will
followed by a continuous decrease. It can be bent inwards by the differencial pressure applied to the
be assumed that larger filter sections were screen and outwards by the exhaust process. It is thus subjected
first cleared at the time of the maximum, to alternating stress.
increasing the flue gas volume.The ensuing
decrease is explained by the continuous
increase of deposits on the engine’s heat
The worst damage to the screen was noted on the reverse.
4.000
exchanger. Whilst the leading edge was protected by a baffle plate, the
3.500
3.000
part on the far side of the burner chamber was directly exposed
u

s

} 2.500
to the turbulent flue gas flow. Flow baffles in this area could

y
|

}
2.000 reduce the stress.
z
}
d
1.500
0,4
1.000
0,3
u
500

s

- 0,2 }

}
700
800
900 {

1000 0,1
lsv[u 1100 |

1200 y

\
temperatures.messer und mit zunehmender

Temperatur.
7.3 2nd Trial Run Following the exchange of the fine meshed screen which had been destroyed, particles of insulating material which had been loosened during erection or by
1.8.1996 the Stirling engine was put into operation again on 1.8.1996 with a screen made of measuring probes. These deposits were removed by compressed air without
material 1.4841 with a mesh size of 0.16 mm and a wire size of 0.125 mm. Apart problems.
from minor problems concerning helium pressurization during start-up, the engine
operated without problems. We tried to maintain a flue gas temperature of 100 °C.
As the control system was not quite perfect, peak temperatures of up to 1080°C
occurred.
We took special interest in the pressure losses at the filter and the heat exchanger.
Pressure drop at the filter started at 0.4 bar and increased rapidly to 1.5 mbar at
first. From then on, increase was distinctly slower. At the end of the test period of
approx. 5 hours the filter resistance was 4.4 mbar. In parallel, output was reduced
Fig. 7.3-4 Temperatures upstream and
from 5.3 kW to 3.4 kW.
downstream of the engine as well as the
course of power output. The output
No increase in resistance was noted at the engine’s heat exchanger. In fact, the maximum is followed by a continuous
pressure loss dropped slightly from the original 2.6 mbar to 1.9 mbar. This was Fig. 7.3-3 Deposits of very fine dust, which decrease. Output drop from more than 5
exclusively due to the decrease in flow rate caused by the increase in the total can easily be removed, have accumulated kWel down to 2 kWel is now slower that in
around the edges of the heat exchanger. A the first trial run. It is mainly due to the
Fig. 7.3-1 After 5 hours of operation, the resistance of filter and heat exchanger.
circular core zone subjected to direct flow formation of deposits on the screen which
filter’s leading edge shows a distinct is virtually clear of deposits. entail an increase in flow resistance and,
coating. On the side facing the duct wall Examination of the screen and the heat exchanger showed as follows:
consequently, a decrease in gas flow.
which is exposed to higher flow velocities As had been expected, the screen was heavily coated with dust deposits which
the supporting screen structure can be were most pronounced on the far side of the combustor. It was, however,
recognized at least.
surprising to find that the material of the fine mesh had scaled just like the material 1000 6
of the first screen made of 1.4301 during the first test when temperatures were
distinctly higher.The screen had endured the test period undamaged but this was
only due to the supporting screen attached inside and outside. Later examination
of the screen material by the producer of the screen Haver & Boecker confirmed 5
800
that the material declared to be 1.4841 by the supplier was in fact 1.4401 and
1.4404, respectively. An annealing test performed by IEF in parallel also ruled out
that the screen was made of 1.4841. The problem concerning
4
the screen’s service life can therefore be attributed to false
delivery. 600
Attempts to remove the dust deposit from the screen with T [°C] 3 N [kW]
compressed air at this stage did not lead to are of little
informational value as blowing down not only removed the
400 T vor WT
deposit but also the screen material, which lacked firmness.
T nach WT
It was, however, established for certain that simple blowing kWh 2
down with compressed air is not sufficient to remove the
deposit. It was therefore assumed that concentration of
compressed air on individual sections of the screen does 200
not lead to the desired results. Considerable amounts of ash 1
Fig. 7.3-2 Admission of compressed air to and dust were found in the duct around the screen.
the screen caused considerable dust
emissions but did not have a satisfactory Esamination of the heat exchanger showed that a circular core zone had almost
cleaning effect. 0 0
remained clear of deposist whilst deposits were found outside this zone. These
01:55:12 03:07:12 04:19:12 05:31:12 06:43:12 07:55:12
deposits were only found on the leading edge and did not penetrate the channels
Zeit
formed by the fins. They consisted mainly of very fine dust and some larger
7.4 Consequences from The following measures for improvement were derived from this test: 7.5 3rd Trial Run The attempted trial run on 8.8.1996 with the conversions mentioned was of short
the 2nd Trial Run 8.8.1996 duration. The resistance of the close-meshed Hitherm filter fabric proved to be 6
• As the problems concerning the screen material were not completely settled mbar even in its original condition. Under these circumstances, the induced draft
at the time and in order to provide an alternative offering longer service life, could not draw off the fuel gas sufficiently and operation of the engine was not
particularly in cases of small mesh and wire sizes, we used the material possible.
Hitherm by manufacturers Haver & Boecker.
• A close-meshed screen made of material Hitherm - mesh and wire size

approx. 0.1 mm – was applied for the next test in order to study the
installation’s behaviour under these conditions. We decided to do without a
supporting screen, thus providing a smaller contact surface for the flue gas
particles.
• Furthermore, the duct around the screen was provided with a cover, mainly
to facilitate removal of accumulating ash. The cover, however, was
dimensioned large enough to permit mechanical cleaning of the screen
when it has cooled down without requiring disassembly. Fig. 7.5-1 The screen as seen through the
inspection hole. The screen is no longer
visible as it is covered by deposits. Some
• A sight glas in the screen casing permits permanent optical checks of the
large particles - in the order of 1/2 mm - rest
deposits on the screen.
on a layer of fine deposits.
• The outer supporting screen was removed since we assumed that its
coarse structure favours deposits.
• The deposits on the heat exchangers showed that the oncoming flow was
not optimized. Apparently, flow separations occured at the intake reducer.
A flow baffle in concentrical arrangement inside the reducer was to cause
the flow to stay close to the intake reducer. This should entail steadier
admission to the heat exchanger, and, therefore, improvement of the output.
At the same time, it was to be expected that deposits would now be
considerably reduced or would no longer occur. The reducer could be
supported by three slotted tubes which could also effect compressed-air
supply for cleaning. For the time being, this potential improvement was not
implemented.
Fig. 7.4-1 Schematic representation of the

concentrical flow baffles which apparently
are necessary for avoiding flow sepa-
rations, kept in position by slotted tubes,
which are used for cleaning simultaneously.
Alternatively, a reducer with a wall slope
below 7° could be installed.
7.6 Consequences from The following conversions were made: 7.7 4th Trial Run Another trial run could be performed on 12.8.1996. Pressure loss at the filter was
the 3rd Trial Run • The screen was replaced by a screen made of 1.4841, mesh size 0.15 mm 12.8.1996 0.6 mbar at the beginning and increased to 4.3 mm in the course of 3 hours.
and wire size 0.12 mm. The existing clamping bolts that did not withstand the Obviously, the outer supporting screen, which had now been omitted, had not
temperature load were replaced by bolts made of 1.4841. increased the service life as expected. Pressure loss at the heat exchanger was
constant at 2.4 mbar.
• In order to permit more effective cleaning of the screen with compressed air,
a nozzle was installed excentrically inside the screen, which was movable by At reduced heating, compressed air was applied to the filter by way of the
360° and acting along the longitudinal line of a generatrix of the screen movable nozzle. This showed that the filter deposit was not loosened evenly, as
body. had been expected, but only locally so that the pressure drop did not revert to the
original value but only dropped to 1.9 mbar. After another hour of trial run the
• The spare parts provided by SBP were installed in the engine in order to pressure drop at the screen was back to 4.3 mbar. The test was stopped at a
eliminate the helium loss which was of secondary importance but had to be meter reading of 18,755 kWh.
attended to. The following runs showed that this did not solve the problem.
Examination of the cold filter showed what had already been seen when the filter
was hot: 100 l compressed air at 10 bar removed no more than 20 % of the filter
cake.
Manual cleaning showed that the screen had resisted the trial run unharmed.
7.8 5th Trial Run During the 5th trial run on 13.8.1996 filter resistance increased from 0.9 mbar to 7.9 6th Trial Run During the 6th trial run filter resistance increased from 0.8 to 4.2 mbar within
13.8.1996 4.1 mbar after approx. 3 hours of combustor and 1.6 hours of engine operation. At 14.8.1996 approx. 3 hours. Again, output dropped from 2.8 to 0.8 mbar.
the same time, output decreased from 2.4 to 0.9 kW, whereas a maximum of 2.8
kW had been achieved before. Contrary to expectations, the change from EPROM A slight increase of the heat exchanger’s pressure drop was also experienced
625 to EPROM 575 showed no measurable effects on the output. during this test. A sight check showed that the heat exchanger was covered in
very fine dust of scale and soot. Due to a distortion of the supporting screen, the
MFl}y~R\{yz~yyk}z NFl}y~R\{yz~yyk}z
When cooled down, the filter was cleaned pneumatically at first and mechanically fine screen had torn in one place, which is supposed to have caused the soiling to
4,5 later. 4,5 some degree.
4 4
3,5 3,5
3 3
y 2,5
y 2,5 z
z 2
2
1,5
1,5
1
1
0,5
0,5
0
0
0 1 2 3
0 1 2 3 4
Fig. 7.8-1 Pressure loss at filter Fig. 7.9-1 Pressure loss at filter
7.10 Summary of the Test Testing was stopped at this stage as the short service life of the filter and the need deposits in the outer zones. Further plans concern installation of a pneumatic
Results for extensive cleaning involved gave reason to assume that continuation of the cleaning device to remove deposits formed by fine particles. Without these
tests without further improvements would not have the desired effects. measures, the heat exchanger needs to be cleaned mechanically after
approx. 8 hours of continuous operation, which is too costly in the long run.
As a consequence we examined a variant: cleaning the screen by way of a brush Furthermore, the function of the helium intermediate tank remains
that can be moved longitudinally around the screen. A producer was found. It unsatisfactory and causes some additional expense.
was, however, established that the deviations from the circular cylinder shape
were in the order of 10 mm due to manufacturing defects and distortions. For this
reason, we could not expect the brush to work reliably when heated.
Another variant is possible: arrangement of several screens of which one at a time

can be removed for cleaning. In cold state we expect that an appropriately
manufactured brushing system can achieve the desired effect in spite of the
inaccuracies. The conversions required for this variant, however, would have
exceeded the budget by far.
Druckverlust und Abscheidegrad in Zyklonabscheidern
As an alternative, we examined dust separation by way of a cyclone connected in (aus VDI-Wärmeatlas 1991 - Kap. Lj)
series. A problem was posed by the low density of the fuels - bulk density 80 kg/ Stoffwerte
η_gas 5,08E-05 Pas ve 36,60 m/s Eintrittsgeschwindigkeit
m³ – which makes separation by the cyclone difficult. Calculations according to ρ_gas 0,2734 kg/m³ µe 0,00023529 - Staubbeladung
ν_gas 1,86E-04 m²/s α 0,67 - Einschnürungsbeiwert
VDI-Wärmeatlas showed that a cyclone with a diameter of 0.4 m and a height of ρ_fest 120 kg/m³ ua 45,72 m/s äußere Umfangsgeschwindigkeit
um 38,74 m/s mittlere Umfangsgeschwindigkeit
approx. 1 m can separate particles down to 0.15 mm diameter (density 120 g/m³). ui 32,82 m/s innere Umfangsgeschwindigkeit
V_gas 0,183 m³/s
Pressure loss, however, is approximately 1,000 Pa (10 mbar). Therefore, exchange m_fest 300 mg/Nm³ Re_r 229,625 - Reynoldszahl des Zyklons
of the exhaust fan is absolutely necessary. m_gas

m_fest
0,050 kg/s
1,18E-05 kg/s
aus Diagramm: siehe ---->
λ0 9,00E-03 - Reibbeiwert Gas (aus VDI-W.atl. Bild4)
λs 9,28E-03 - Reibungsbeiwert mit Staub
k 0,1 mm
vax 4,19 m/s axial Geschwindigkeit (abwärts)
The existing Heinisch LMA 28 fan, which is specified as having an output of vi 10,36 m/s Tauchrohr Geschwindigkeit
3000 m³/h at 9,5 mbar, would have to be replaced by a fan of approximately twice alle größeren Partikel werden abgeschieden
d* 15,24 µm Grenzkorngröße Primärströmung
15,24 µm
the delivery head. Da
ht
300
200
mm
mm
Aw
Ar
0,56549 m²
1,08974 m²
dT* Grenzkorngröße Sekundärströmung
hz 200 mm
hk 800 mm hg 1000 mm dp_e 487,7 Pa Druckverlust im Zyklom
b 50 mm hi 800 mm dp_i 381,4 Pa Druckverlust im Tauchrohr
The following problems can be expected: h
Di
100
150
mm
mm
dp_g 869,1 Pa gesamter Druckverlust
• The fan’s engine rating is increased accordingly. On the basis of available Du 300 mm
documents it will increase from 2.2 kW at present to 3,5 kWmech, which is 2/3
of the Stirling engine’s maximum output measured so far- not a very favourable
starting point for the energy balance. Delivery time would be about 7 weeks.
• Increase of differential pressure will also increase admission of leakage air
into the duct system caused by leaks. Temperature at the engine will drop. be 50 mm
he 100 mm
This problem is specific to the testing arrangement. The duct system of a Ae 0,005 m²
ws0 0,146 m/s
production plant would have to be made of ducts in a gas-tight finish. ra
re
150 mm
125 re_q 125 mm
• In case a stronger fan is installed - which would be very costly in any case – ß 0,33333333 - ue1 30,52 m/s
rm 100 mm ze 6459,88 m/s²

an examination must be conducted prior to construction and installation of k/ra 6,67E-04
de* 1,31E-05 m
the cyclone in order to determine how far the service life can be extended hT 200 mm de* 13,12 µm
hi 800 mm
due to the grater scope for pressure loss at the screen. The increase in the ri 75 mm Re_s 0,01028186 -
ru 150 mm
fan’s output may be sufficient for operation of more than one day so that a r2 150 mm
cyclone can be omitted. The advantage for a production plant would be that u2 26,46 m/s Fig. 7.10-1 One of many cyclone dimen-
the pressure loss can be kept low by dimensioning the screen generously. sioning computations which were per-
∆ρ 119,7266 kg/m³ µg
formed in order to find an alternative to
• With this low solids density, however, a cyclone requires a high intake d* 1,52E-05 m
labour-intensive flue gas purification by way
speed which will entail a distinct pressure drop in any case. of screens. The high flow losses to be
dT* 1,5244E-05 m
• Improvements to the engines are yet outstanding. These include flow baffles expected, however, speak against this
to achieve an even flow onto the heat exchanger and reduce formation of variant.
8. Results and Discussion
Operation of the engine at the test stand is possible in principle. Electrical power
output reached peak values of more than 5 kW. Selection of materials and minor
problems concerning the mesh size of the screen could be solved to such a
degree that operation can be continued for several hours. Problems are still
caused by the formation of deposits on the screen which require manual cleaning
after approx. 3 hours. Efforts to clean the screen mesh during operation either by
way of compressed air or mechanically did not lead to the desired result. Under
these circumstances, it is hardly conceivable that the trial operation can be
translated into practical application. It is, however, conceivable that filters are
cleaned during operation by subjecting one of several filters at a time to a
cleaning process performed by an expensive, fully automatic installation.
One useful improvement for increasing the service life of the screen is the
installation of a powerful fan. A cyclone connected in series, too, which separates
larger particles, could possibly achieve noticeable improvements - on its own or
in combination with the existing screen. The fan’s high power demand for all these
variants, however, reduces the plant’s net power output substantially, namely by
2/3 of the maximum output. Thus, the economic efficiency can hardly be
established.
A concept for removing the unavoidable deposits from the heat exchanger has
been elaborated but not tested so far.
On the whole, progress has been very slow. Due to servicing and improvement
measures constantly required, expenses for operation rose significantly above
the level planned. Moreover, these measures entailed considerable delays. Fun-
damental changes in this respect cannot be expected, either. After all, the
effectiveness of planned measures can hardly be predicted as experience from
comparable plants is not available.
For these reasons, the time and cost schedule originally planned cannot be
adhered to if 500 hours of operation at the test stand are to be achieved.
Therefore, the project is stopped at the state achieved.
Based on the assumption that measures, which are considered promising with
regard to stable operation from today’s point of view, can be installed without
great difficulty, costs for a 500 hour-operation are expected to be approximately
1.5m ATS.
9. Conclusions and Recommendations
The tests have shown on principle a Stirling engine’s functionality in combination

with biomass combustion. The V160 Stirling Engine have achieved a good
performance in several operating hours.
The design of the heat exchanger used in this project with numerous fins arranged
at a close distance makes the heat exchanger vulnerable to soiling and places
heavy demands on exhaust gas purification. These demands could not be
fullfilled satisfactorily within the scope of this project.
According to this, the main effort in research & development of biomass application
has be introduce effective solutions for the flue gas cleaning in order to prevent
fouling of the heat exchanger and the associated decrease of the heat transfer.
An alternative to the investigated low-cost metal mesh could be the use on a total
gas cleaning using ceramic filters.
On the other hand, if the heat exchanger used had a coarser structure and would
not be so vulnerable to clogging, efforts could probably be concentrated on
separating larger particles. A hot cyclone is likely to suit this purpose. On the
other hand, a cyclone separator requires very high flow velocities if permissible
near-mesh material sizes are as low as in the current project. This entails
considerable power losses.
If an optimum could be found between the heat exchanger’s theoretical efficiency

and its resistance to soiling during operation, the Stirling engine could be suitably
applied in biological heating stations. The experience available gives us reason
to believe that this aim can only be achieved by gradual activities involving time-
consuming and costly conversions.
[1] J. E. Bennethum, T. D. Laymac, L. N. Johansson, T. M. Godett

10. Reference Commercial Stirling Engine Development ans Applications
Future Transportation Technologie Conference and Exposition
Portland, Oregon August 5-7, 1991
[2] H. Flaig, H. Mohr
Energie aus Biomasse - Eine Chance für die Landwirtschaft
Springer-Verlag 1993
[3] H. Flaig, E. von Lüneberg, E. Ortmaier, Ch. Seeger
Energiegewinnung aus Biomasse - agrarische, technische und wirtschaftli-
che Aspekte
Akademie für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Baden-Württemberg, Nr. 43
1995
[4] H. Flaig, G. Linckh, H. Mohr
Die energetische Nutzung von Biomasse aus der Land- und Forstwirtschaft
Akademie für Technikfolgenabschätzung in Baden-Württemberg, Nr. 16,
1995
[5] F. Gossen, A. Baumüller, H. Schell
Der Stirlingmotor V160 – leistungsfähiges Herz von kleinen Blockheizkraft-
werken
Gaswärme International – 44(1995) Heft 3 – März
[6] F. J. Legerer
Wärme-Kraft-Kopplung für Heizkraftwerke auf Strohbasis
[5] NN
Manche mögen’s heiß
Energiespektrum September 1992
[8] M. Novy
Biomass Fuelled Stirling Engines - Application and Development Programs
for Combustion Systems
Fifth International Stirling Conference, Dubrovnik, May 8 - 10, 1991
[9] M. Novy, M. Lauer, J. Spitzer, W. Stanzel
Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung mit Holz über den Stirlingmotor im Vergleich zum
Dampf- und Vergaserprozeß
Bericht Nr. ief-B-13-88
Joanneum Research Forschungsgesellschaft m.b.H., Graz, 1988
[10] M. Novy, M. Lauer, J. Spitzer, W. Stanzel
Heat and Power Cogeneration with Biomass
International Congress Energy and Environment, Opatija, Yugoslavia, 18 -
21.April 1990
[11] E. Podesser
Dezentrale Wärme-Kraft-Kopplung mit Stirlingmotoren an Biomassefeue-
rungen
Joanneum Research Forschungsgesellschaft m.b.H., Graz
[12] A. Reichl
Ökologische Bewertung der Fernwärme aus Kraft-Wärme-Kopplung –
Ecological aspects of District Heating produced by CHP
25. UNICHAL-Congress, 4.-6.6.1991
[13] A. Reichl
Energetische und ökologische Bewertung der Fernwärme aus Kraft-Wär-
me-Kopplung
BWK Bd. 42 (1990) Nr. 6 – Juni
[14] B.V. Stirling Motors Europe
Stirling engine – a clear source of power
[15] Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Service and Operator’s Manual for the V160 Biomass Solid Fuel Stirling
Engine,
Version 1.0, Jan. 1995
[16] Stirling Power Systems
Service and Operator’s Manual for the V160F Cogeneration System Three
Phase,
Version 2.0, Jan. 1989
[17] Theisen
Heißgasreinigung mit Kerzenfiltern

Stirling

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Schlaich Bergermann und Partner

Beratende Ingenieure im Bauwesen

Contract No. JOU2-CT92-o184

Production of electrical energy from biomass by a Stirling engine with

1. Abstract (of interim reports) _________________________ 5

8. Results and Discussion _________________________ 45

9. Conclusions and Recommendations _____________ 47

10. Reference ____________________________________ 49

5. Tasks Stirling (SBP) ____________________________ 17

6. Tasks Plant Installation (MAB) ___________________ 25

7. Start-up and Operation _________________________ 31

1. Abstract (of interim reports)

On 1st March 1996, project management at Mannesmann Anlagenbau Austria

On principle, there is general agreement that the production of electricity from

because thermal gasification of these substances entails a number of unsolved

Production of Electrical Energy from Biomass by a Stirling Engine with

Some elements of the title already imply elements of our aim:

1. Production of electrical energy from biomass. The specific problems caused

2. Economical in combination with a district heating system – electricity

3. Operational reliability. Operational reliability is a precondition for commercial

4. Participants and Role

Implementation of the project was seriously delayed - Stirling Motors Europe

5. Tasks Stirling (SBP)

5.2 Design of the hot flue air heat exchanger

volume flow [m³/h] 2536

To minimise the heat stress the tubes

5.3 Design of the control system

5.4.1 Design of the cavity and

6. Tasks Plant Installation (MAB)

Examination of exhaust gas purification facilities which are both technologically

the helium temperature and pressures

Fig. 6--6 Flame image during firing. At an

Fig. 6-4 Flue gas screen installed in

Fig. 6-7 The test stand permits display and

7. Start-up and Operation

temperatures.messer und mit zunehmender

• A close-meshed screen made of material Hitherm - mesh and wire size

Fig. 7.4-1 Schematic representation of the

Another variant is possible: arrangement of several screens of which one at a time

of the exhaust fan is absolutely necessary. m_gas

rm 100 mm ze 6459,88 m/s²

8. Results and Discussion

9. Conclusions and Recommendations

The tests have shown on principle a Stirling engine’s functionality in combination

If an optimum could be found between the heat exchanger’s theoretical efficiency

[1] J. E. Bennethum, T. D. Laymac, L. N. Johansson, T. M. Godett

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